A luminescent Nanoluc-GFP fusion protein enables readout of cellular pH in photosynthetic organisms

pH is one of the most critical physiological parameters determining vital cellular activities, such as photosynthetic performance. Fluorescent sensor proteins capable of measuring in situ pH in animal cells have been reported. However, these proteins require an excitation laser for pH measurement that may affect photosynthetic performance and induce autofluorescence from chlorophyll. As a result, it is not possible to measure the intracellular or intraorganelle pH changes in plants. To overcome this problem, we developed a luminescent pH sensor by fusing the luminescent protein Nanoluc to a uniquely designed pH-sensitive GFP variant protein. In this system, an excitation laser is unnecessary because the fused GFP variant reports on the luminescent signal by bioluminescence resonance energy transfer from Nanoluc. The ratio of two luminescent peaks from the sensor protein was approximately linear with respect to pH in the range of 7.0 to 8.5. We designated this sensor protein as "luminescent pH indicator protein" (Luphin). We applied Luphin to the in situ pH measurement of a photosynthetic organism under fluctuating light conditions, allowing us to successfully observe the cytosolic pH changes associated with photosynthetic electron transfer in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Detailed analyses of the mechanisms of the observed estimated pH changes in the cytosol in this alga suggested that the photosynthetic electron transfer is suppressed by the reduced plastoquinone pool under light conditions. These results indicate that Luphin may serve as a helpful tool to further illuminate pH-dependent processes throughout the photosynthetic organisms.

Hydrogen Peroxide Production by the Spot-Like Mode Action of Bisphenol A

Bisphenol A (BPA), an intermediate chemical used for synthesizing polycarbonate plastics, has now become a wide spread organic pollutant. It percolates from a variety of sources, and plants are among the first organisms to encounter, absorb, and metabolize it, while its toxic effects are not yet fully known. Therefore, we experimentally studied the effects of aqueous BPA solutions (50 and 100 mg L^-1, for 6, 12, and 24 h) on photosystem II (PSII) functionality and evaluated the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on detached leaves of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Chlorophyll fluorescence imaging analysis revealed a spatiotemporal heterogeneity in the quantum yields of light energy partitioning at PSII in Arabidopsis leaves exposed to BPA. Under low light PSII function was negatively influenced only at the spot-affected BPA zone in a dose- and time-dependent manner, while at the whole leaf only the maximum photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) was negatively affected. However, under high light all PSII photosynthetic parameters measured were negatively affected by BPA application, in a time-dependent manner. The affected leaf areas by the spot-like mode of BPA action showed reduced chlorophyll autofluorescence and increased accumulation of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). When H₂O₂ was scavenged via N-acetylcysteine under BPA exposure, PSII functionality was suspended, while H₂O₂ scavenging under non-stress had more detrimental effects on PSII function than BPA alone. It can be concluded that the necrotic death-like spots under BPA exposure could be due to ROS accumulation, but also H₂O₂ generation seems to play a role in the leaf response against BPA-related stress conditions.

Mutation of the Atypical Kinase ABC1K3 Partially Rescues the PROTON GRADIENT REGULATION 6 Phenotype in Arabidopsis thaliana

Photosynthesis is an essential pathway providing the chemical energy and reducing equivalents that sustain higher plant metabolism. It relies on sunlight, which is an inconstant source of energy that fluctuates in both intensity and spectrum. The fine and rapid tuning of the photosynthetic apparatus is essential to cope with changing light conditions and increase plant fitness. Recently PROTON GRADIENT REGULATION 6 (PGR6-ABC1K1), an atypical plastoglobule-associated kinase, was shown to regulate a new mechanism of light response by controlling the homeostasis of photoactive plastoquinone (PQ). PQ is a crucial electron carrier existing as a free neutral lipid in the photosynthetic thylakoid membrane. Perturbed homeostasis of PQ impairs photosynthesis and plant acclimation to high light. Here we show that a homologous kinase, ABC1K3, which like PGR6-ABC1K1 is associated with plastoglobules, also contributes to the homeostasis of the photoactive PQ pool. Contrary to PGR6-ABC1K1, ABC1K3 disfavors PQ availability for photosynthetic electron transport. In fact, in the abc1k1/abc1k3 double mutant the pgr6(abc1k1) the photosynthetic defect seen in the abc1k1 mutant is mitigated. However, the PQ concentration in the photoactive pool of the double mutant is comparable to that of abc1k1 mutant. An increase of the PQ mobility, inferred from the kinetics of its oxidation in dark, contributes to the mitigation of the pgr6(abc1k1) photosynthetic defect. Our results also demonstrate that ABC1K3 contributes to the regulation of other mechanisms involved in the adaptation of the photosynthetic apparatus to changes in light quality and intensity such as the induction of thermal dissipation and state transitions. Overall, we suggests that, besides the absolute concentration of PQ, its mobility and exchange between storage and active pools are critical for light acclimation in plants.

Characterization of the transient fluorescence wave phenomenon that occurs during H2 production in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The redox state of the plastoquinone (PQ) pool in sulfur-deprived, H2-producing Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells was studied using single flash-induced variable fluorescence decay kinetics. During H2 production, the fluorescence decay kinetics exhibited an unusual post-illumination rise of variable fluorescence, giving a wave-like appearance. The wave showed the transient fluorescence minimum at ~60 ms after the flash, followed by a rise, reaching the transient fluorescence maximum at ~1 s after the flash, before decaying back to the initial fluorescence level. Similar wave-like fluorescence decay kinetics have been reported previously in anaerobically incubated cyanobacteria but not in green algae. From several different electron and proton transfer inhibitors used, polymyxin B, an inhibitor of type II NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (NDA2), had the effect of eliminating the fluorescence wave feature, indicating involvement of NDA2 in this phenomenon. This was further confirmed by the absence of the fluorescence wave in the Δnda2 mutant lacking NDA2. Additionally, Δnda2 mutants have also shown delayed and diminished H2 production (only 23% if compared with the wild type). Our results show that the fluorescence wave phenomenon in C. reinhardtii is observed under highly reducing conditions and is induced by the NDA2-mediated electron flow from the reduced stromal components to the PQ pool. Therefore, the fluorescence wave phenomenon is a sensitive probe for the complex network of redox reactions at the PQ pool level in the thylakoid membrane. It could be used in further characterization and improvement of the electron transfer pathways leading to H2 production in C. reinhardtii.

Leaf Age-Dependent Effects of Foliar-Sprayed CuZn Nanoparticles on Photosynthetic Efficiency and ROS Generation in Arabidopsis thaliana

Young and mature leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana were exposed by foliar spray to 30 mg L-1 of CuZn nanoparticles (NPs). The NPs were synthesized by a microwave-assisted polyol process and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). CuZn NPs effects in Arabidopsis leaves were evaluated by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging analysis that revealed spatiotemporal heterogeneity of the quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry (ΦPSΙΙ) and the redox state of the plastoquinone (PQ) pool (qp), measured 30 min, 90 min, 180 min, and 240 min after spraying. Photosystem II (PSII) function in young leaves was observed to be negatively influenced, especially 30 min after spraying, at which point increased H2O2 generation was correlated to the lower oxidized state of the PQ pool.. Recovery of young leaves photosynthetic efficiency appeared only after 240 min of NPs spray when also the level of ROS accumulation was similar to control leaves. On the contrary, a beneficial effect on PSII function in mature leaves after 30 min of the CuZn NPs spray was observed, with increased ΦPSΙΙ, an increased electron transport rate (ETR), decreased singlet oxygen (1O2) formation, and H2O2 production at the same level of control leaves.An explanation for this differential response is suggested.

Zinc Uptake, Photosynthetic Efficiency and Oxidative Stress in the Seagrass Cymodocea nodosa Exposed to ZnO Nanoparticles

We characterized zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) by dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), while we evaluated photosystem II (PSII) responses, Zn uptake kinetics, and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) accumulation, in C. nodosa exposed to 5 mg L⁻¹ and 10 mg L⁻¹ ZnO NPs for 4 h, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 72 h. Four h after exposure to 10 mg L⁻¹ ZnO NPs, we noticed a disturbance of PSII functioning that became more severe after 12 h. However, after a 24 h exposure to 10 mg L⁻¹ ZnO NPs, we observed a hormetic response, with both time and dose as the basal stress levels needed for induction of the adaptive response. This was achieved through the reduced plastoquinone (PQ) pool, at a 12 h exposure, which mediated the generation of chloroplastic H₂O₂; acting as a fast acclimation signaling molecule. Nevertheless, longer treatment (48 h and 72 h) resulted in decreasing the photoprotective mechanism to dissipate excess energy as heat (NPQ) and increasing the quantum yield of non-regulated energy loss (Φ_NO). This increased the formation of singlet oxygen (¹O₂), and decreased the fraction of open reaction centers, mostly after a 72-h exposure at 10 mg L⁻¹ ZnO NPs due to increased Zn uptake compared to 5 mg L⁻¹.

Chlorophyll Fluorescence Imaging Analysis for Elucidating the Mechanism of Photosystem II Acclimation to Cadmium Exposure in the Hyperaccumulating Plant Noccaea caerulescens

We provide new data on the mechanism of Noccaea caerulescens acclimation to Cd exposure by elucidating the process of photosystem II (PSII) acclimation by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging analysis. Seeds from the metallophyte N. caerulescens were grown in hydroponic culture for 12 weeks before exposure to 40 and 120 μM Cd for 3 and 4 days. At the beginning of exposure to 40 μM Cd, we observed a spatial leaf heterogeneity of decreased PSII photochemistry, that later recovered completely. This acclimation was achieved possibly through the reduced plastoquinone (PQ) pool signaling. Exposure to 120 μM Cd under the growth light did not affect PSII photochemistry, while under high light due to a photoprotective mechanism (regulated heat dissipation for protection) that down-regulated PSII quantum yield, the quantum yield of non-regulated energy loss in PSII (ΦNO) decreased even more than control values. Thus, N. caerulescens plants exposed to 120 μM Cd for 4 days exhibited lower reactive oxygen species (ROS) production as singlet oxygen (¹O₂). The response of N. caerulescens to Cd exposure fits the 'Threshold for Tolerance Model', with a lag time of 4 d and a threshold concentration of 40 μM Cd required for the induction of the acclimation mechanism.

The reduced state of the plastoquinone pool is required for chloroplast-mediated stomatal closure in response to calcium stimulation

Besides their participation in photosynthesis, leaf chloroplasts function in plant responses to stimuli, yet how they direct stimulus-induced stomatal movement remains elusive. Here, we showed that over-reduction of the plastoquinone (PQ) pool by dibromothymoquinone (DBMIB) was closely associated with stomatal closure in plants which required chloroplastic H2O2 generation in the mesophyll. External application of H2 O2 reduced the PQ pool, whereas the cell-permeable reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger N-acetylcysteine (NAC) reversed the DBMIB-induced over-reduction of the PQ pool and stomatal closure. Mesophyll chloroplasts are key players of extracellular Ca(2+) (Ca(2+)o)-induced stomatal closure, but when treated with either 3-(3',4'-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU) or NAC they failed to facilitate Ca(2+)o-induced stomatal closure due to the inhibition of chloroplastic H2 O2 synthesis in mesophyll. Similarly, the Arabidopsis electron transfer chain-related mutants npq4-1, stn7 and cas-1 exhibited diverse responses to Ca(2+)o or DBMIB. Transcriptome analysis also demonstrated that the PQ pool signaling pathway shared common responsive genes with the H2 O2 signaling pathway. These results implicated a mechanism for chloroplast-mediated stomatal closure involving the generation of mesophyll chloroplastic H2O2 based on the reduced state of the PQ pool, which is calcium-sensing receptor (CAS) and LHCII phosphorylation dependent.

The knockdown of chloroplastic ascorbate peroxidases reveals its regulatory role in the photosynthesis and protection under photo-oxidative stress in rice

The inactivation of the chloroplast ascorbate peroxidases (chlAPXs) has been thought to limit the efficiency of the water-water cycle and photo-oxidative protection under stress conditions. In this study, we have generated double knockdown rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants in both OsAPX7 (sAPX) and OsAPX8 (tAPX) genes, which encode chloroplastic APXs (chlAPXs). By employing an integrated approach involving gene expression, proteomics, biochemical and physiological analyses of photosynthesis, we have assessed the role of chlAPXs in the regulation of the protection of the photosystem II (PSII) activity and CO2 assimilation in rice plants exposed to high light (HL) and methyl violagen (MV). The chlAPX knockdown plants were affected more severely than the non-transformed (NT) plants in the activity and structure of PSII and CO2 assimilation in the presence of MV. Although MV induced significant increases in pigment content in the knockdown plants, the increases were apparently not sufficient for protection. Treatment with HL also caused generalized damage in PSII in both types of plants. The knockdown and NT plants exhibited differences in photosynthetic parameters related to efficiency of utilization of light and CO2. The knockdown plants overexpressed other antioxidant enzymes in response to the stresses and increased the GPX activity in the chloroplast-enriched fraction. Our data suggest that a partial deficiency of chlAPX expression modulate the PSII activity and integrity, reflecting the overall photosynthesis when rice plants are subjected to acute oxidative stress. However, under normal growth conditions, the knockdown plants exhibit normal phenotype, biochemical and physiological performance.