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Lima MB, Borges A, Wolf M, Santos HA, Dias RJP, Rossi MF. First record of Trypanosoma (Ornithotrypanum) infecting Neotropical birds. Parasitol Res 2024; 123:156. [PMID: 38457016 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-024-08179-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Parasites play a pivotal role in ecosystem health, influencing human and zoonotic diseases, as well as biodiversity preservation. The genus Trypanosoma comprises approximately 500 species mostly found in wildlife animals. This study focuses on identifying trypanosomes found in the white-necked thrush (Turdus albicollis) and the yellow-legged thrush (Turdus flavipes) in the Neotropics. First, we demonstrate the utility of an 18S rDNA sequence-structure phylogeny as an alternative method for trypanosome classification, especially when gGAPDH sequences are unavailable. Subsequently, the sequence-structure phylogeny is employed to classify new trypanosome sequences discovered in wild birds, placing them within the Ornithotrypanum subgenus. This marks the first identification of Ornithotrypanum in Neotropical birds, contributing to the understanding of the distribution and ecological adaptation of avian trypanosomes. Beyond taxonomy, this study broadens our comprehension of the ecological implications of avian trypanosomes in the Neotropics, emphasizing the need for continued research in this field. These findings underscore the importance of alternative classification methods, which are essential to unravel the complex interactions between parasites, wildlife hosts, and their ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mylena B Lima
- Laboratory of Protozoology (LabProto), Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Nature Conservation, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Alyssa Borges
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Wolf
- Department of Bioinformatics, University of Würzburg, BiocenterWürzburg, Germany
| | - Huarrisson A Santos
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ), Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Roberto Júnio Pedroso Dias
- Laboratory of Protozoology (LabProto), Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Nature Conservation, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Mariana F Rossi
- Laboratory of Protozoology (LabProto), Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Nature Conservation, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Rosyadi I, Setsuda A, Eliakunda M, Takano A, Maeda K, Saito-Ito A, Suzuki K, Sato H. Genetic diversity of cervid Trypanosoma theileri in Honshu sika deer ( Cervus nippon) in Japan. Parasitology 2021; 148:1636-1647. [PMID: 34311794 PMCID: PMC11010218 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182021001360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The taxonomy of ruminant Trypanosoma theileri and its relatives (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) is controversial, with recent phylogenetic studies segregating T. theileri in cattle and other ruminants worldwide into two major genetic lineages (the TthI and TthII clades) based on genetic markers. In the present study, T. theileri-like trypanosomes isolated from Honshu sika deer (Cervus nippon) in the western Japan (YMG isolate) were genetically characterized using a number of genetic markers. Sika deer trypanosomes of the YMG isolate were genetically different from the Trypanosoma sp. TSD1 isolate previously recorded from Hokkaido sika deer in northern Japan, with the former trypanosome isolate being genetically closer to European cervid trypanosomes and the bovine T. theileri TthII lineage. In contrast, the latter isolate exhibited greater relatedness to North American cervid trypanosomes and the bovine T. theileri TthI lineage, although a clear genetic distinction between these was apparent. Furthermore, trypanosomes in Honshu sika deer from the central part of Japan harboured additional genetic diversity and were closer to either TSD1 or YMG isolates, while distinct from known T. theileri-related genotypes. Importantly, cervids and wild ruminants worldwide might harbour divergent descendants of a T. theileri ancestor, which exhibit rigid host specificity to either bovines or cervid species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imron Rosyadi
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
| | - Aogu Setsuda
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
| | - Mafie Eliakunda
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
| | - Ai Takano
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
- Division of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Research Center for Thermotolerant Microbial Resources, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
| | - Ken Maeda
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
- Division of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Research Center for Thermotolerant Microbial Resources, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
| | - Atsuko Saito-Ito
- Section of Microbiology, School of Pharmacy, Hyogo University of Health Sciences, 1-3-6 Minatojima, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo650-8530, Japan
| | - Kazuo Suzuki
- Hikiiwa Park Center, 1629 Inari-cho, Tanabe, Wakayama646-0051, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Sato
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
- Division of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Research Center for Thermotolerant Microbial Resources, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi753-8515, Japan
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Paguem A, Abanda B, Ndjonka D, Weber JS, Ngomtcho SCH, Manchang KT, Adoulmoumini M, Eisenbarth A, Renz A, Kelm S, Achukwi MD. Widespread co-endemicity of Trypanosoma species infecting cattle in the Sudano-Sahelian and Guinea Savannah zones of Cameroon. BMC Vet Res 2019; 15:344. [PMID: 31619238 PMCID: PMC6796345 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-2111-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background African animal trypanosomosis remains the major constraint of livestock production and livelihood of pastoral communities in Cameroon. Despite several decades of vector and parasite control efforts, it has not been eradicated. Alternative and sustainable control strategies require a sound knowledge of the local species, strains and vectors. In the Sudano-Sahelian and Guinea Savannah of Cameroon the prevalence and genetic diversity of trypanosomes infecting cattle was investigated by microscopy of cattle blood buffy coat and molecular methods using generic primers targeting parts of the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-1) and encoded glycosomal glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase-gene (gGAPDH). Results A total of 1176 randomly chosen cattle from five divisions in the Sudano-Sahelian and Guinea Savannah of Cameroon were examined. The overall prevalence of trypanosomes by microscopy was 5.9% (56/953) in contrast to 53.2% (626/1176) when molecular tools were used. This indicated a limited sensitivity of microscopy in subclinical infections with frequently low parasitemia. Three trypanosome species were identified by light microscopy: T. vivax (2.3%), T. brucei (3.7%) and T. congolense (3.0%), whereas five were identified by PCR, namely T. grayi/T. theileri (30.8%), T. vivax (17.7%), T. brucei (14.5%) and T. congolense (5.1%). Unexpected cases of T. grayi (n = 4) and T. theileri (n = 26) were confirmed by sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis of the gGAPDH revealed the presence of T. vivax, clade A and T. vivax clade C, which were co-endemic in the Faro et Deo division. T. grayi/T. theileri were the predominant species infecting cattle in tsetse free areas. In contrast, T. vivax, T. brucei and T. congolense were more abundant in areas where the Glossina-vectors were present. Conclusions The abundance of pathogenic trypanosomes in tsetse infested areas is alarming and even more, the occurrence of T. vivax, T. brucei, T. congolense, T. theileri and T. grayi in tsetse-free areas implies that tsetse control alone is not sufficient to control trypanosomosis in livestock. To implement control measures that reduce the risk of spread in tsetse free areas, close monitoring using molecular tools and a thorough search for alternative vectors of trypanosomes is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archile Paguem
- Faculty of Science, University of Ngaoundéré, P.O. Box 454, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon.,Institute for Evolution and Ecology, Department of Comparative Zoology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Babette Abanda
- Faculty of Science, University of Ngaoundéré, P.O. Box 454, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon.,Institute for Evolution and Ecology, Department of Comparative Zoology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dieudonné Ndjonka
- Faculty of Science, University of Ngaoundéré, P.O. Box 454, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon
| | - Judith Sophie Weber
- Centre for Biomolecular Interactions Bremen (CBIB), Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, 28334, Bremen, Germany
| | - Sen Claudine Henriette Ngomtcho
- Faculty of Science, University of Ngaoundéré, P.O. Box 454, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon.,Ministry of public health, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Kingsley Tanyi Manchang
- Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), Wakwa, P.O. Box 65, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon
| | - Mamoudou Adoulmoumini
- XSchool of Veterinary Medicine and Sciences, Department of Parasitology, University of Ngaoundéré, P.O. Box 454, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon
| | - Albert Eisenbarth
- Institute for Evolution and Ecology, Department of Comparative Zoology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich Löffler Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Alfons Renz
- Institute for Evolution and Ecology, Department of Comparative Zoology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sørge Kelm
- Centre for Biomolecular Interactions Bremen (CBIB), Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, 28334, Bremen, Germany
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Wang LJ, Han HJ, Zhao M, Liu JW, Luo LM, Wen HL, Qin XR, Zhou CM, Qi R, Yu H, Yu XJ. Trypanosoma dionisii in insectivorous bats from northern China. Acta Trop 2019; 193:124-128. [PMID: 30826326 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Although bats were considered as a major host of trypanosomatid flagellates, information of trypanosomes in bats is unknown in China. We collected bats in 2015 from Shandong Province of China and used PCR to amplify the Trypanosoma glycosomal glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (gGAPDH) gene and 18S rRNA gene from the bat blood samples and heart tissues. The results showed that 10.3% (13/126) of bats (Eptesicus serotinus and Myotis pequinius) were positive for trypanosomatid DNA and DNA sequencing showed that all PCR amplified Trypanosoma DNA belonged to T. dionisii. We concluded that T. dionisii had a infection rate in bats from China. For the first time, Trypanosoma infections were detected in bats from China, providing valuable information on the prevalence of these parasites in Asia. This is also the first report of Trypanosoma dionisii in Myotis pequinius, suggesting that Trypanosoma dionisii has a broad host species.
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Mafie E, Saito-Ito A, Kasai M, Hatta M, Rivera PT, Ma XH, Chen ER, Sato H, Takada N. Integrative taxonomic approach of trypanosomes in the blood of rodents and soricids in Asian countries, with the description of three new species. Parasitol Res 2018; 118:97-109. [PMID: 30353232 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-018-6120-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma lewisi (Kinetoplastea: Trypanosomatida: Trypanosomatidae) with a cosmopolitan distribution is the type species of the subgenus Herpetosoma, which includes ca. 50 nominal species isolated mainly from rodents. Since members of Herpetosoma in different host species have an almost identical morphology of bloodstream forms, these trypanosomes are referred to as 'T. lewisi-like', and the molecular genetic characterization of each species is necessary to verify their taxonomy. In the present study, we collected blood samples from 89 murid rodents of 15 species and 11 soricids of four species in Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Taiwan, and mainland China for the detection of hemoprotozoan infection. T. lewisi and T. lewisi-like trypanosomes were found in the blood smears of 10 murid animals, which included Bandicota indica (two rats), Rattus argentiventer (one rat), and Rattus tiomanicus (two rats) in Indonesia; Rattus rattus (one rat) in the Philippines; and Niviventer confucianus (four rats) in mainland China. Furthermore, large- or medium-sized non-T. lewisi-like trypanosomes were detected in two soricids, Crocidura dracula in Vietnam and Anourosorex yamashinai in Taiwan, respectively. Molecular genetic characterization of the small subunit (SSU) ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) and glycosomal glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gGAPDH) gene indicated that the trypanosomes from all the murid hosts had identical SSU rDNA or gGAPDH gene nucleotide sequences except for those in N. confucianus in mainland China. These N. confucianus-infecting trypanosomes also showed several unique morphological features such as smaller bodies, anteriorly positioned nuclei, and larger rod-shaped kinetoplasts when compared with T. lewisi trypomastigotes. Trypanosoma (Herpetosoma) niviventerae n. sp. is erected for this new species. Similarly, based on morphological and molecular genetic characterization, Trypanosoma sapaensis n. sp. and Trypanosoma anourosoricis n. sp. are proposed for the trypanosomes in C. dracula in Vietnam and A. yamashinai in Taiwan, respectively. More effort directed toward the morphological and molecular genetic characterization of the trypanosomes of rodents and soricids is required to fully understand the real biodiversity of their hemoflagellates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliakunda Mafie
- Laboratory of Parasitology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan
| | - Atsuko Saito-Ito
- Section of Parasitology, Division of Microbiology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-0017, Japan
- Section of Microbiology, School of Pharmacy, Hyogo University of Health Sciences, 1-3-6 Minatojima, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-8530, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Kasai
- Section of Parasitology, Division of Microbiology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-0017, Japan
| | - Mochammad Hatta
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Biology and Immunology Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
| | - Pilarita T Rivera
- Department of Parasitology, College of Public Health, University of the Philippines Manila, 625 Pedro Gil Street, 1000, Manila, Philippines
| | - Xiao-Hang Ma
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - Eng-Rin Chen
- Department of Parasitology, Kaohsiung Medical University, No. 100, Shih-Chuan 1st Road, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Hiroshi Sato
- Laboratory of Parasitology, United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan.
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Airlangga University, Campus C, Mulyorejo, Surabaya, 60115, Indonesia.
| | - Nobuhiro Takada
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Fukui, 910-1193, Japan
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Espinosa OA, Serrano MG, Camargo EP, Teixeira MMG, Shaw JJ. An appraisal of the taxonomy and nomenclature of trypanosomatids presently classified as Leishmania and Endotrypanum. Parasitology 2018; 145:430-42. [PMID: 27976601 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182016002092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
We propose a taxonomic revision of the dixenous trypanosomatids currently classified as Endotrypanum and Leishmania, including parasites that do not fall within the subgenera L. (Leishmania) and L. (Viannia) related to human leishmaniasis or L. (Sauroleishmania) formed by leishmanias of lizards: L. colombiensis, L. equatorensis, L. herreri, L. hertigi, L. deanei, L. enriettii and L. martiniquensis. The comparison of these species with newly characterized isolates from sloths, porcupines and phlebotomines from central and South America unveiled new genera and subgenera supported by past (RNA PolII gene) and present (V7V8 SSU rRNA, Hsp70 and gGAPDH) phylogenetic analyses of the organisms. The genus Endotrypanum is restricted to Central and South America, comprising isolates from sloths and transmitted by phlebotomines that sporadically infect humans. This genus is the closest to the new genus Porcisia proposed to accommodate the Neotropical porcupine parasites originally described as L. hertigi and L. deanei. A new subgenus Leishmania (Mundinia) is created for the L. enriettii complex that includes L. martiniquensis. The new genus Zelonia harbours trypanosomatids from Neotropical hemipterans placed at the edge of the Leishmania-Endotrypanum-Porcisia clade. Finally, attention is drawn to the status of L. siamensis and L. australiensis as nomem nudums.
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Paparini A, Macgregor J, Irwin PJ, Warren K, Ryan UM. Novel genotypes of Trypanosoma binneyi from wild platypuses (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and identification of a leech as a potential vector. Exp Parasitol 2014; 145:42-50. [PMID: 25045852 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2014.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the prevalence and pathogenesis of trypanosomes in Australian monotremes, and few genetic characterisation studies have been conducted with these haemoparasites. During the present investigation, molecular and microscopic methods were used to screen peripheral blood (n=28) and ectoparasites (n=10 adult ticks; n=5 tick nymphs; n=1 leech; and n>500 tick eggs) collected from wild Tasmanian platypuses (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), for the presence of trypanosomatid-specific DNA and/or trypomastigotes. The genes for the small ribosomal subunit RNA (18S rDNA) and glycosomal glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (gGAPDH) were amplified and sequenced, prior to conducting phylogenetic analyses. The detection rate of the parasite-specific 18S rDNA in platypus blood was 85.7% (n=24/28), and the leech was also positive at both loci. Microscopically, high parasitaemia and the presence of abundant trypomastigotes, morphologically consistent with Trypanosoma binneyi Mackerras (1959), were observed in the blood films. Phylogenetic analyses at the 18S locus revealed the existence of four trypanosomatid-like genotypes, with variable similarity to two previously-described genotypes of T. binneyi (range of genetic p-distance: 0.0-0.5%). For the gGAPDH locus, for which only one T. binneyi sequence is available in GenBank, three genotypes closely related T. binneyi were identified (range of genetic p-distance: 0.1-0.4%). The leech-derived trypanosome isolate was virtually identical (at the two loci studied) to the other parasites sequenced from infected platypuses; however, the molecular or morphological identification of the leech species was not possible. Although further studies are required, the molecular detection of trypanosomes in an aquatic leech removed from a platypus, suggests the possibility that these haematophagous hirudineans may be a vector for T. binneyi (and closely related genotypes).
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Votýpka J, Suková E, Kraeva N, Ishemgulova A, Duží I, Lukeš J, Yurchenko V. Diversity of trypanosomatids (Kinetoplastea: Trypanosomatidae) parasitizing fleas (Insecta: Siphonaptera) and description of a new genus Blechomonas gen. n. Protist 2013; 164:763-81. [PMID: 24113136 DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2013.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Revised: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 08/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To further investigate the diversity of Trypanosomatidae we have examined the species present within the flea (Siphonaptera) population in the Czech Republic. Out of 1549 fleas, 239 were found to be infected by trypanosomatids. Axenic cultures were established from 90 infected specimens and 29 of them were further characterized. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of the SL RNA, gGAPDH, and SSU rRNA genes revealed a striking diversity within this group and analyzed isolates were classified into 16 Typing units (TUs) of which 15 typified new species. In addition to one Trypanosoma species, two TUs grouped within the sub-family Leishmaniinae, two clustered together with Herpetomonas, wheras 11 TUs formed a novel clade branching off between Trypanosoma spp. and remaining trypanosomatids. We propose to recognize this clade as a new genus Blechomonas and a new subfamily Blechomonadinae, and provide molecular and morphological description of 11 TUs representing this genus. Our finding of such an ancient host-specific group sheds new light at the origin of Trypanosomatidae and the roots of dixenous parasitism. The strict host restriction of Blechomonas to Siphonaptera with adult fleas' dependence on blood meal may reflect passing of parasites from larvae through pupae to adults and implies potential transmission to the warm-blooded vertebrates.
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