Solubility-permeability interplay of hydrotropic solubilization of piroxicam

OBJECTIVES

In this research paper, an investigation has been made to assess the simultaneous effect of a solubility enhancement approach, i.e., hydrotropy on the solubility and apparent permeability of piroxicam. The solubility of piroxicam (PRX) a BCS (biopharmaceutics classification system) class II drug has been increased using a mixed hydrotropy approach. This study is based on identifying the pattern of solubility-permeability interplay and confirming whether every solubility gain results in a concomitant decrease in permeability or permeability remains unaffected.

METHOD

Solid dispersions of PRX were formulated using two hydrotropes, viz., sodium benzoate (SB) and piperazine (PP) by solvent evaporation method. A comprehensive 32factorial design was employed to study the effect of hydrotropes on the solubility and permeability of PRX. Subsequently, PRX tablets containing these solid dispersions were formulated and evaluated.

KEY FINDINGS

SB and PP displayed a significant increase in the solubility of PRX ranging from 0.99 to 2.21 mg/mL for F1-F9 batches attributed to the synergistic effect of hydrotropes. However, there is a reduction in PRX permeability with increasing hydrotrope levels. The decline in permeability was notably less pronounced compared to the simultaneous rise in aqueous solubility of PRX.

CONCLUSION

An evident tradeoff between permeability and solubility emerged through the mixed hydrotropic solubilization for PRX. As PRX has generally higher intrinsic permeability, it has been assumed that this permeability loss will not affect the overall absorption of PRX. However, it may affect the absorption of drugs with limited permeability. Therefore, solubility permeability interplay should be investigated during solubility enhancement.

Stability indicating reversed-phase-high-performance liquid chromatography method development and validation for pyridostigmine bromide and sodium benzoate in oral solution

The present study focuses on the development of a simple, rapid, specific, and stability-indicating HPLC method for the simultaneous analysis of pyridostigmine bromide (PGB) and sodium benzoate (SBN) in oral liquid dosage forms. Analytical techniques should enhance sensitivity and specificity for the estimation of pharmaceutical drug products. Stress studies were conducted under various International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) conditions for evaluation. The further optimized HPLC method was validated in accordance with the current ICH guidelines. Chromatographic separation was accomplished using a mobile phase consisting of a 950:50 v/v ratio of perchloric acid buffer and acetonitrile as mobile phase-A, and 100% acetonitrile as mobile phase-B. The flow rate is 1.0 mL/min, and the injection volume is 20 μL. Detection of components was carried out at 220 nm for PGB and 228 nm for SBN. The validated HPLC method demonstrated high specificity, with linearity ranging between 24 and 72 μg/mL for PGB and 5.2-15.6 μg/mL for SBN. The correlation coefficient for both drugs exceeded 0.999. The method demonstrated high accuracy, exceeding 97%. In stress studies, PGB was found to be sensitive to alkaline stress conditions. The results reveal the successful applicability of the current method for the estimation of PGB and SBN in its marketed formulation, which can be reasonably inferred to assess other formulation systems.

Toxicological assessment of sodium benzoate in Drosophila melanogaster

Sodium benzoate (SB), the sodium salt of benzoic acid, is a food preservative with wide applications in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries due to its ability to kill many microorganisms effectively. Experimental evidence however suggests that excessive intake of SB poses detrimental health risks among consumers in the population. The present study investigated the toxic effects of various concentrations of SB using Drosophila melanogaster as a model. Adult wild-type flies of Canton S strain (1- to 3-days old) was orally exposed to SB (0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 5.0 mg/5 g diet) to evaluate survival rates for 21 days. Thereafter, we evaluated markers of oxidative stress, antioxidant status and behavioral activity in D. melanogaster exposed to SB for seven (7) days. We observed that SB (2.0 and 5.0 mg/5 g diet) decreased the survival of D. melanogaster. Also, SB inhibited glutathione-S-transferase activity and depleted total thiols and nonprotein thiols contents. Moreover, SB (5 mg/5 g diet) increased nitric oxide (nitrite/nitrate) level and reduced flies' emergence rate. Conclusively, findings from this study revealed that exposure to high concentrations of SB reduced survival rate and induced toxicity via the induction of oxidative stress and inhibition of antioxidant enzymes in D. melanogaster.

Elucidating the Mechanisms of Sodium Benzoate in Alzheimer Disease: Insights from Quantitative Proteomics Analysis of Serum Samples

BACKGROUND

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are crucial components of brain function involved in memory and neurotransmission. Sodium benzoate is a promising NMDAR enhancer and has been proven to be a novel, safe, and efficient therapy for patients with Alzheimer disease (AD). However, in addition to the role of sodium benzoate as an NMDA enhancer, other mechanisms of sodium benzoate in treating AD are still unclear. To elucidate the potential mechanisms of sodium benzoate in Alzheimer disease, this study employed label-free quantitative proteomics to analyze serum samples from AD cohorts with and without sodium benzoate treatment.

METHODS

The serum proteins from each patient were separated into 24 fractions using an immobilized pH gradient, digested with trypsin, and then subjected to nanoLC‒MS/MS to analyze the proteome of all patients. The nanoLC‒MS/MS data were obtained with a label-free quantitative proteomic approach. Proteins with fold changes were analyzed with STRING and Cytoscape to find key protein networks/processes and hub proteins.

RESULTS

Our analysis identified 861 and 927 protein groups in the benzoate treatment cohort and the placebo cohort, respectively. The results demonstrated that sodium benzoate had the most significant effect on the complement and coagulation cascade pathways, amyloidosis disease, immune responses, and lipid metabolic processes. Moreover, Transthyretin, Fibrinogen alpha chain, Haptoglobin, Apolipoprotein B-100, Fibrinogen beta chain, Apolipoprotein E, and Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein 1 were identified as hub proteins in the protein‒protein interaction networks.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that sodium benzoate may exert its influence on important pathways associated with AD, thus contributing to the improvement in the pathogenesis of the disease.

The Effect of Sodium Benzoate on Host Health: Insight into Physiological Indexes and Gut Microbiota

Sodium benzoate (SB) is a common food preservative widely used in the food industry. However, the effects of SB intake on host health at different stages were still unclear. Hence, we investigated the impact of SB with three concentrations (150 mg/kg, 500 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg) and at three stages (intake for 5-weeks, intake for 10-weeks and removal for 5 weeks) on host health in normal mice. The results showed that SB intake for 5 weeks slightly changed gut microbiota composition, but it significantly increased TG (only 150 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg) and blood glucose levels (only 500 mg/kg) and promoted the secretion of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 (p < 0.01). However, SB intake for 10 weeks mostly maintained normal glucolipid metabolism; although, IL-1β (p < 0.01) and IL-6 (p < 0.05) levels were also significantly increased and positively regulated the gut microbiota by significantly increasing the relative abundance of Lactobacillus and significantly decreasing the relative abundance of Ileibacterium. Meanwhile, the safety of SB for host metabolism and gut microbiota was also confirmed via a fecal microbiota transplantation experiment. In addition, we found that SB removal after 10 weeks of intake significantly increased the levels of blood glucose, insulin and HOMA-IR index, which might be attributed to gut microbiota dysbiosis. Mechanistically, these positive effects and negative effects had no close relationship with the concentration of short-chain fatty acids in the gut, which might be associated with metabolites of SB or special bacterial strains. In short, this work provided positive evidence for the safety of SB consumption within the recommended range.

Effect of Three Different Preservatives on the Microbiota of Shalgam, a Traditional Lactic Acid Fermented Beverage

Shalgam is a traditional Turkish beverage derived from the natural fermentation of purple carrots (Daucus carota) that boasts valuable antioxidant and prebiotic properties. These features of shalgam increase efforts to enhance its shelf life and ensure safe consumption. In this study, the effects of three different preservatives (sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, or natamycin) on the physicochemical and microbiological properties of shalgam produced at laboratory scale and stored at room temperature for six months were investigated. Each preservative was used in four different concentrations (25, 100, 400, and 800 mg/L) to assess their impacts on the population of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast. After determining the total acidity and pH of the samples, colorimetric measurements were performed. The isolated LAB were defined using the matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/TOF MS) method. The addition of preservatives did not significantly affect the pH of the shalgam samples (3.44-3.52) compared to the control sample (3.43). However, a slight increase was observed in the total acidity of preservative-treated samples, with the highest level (5.61 g/L lactic acid) recorded in samples containing 100 mg/L sodium benzoate. Lacticaseibacillus paracasei subsp. paracasei, which has the potential to impart probiotic properties to shalgam, was the predominant LAB species in both non-treated and preservative-treated samples. The use of preservatives significantly reduced the total number of yeasts, which may cause spoilage in shalgam. The results indicate that using sodium benzoate at a concentration of 100 mg/L is the optimum method for shalgam production, resulting in the highest total acidity value obtained. Overall, the findings provide a significant contribution to prolonging the shelf life of shalgam, a beverage with immense production and consumption potential worldwide.

Clinical experience with glycerol phenylbutyrate in 20 patients with urea cycle disorders at a UK paediatric centre

In urea cycle disorders (UCDs) ammonia scavenger drugs, usually sodium-based, have been the mainstay of treatment. Increasingly, glycerol phenylbutyrate (GPB, Ravicti®) is being used but scant real-world data exist regarding clinical outcomes. A retrospective study of UCD patients initiated on or switched to GPB was performed at a UK centre. Data on population characteristics, treatment aspects, laboratory measurements, and clinical outcomes were collected before and after patients started GPB with a sub-group analysis undertaken for patients with ≥12 months of data before and after starting GPB. UCDs included arginosuccinate synthetase deficiency (n = 8), arginosuccinate lyase deficiency (n = 6), ornithine carbamoyltransferase deficiency (n = 3), and carbamoyl phosphate synthetase 1 deficiency (n = 3). In the sub-group analysis (n = 11), GPB resulted in lower plasma ammonia (31 vs. 41 μmol/L, p = 0.037), glutamine (670 vs. 838 μmol/L, p = 0.002), annualised hyperammonaemic episodes (0.2 vs. 1.9, p = 0.020), hospitalisations (0.5 vs. 2.2, p = 0.010), and hyperammonaemic episodes resulting in hospitalisation (0.2 vs. 1.6, p = 0.035) reflecting changes seen in the whole group. Overall, patients exposed to sodium and propylene glycol levels above UK daily limits reduced by 78% and 83% respectively. Mean levels of branched chain amino acids, haemoglobin, and white cell count were unchanged. Two adverse drug reactions (pancytopenia, fatigue/appetite loss) resolved without GPB discontinuation. Patients/families preferred GPB for its lower volume, greater palatability and easier administration. GPB appeared to improve biochemical measures and clinical outcomes. The causes are multi-factorial and are likely to include prolonged action of GPB and its good tolerability, even at higher doses, facilitating tighter control of ammonia.

Novel Compounds in the Treatment of Schizophrenia-A Selective Review

Schizophrenia is a chronic neuropsychiatric syndrome that significantly impacts daily function and quality of life. All of the available guidelines suggest a combined treatment approach with pharmacologic agents and psychological interventions. However, one in three patients is a non-responder, the effect on negative and cognitive symptoms is limited, and many drug-related adverse effects complicate clinical management. As a result, discovering novel drugs for schizophrenia presents a significant challenge for psychopharmacology. This selective review of the literature aims to outline the current knowledge on the aetiopathogenesis of schizophrenia and to present the recently approved and newly discovered pharmacological substances in treating schizophrenia. We discuss ten novel drugs, three of which have been approved by the FDA (Olanzapine/Samidorphan, Lumateperone, and Pimavanserin). The rest are under clinical trial investigation (Brilaroxazine, Xanomeline/Trospium, Emraclidine, Ulotaront, Sodium Benzoate, Luvadaxistat, and Iclepertin). However, additional basic and clinical research is required not only to improve our understanding of the neurobiology and the potential novel targets in the treatment of schizophrenia, but also to establish more effective therapeutical interventions for the syndrome, including the attenuation of negative and cognitive symptoms and avoiding dopamine blockade-related adverse effects.

Alternative Enzyme Inhibition Assay for Safety Evaluation of Food Preservatives

While food additives are widely used in the modern food industry and generally are important in maintaining the ability to provide food for the increasing world population, the progress occurring in this field is much ahead of the evaluation of their possible consequences for human health. The present study suggests a set of single- and multi-enzyme assay systems for revealing toxic effects of the most widely spread food preservatives, such as sorbic acid (E200), potassium sorbate (E202), and sodium benzoate (E211) at the primary molecular level of their interaction with enzymes. The assay is based on the inhibition of enzyme activity by toxic substances proportional to the amount of the toxicants in the sample. The single-enzyme assay system based on NAD(P)H:FMN oxidoreductase (Red) proved to be most sensitive to the impact of food additives, with the IC₅₀ values being 29, 14, and 0.02 mg/L for sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, and sorbic acid, respectively, which is considerably lower than their acceptable daily intake (ADI). No reliable change in the degree of inhibition of the enzyme assay systems by food preservatives was observed upon elongating the series of coupled redox reactions. However, the inhibition of activity of the multi-enzyme systems by 50% was found at a preservative concentration below the maximum permissible level for food. The inhibition effect of food preservatives on the activity of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) was either absent or found in the presence of food preservatives at concentrations significantly exceeding their ADI. Among the preservatives under study, sodium benzoate is considered to be the safest in terms of the inhibiting effect on the enzyme activity. The results show that the negative effect of the food preservatives at the molecular level of organization of living things is highly pronounced, while at the organismal level it may not be obvious.

Determination of D-serine and D-alanine Tissue Levels in the Prefrontal Cortex and Hippocampus of Rats After a Single Dose of Sodium Benzoate, a D-Amino Acid Oxidase Inhibitor, with Potential Antipsychotic and Antidepressant Properties

The effects of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activators D-serine, D-alanine, and sarcosine against schizophrenia and depression are promising. Nevertheless, high doses of D-serine and sarcosine are associated with undesirable nephrotoxicity or worsened prostatic cancer. Thus, alternatives are needed. DAAO inhibition can increase D-serine as well as D-alanine and protect against D-serine-induced nephrotoxicity. Although several DAAO inhibitors improve the symptoms of schizophrenia and depression, they can increase the plasma levels but not brain levels of D-serine. The mechanism of action of DAAO inhibitors remains unclear. We investigated the effects of the DAAO inhibitor sodium benzoate on the prefrontal cortex and hippocampal level of D-alanine as known another substrate with antipsychotic and antidepressant properties and other NMDAR-related amino acids, such as, L-alanine, D-serine, L-serine, D-glutamate, L-glutamate, and glycine levels. Our results indicate that sodium benzoate exerts antipsychotic and antidepressant-like effects without changing the D-serine levels in the brain prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus. Moreover, D-alanine levels in the PFC and hippocampus did not change. Despite these negative findings regarding the effects of D-amino acids in the PFC and hippocampus, sodium benzoate exhibited antipsychotic and antidepressant-like effects. Thus, the therapeutic effects of sodium benzoate are independent of D-serine or D-alanine levels. In conclusion, sodium benzoate may be effective among patients with schizophrenia or depression; however, the mechanisms of actions remain to be elucidated.

Comparative effects of benzoic acid and sodium benzoate in diets for nursery pigs on growth performance and acidification of digesta and urine

The objective of this study was to evaluate the comparative effects of benzoic acid and sodium benzoate in feeds on digesta pH, urinary pH, and growth performance for nursery pigs. A total of 432 pigs (6.9 ± 0.9 kg BW) were assigned to eight treatments (6 pigs per pen, replication = 9) in a randomized complete block design with initial body weight (BW) as a block and fed for 41 d in three phases (7/17/17 d, respectively). Treatments were 1) a basal diet (NC), 2) NC + 0.25% bacitracin methylene disalicylate (antibiotic; bacitracin: 250 g/t feed; PC), 3) NC + 0.25% benzoic acid, 4) NC + 0.35% benzoic acid, 5) NC + 0.50% benzoic acid, 6) NC + 0.30% sodium benzoate, 7) NC + 0.40% sodium benzoate, and 8) NC + 0.60% sodium benzoate. Growth performance and fecal scores were measured for each phase. One gilt representing the median BW of each pen was euthanized to collect digesta from the stomach, proximal jejunum, distal jejunum, and cecum, and urine. The PC tended to improve average daily gain (ADG) in phase 1 (P = 0.052) and phase 2 (P = 0.093) as well as average daily feed intake (ADFI) in phase 2 (P = 0.052). Overall, increasing supplemental benzoic acid tended to have a quadratic effect on ADG (P = 0.094), but no difference in ADFI was observed. Increasing supplemental sodium benzoate showed a quadratic effect (P < 0.05) on ADG and linearly increased (P < 0.05) ADFI. Urinary pH linearly decreased (P < 0.05) with increasing supplemental benzoic acid, but was not affected by supplemental sodium benzoate. Increasing supplemental benzoic acid or sodium benzoate linearly increased (P < 0.05) benzoic acid content in digesta of the stomach. Increasing supplemental benzoic acid or sodium benzoate also linearly increased (P < 0.05) urinary hippuric acid. However, the PC did not decrease urinary pH or increase urinary benzoic acid and hippuric acid. With slope-ratio assay using ADG and urinary hippuric acid as dependent variables and benzoic acid intake as an independent variable, the relative bioavailability of benzoic acid compared to sodium benzoate was not different. In conclusion, supplementation of benzoic acid and sodium benzoate could improve the growth performance of nursery pigs. The relative bioavailability of sodium benzoate to benzoic acid of nursery pigs did not differ based on BW gain and urinary hippuric acid.

The effect of sodium benzoate, L-carnitine, and phenylacetate on valproate-induced hyperammonemia in Male Wistar rats

INTRODUCTION

L-carnitine (LC) is commonly used in the treatment of valproate-induced hyperammonemia (VIHA). LC prevents the production of ammonia with no significant effect on renal ammonia excretion. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of sodium benzoate (SB) and phenyl acetate (PA) on reducing VIHA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eight groups treated with Sodium Valproate (SV) at 300 mg/kg and 15 minutes later with normal saline, SB (144 mg/kg), PA (0.3 g/kg), LC (2.5 g/kg), SB (144 mg/kg) plus PA (0.3 g/kg), or SB (144 mg/kg) plus PA (0.3 g/kg) plus LC (2.5 g/kg), intraperitoneally. Other groups were exposed to normal saline, SB, LC or PA alone. Animal's motor function and serum ammonia, lactate, and sodium levels were assessed at 0.5, 1, and 1.5 hours after the SV injection.

RESULTS

The results showed that LC reduced SV-induced hyperammonemia just at one and half-hour after treatment (P<0.001). PA, alone or in combination with other antidotes, reduced serum ammonia at all evaluated times (P<0.001). LC improved the impaired motor function of animals only at 1.5 hours, while PA, alone or in combination decreased the motor function scores at different times. However, SB administration alone did not change SV-induced hyperammonemia or motor function impairment. There was no significant difference in the level of serum aminotransferases, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine between groups.

CONCLUSION

These findings define that PA had a better therapeutic effect on valproate-induced hyperammonemia in comparison with SB. Co-administration of LC with PA ameliorated the elevated levels of ammonia and may relieve potential therapeutic application against acute SV intoxication.

Protective role of the dandelion extract against the blood-liver axis, cell membranes, and anemia disorder in sodium benzoate-exposed rats

Sodium benzoate (SB) as an additive in various food products prevents the growth of microbes. Although SB is considered safe, many studies have reported adverse effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of dandelion extract on cell damage and hematological and biochemical disorders induced by SB in male albino rats. Different doses of SB (200 and 600 mg/kg) and ethanolic dandelion root extract (D) (40 mg/kg) were used in a 2-week treatment of rats. Rat mortality and a higher frequency of behavioral alterations such as apathy, anxiety, and aggression have been reported at a higher dose of SB. Changes in urine pH, proteinuria, nitrituria, and bilirubinemia caused by SB were regulated by adding dandelion extract. Analysis of specific serum and urine parameters, as well as microscopic analysis of hepatocytes, showed liver and kidney failure. Anemia associated with hemolytic disorder due to erythrocyte impaired the presence of acanthocytes, and decreased values of erythrocyte blood count, hemoglobin concentration, average red blood cell size, hemoglobin amount per red blood cell, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration were caused by SB treatment. As a dietary supplement, dandelion extract can be useful in the prevention of SB-induced liver and kidney injury, and also a remedy against induced anemia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, hyperproteinemia, hyperglycemia, and reduction of inflammatory responses.

A Catechol-Meter Based on Conventional Personal Glucose Meter for Portable Detection of Tyrosinase and Sodium Benzoate

In this study, the personal glucose meter (PGM) was first used as a fast and user-friendly meter for analyzing catechol (CA) based on the reduction of the mediator K₃[Fe(CN)₆] to K₄[Fe(CN)₆] in the glucose test strip. Then, an easy, low-cost, and convenient PGM-based method for detecting tyrosinase (TYR) activity and sodium benzoate (SBA) was developed on the basis of the TYR-catalyzed reaction. In this method, CA is oxidized to form o-benzoquinone by TYR, thereby reducing the residual amount of CA and the PGM readout. On the other hand, SBA can inhibit the oxidation of CA catalyzed by TYR and increase the residual amount of CA after the enzymatic reaction. Therefore, the activity of TYR is proportional to the difference in the PGM readout of CA, and the concentration of SBA is positively correlated with the residual amount of CA. After the relevant experimental conditions were systematically optimized, the proposed PGM-based method for the detection of TYR and SBA was successfully validated. The liner ranges are 1.0-103.3 U/mL and 6.25-1000 ppm, and the quantification limits are 1.0 U/mL and 6.25 ppm for TYR and SBA, respectively. Moreover, the spiked recovery tests in normal human serum and carbonate beverages (i.e., Cola, Sprite, and Fanta) were performed, and the recoveries (91.6-106.8%) further confirm the applicability of the PGM-based method in real sample analysis.

Pharmacokinetics and Safety of Sodium Benzoate, a d-Amino Acid Oxidase (DAAO) Inhibitor, in Healthy Subjects: A Phase I, Open-Label Study

PURPOSE

N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-mediated neurotransmission plays a critical role in cognition and memory, and d-serine is a co-agonist of the receptor. d-serine is metabolized by d-amino acid oxidase (DAAO). Sodium benzoate is a DAAO inhibitor that leads to the elevation of d-serine levels and enhances NMDAR functions as a therapeutic for wide-spectrum central nervous system (CNS) disorders, including schizophrenia and dementia. For therapeutic application of sodium benzoate in CNS disorders, we conducted a Phase I study to evaluate its safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetic profile after single-dose oral administration in healthy volunteers. In contrast to the accumulation in the CNS, sodium benzoate has a rapid pharmacokinetic profile when measured peripherally.

METHODS

In this Phase I study, subjects were randomized into 4 different dose groups after a single oral administration. The pharmacokinetic parameters of sodium benzoate were assessed after exposure to 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg of sodium benzoate. All adverse events were investigated and recorded.

FINDINGS

The C_max and AUC of sodium benzoate exhibited a higher than dose-proportional increase within the dose range from 250 to 2000 mg under fasting conditions. The slopes were 1.78 and 2.61 and the 90% CIs were 1.41 to 2.15 and 2.20 to 3.03 for C_max and AUC, respectively. Sodium benzoate was absorbed and converted to benzoic acid rapidly, reaching C_max after ∼0.5 hour and elimination t_1/2 after ∼0.3 hour. No subjects reported adverse events that were sodium benzoate related.

IMPLICATIONS

The nonlinear pharmacokinetic response was observed within the dose range up to 2000 mg. Sodium benzoate treatment exhibited a favorable safety profile and was well tolerated at all dose levels. The study results serve as a foundation that should be useful for investigating efficacy and safety in the drug's subsequent clinical development.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

TFDA-103607047.

Headspace control and antimicrobials: inhibition strategies to prevent growth of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris in orange juice

Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris can cause spoilage in orange juice that leads to consumer rejection. Six different orange juices were physiochemically characterized (pH, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, total polyphenols and vitamin C). A bottle for each sampling point per juice was filled (headspace: 40% volume) and inoculated with 10² - 10³ CFU ml^-1 of A. acidoterrestris ATCC® 49025™ (heat shocked before inoculation: 75°C, 20 min). Samples were stored for 21 d at 45 ± 1°C and plate counted periodically on acidified YSG agar (pH 3.7) incubated at 45 ± 1°C for 3 d. The effect of headspace (6% versus 40% volume) on A. acidoterrestris growth was also evaluated. The effect of nisin (0.006%, 0.003%, 0.0015%, and 0.00075%), sodium benzoate (0.1%), potassium sorbate (0.1%), and a mix of benzoate and sorbate (0.05% each) on A. acidoterrestris was additionally addressed. A. acidoterrestris reached up to 10⁷ CFU ml^-1 in five of the six juices in less than one week. Headspace significantly impacted (P<0.05) A. acidoterrestris maximum population, which reached the critical value of 5 log CFU ml^-1 at 40% headspace. All preservatives, regardless of concentration, showed a bacteriostatic effect during 22 d of storage with no significant differences among treatments (P>0.05).

Effects of Sodium Benzoate, a D-Amino Acid Oxidase Inhibitor, on Perceived Stress and Cognitive Function Among Patients With Late-Life Depression: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Sertraline- and Placebo-Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Compared with adults with depression in the general population, elderly depressive patients are prone to poor treatment response, more side effects, and early withdrawal with current antidepressants (which principally modulate monoamines). Whether N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor enhancement can benefit treatment of late-life depression deserves study. This study aims to compare sodium benzoate (a D-amino acid oxidase inhibitor and an indirect N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor enhancer), sertraline (a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor), and placebo in the treatment of late-life depression.

METHODS

In this randomized, double-blind trial, 117 patients with major depressive disorder aged 55 years or older received 8-week treatment of 250-1500 mg/d of sodium benzoate, 25-150 mg/d of sertraline, or placebo in 2 medical centers. The primary outcome measures were Hamilton Depression Rating Scale and Perceived Stress Scale scores.

RESULTS

Three treatments similarly decreased clinicians-rated Hamilton Depression Rating Scale scores. Compared with placebo, sodium benzoate but not sertraline substantially improved Perceived Stress Scale scores and cognitive function. Sertraline, but not benzoate, significantly reduced self-report Geriatric Depression Scale scores. Benzoate and placebo showed similar safety profiles, while sertraline was more likely to raise low-density lipoprotein than benzoate and placebo. Benzoate-treated patients were less likely to drop out than sertraline or placebo recipients.

CONCLUSIONS

Sertraline can reduce subjective depressive symptoms, while benzoate can decrease perceived stress, improve cognitive function, and enhance treatment adherence in late-life depression patients. The results show promise for D-amino acid oxidase inhibition as a novel approach for perceived stress and cognitive decline among patients with late-life depression.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03414931. Registered January 2016.

Sodium Benzoate, a Metabolite of Cinnamon and a Food Additive, Improves Cognitive Functions in Mice after Controlled Cortical Impact Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health concern, sometimes leading to long-term neurological disability, especially in children, young adults and war veterans. Although research investigators and clinicians have applied different treatment strategies or neurosurgical procedures to solve this health issue, we are still in need of an effective therapy to halt the pathogenesis of brain injury. Earlier, we reported that sodium benzoate (NaB), a metabolite of cinnamon and a Food and Drug Administration-approved drug against urea cycle disorders and glycine encephalopathy, protects neurons in animal models of Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. This study was undertaken to examine the therapeutic efficacy of NaB in a controlled cortical impact (CCI)-induced preclinical mouse model of TBI. Oral treatment with NaB, but not sodium formate (NaFO), was found to decrease the activation of microglia and astrocytes and to inhibit the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the hippocampus and cortex of CCI-insulted mice. Further, administration of NaB also reduced the vascular damage and decreased the size of the lesion cavity in the brain of CCI-induced mice. Importantly, NaB-treated mice showed significant improvements in memory and locomotor functions as well as displaying a substantial reduction in depression-like behaviors. These results delineate a novel neuroprotective property of NaB, highlighting its possible therapeutic importance in TBI.

Assessment of the feed additive consisting of sodium benzoate (Protural®) for weaned piglets for the renewal of its authorisation and the extension of use to other growing Suidae (Taminco Finland Oy)

Following a request from the European Commission, the Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of Protural® (sodium benzoate) when used as a zootechnical additive in feed for weaned piglets and other growing Suidae at 4,000 mg/kg feedingstuff. Protural® consists of sodium benzoate without any carrier materials and is currently authorised for use in weaned piglets. This opinion concerns the renewal of the authorisation of Protural® for weaned piglets and the evaluation of the new use in other growing Suidae. The applicant provided evidence that the additive currently in the market complies with the existing conditions of authorisation. The FEEDAP Panel concluded that Protural® is safe under the current conditions of authorisation for the target species, consumers of products from animals fed the additive and the environment. Protural® was not considered as irritant to skin and eyes but a skin sensitiser. Based on dusting potential data, the FEEDAP Panel considered that the powder formulation of the additive represented a risk by inhalation. There was no need for assessing the efficacy of Protural® in the context of the renewal of the authorisation for weaned piglets. The efficacy data previously evaluated allowed the FEEDAP Panel to conclude that the additive has the potential to be efficacious at the level of 4,000 mg/kg feedingstuff in other growing Suidae. A conclusion cannot be reached for the efficacy in pigs for fattening.

Tubular Cellulose from Orange Juice By-Products as Carrier of Chemical Preservatives; Delivery Kinetics and Microbial Stability of Orange Juice

The quality and safety of juices are assured mainly through heat treatments and chemical preservatives. However, there is a growing trend in the food industry for lowering energy and water demands, and the chemicals and additives that may have negative effects οn human health. Following that trend, in the present study, the reduced use of chemical preservatives in orange juice is proposed by using encapsulated sodium benzoate (SB) in tubular cellulose (TC), derived from orange pulp. The effects of SB concentration and contact time on SB encapsulation were evaluated. The use of the wet impregnation method, 12% w/v SB solution and 2 h of contact proved to be ideal for application in the juice industry. The use of starch gel resulted in a more stable composite (TC/SB-SG) with a slower SB delivery, showing its potential for future controlled delivery applications. Furthermore, similar delivery rates of SB in juice were noted at 25 and 2 °C. The TC/SB-SG proved capable of inhibiting the growth and reducing the numbers of spoilage microorganisms (yeasts and lactic acid bacteria). The results of the present study are promising for potential applications; however, more research is needed in order to evaluate the controlled delivery of SB in juice.

The Use of Sodium Benzoate on Shelf-Life and Quality Attributes of Dried Chili Fish Paste Stored in Different Packaging Containers

This study was carried out to assess the quality changes and shelf-life of dried chili fish paste treated with 0.1% sodium benzoate (SB) and stored in various packaging containers, including polypropylene (PP+SB), polyethylene-terephthalate (PET+SB), and LLDPE-aluminum Ziplock bag (ZL+SB) during 20-week storage at room temperature (25–28 °C) compared with samples without preservatives (PP, PET, and ZL). The result found that samples treated with 0.1% SB exhibited slower rate of quality changes throughout storage, including pH, browning index, oxidation products, as well as microorganisms, etc. These samples can store at room temperature for at least 20 weeks without any spoilage. Moreover, the sensorial scores of them, assessed by 50 untrained panelists who were familiar with this product, were more than 7.0 in all aspects, for example, color, flavor, and texture. In contrast, samples without preservatives, which revealed the higher rate of the changes in all quality characteristics, underwent spoilage during 20-week storage at different times depending on the packaging container. The shelf-life of PP, PET, and ZL were 6, 10, and 10 weeks, respectively, as indicated by the excess of total microorganisms (>1.00 × 10⁴ CFU/g sample). Overall, the results indicated that using sodium benzoate at the level of 0.1% can effectively extend the shelf-life of dried chili fish paste for at least 5 months with prime quality.

Effects of Delayed Harvest and Additives on Fermentation Quality and Bacterial Community of Corn Stalk Silage

This study aimed to investigate the effects of delayed harvest and additives on the fermentation quality and bacterial community of corn stalk silage in South China. The corn stalks after ear harvest at the 0 day (D0), 7 days (D7), and 15 days (D15) were used to produce small-bale silages. The silages at each harvest time were treated without (control, CK) or with Lactobacillus plantarum (LP) and sodium benzoate (BF). The results showed that delayed harvest increased pH and acetic acid content and reduced lactic acid content in corn stalk silage (p < 0.05). Compared with CK, the additives decreased the contents of butyric acid and ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N; p < 0.05). The silage treated with LP increased the content of lactic acid and decreased pH (p < 0.05); the silage treated with BF decreased counts of coliform bacteria and yeasts and increased residual water soluble carbohydrates (WSC) content (p < 0.05). Single Molecule, Real-Time sequencing (SMRT) revealed that the abundance of L. plantarum increased, while the abundance of Lactobacillus brevis and Lactobacillus ginsenosidimutans decreased with the delayed harvest. Additives influenced the bacterial community structure of corn stalk silage, revealed by enhanced bacterial diversity on D0 and reduced on D7 (p < 0.05). Our research indicated that delayed harvest could exert a positive effect on acetic acid production, and additives could inhibit the butyric acid fermentation and protein degradation of corn stalk silage by shifting bacterial community composition.

Biotransformation of Benzoate to 2,4,6-Trihydroxybenzophenone by Engineered Escherichia coli

The synthesis of natural products by E. coli is a challenging alternative method of environmentally friendly minimization of hazardous waste. Here, we establish a recombinant E. coli capable of transforming sodium benzoate into 2,4,6-trihydroxybenzophenone (2,4,6-TriHB), the intermediate of benzophenones and xanthones derivatives, based on the coexpression of benzoate-CoA ligase from Rhodopseudomonas palustris (BadA) and benzophenone synthase from Garcinia mangostana (GmBPS). It was found that the engineered E. coli accepted benzoate as the leading substrate for the formation of benzoyl CoA by the function of BadA and subsequently condensed, with the endogenous malonyl CoA by the catalytic function of BPS, into 2,4,6-TriHB. This metabolite was excreted into the culture medium and was detected by the high-resolution LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS. The structure was elucidated by in silico tools: Sirius 4.5 combined with CSI FingerID web service. The results suggested the potential of the new artificial pathway in E. coli to successfully catalyze the transformation of sodium benzoate into 2,4,6-TriHB. This system will lead to further syntheses of other benzophenone derivatives via the addition of various genes to catalyze for functional groups.

Stimulation of Dopamine Production by Sodium Benzoate, a Metabolite of Cinnamon and a Food Additive

Background

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most important neurodegenerative disorders in human in which recovery of functions could be achieved by improving the survival and function of residual dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the rate-limiting enzyme in the dopamine (DA) biosynthesis pathway.

Objective

Earlier our laboratory has shown that sodium benzoate (NaB), a metabolite of cinnamon and an FDA-approved drug against urea cycle disorders and glycine encephalopathy, increases neuroprotective molecules and protects dopaminergic neurons in a mouse model of PD. Here, we examined whether NaB could stimulate the production of DA in dopaminergic neurons.

Methods

We employed PCR, real-time PCR, western blot, immunostaining, and HPLC to study the signature function of dopaminergic neurons. Locomotor functions were monitored in mice by open-field.

Results

NaB increased the mRNA and protein expression of TH to produce DA in mouse MN9D dopaminergic neuronal cells. Accordingly, oral feeding of NaB increased the expression of TH in the nigra, upregulated striatal DA, and improved locomotor activities in striatum of normal C57/BL6 and aged A53T-α-syn transgenic mice. Rapid induction of cAMP response element binding (CREB) activation by NaB in dopaminergic neuronal cells and the abrogation of NaB-induced expression of TH by siRNA knockdown of CREB suggest that NaB stimulates the transcription of TH in dopaminergic neurons via CREB.

Conclusion

These results indicate a new function of NaB in which it may be beneficial in PD via stimulation of DA production from residual dopaminergic neurons.

Brain Activity of Benzoate, a D-Amino Acid Oxidase Inhibitor, in Patients With Mild Cognitive Impairment in a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo Controlled Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

Current anti-dementia drugs cannot benefit mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Sodium benzoate (a D-amino acid oxidase [DAO] inhibitor) has been found to improve the cognitive function of patients with early-phase Alzheimer's disease (mild Alzheimer's disease or MCI). However, its effect on brain function remains unknown. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of benzoate on functional magnetic resonance imaging in patients with amnestic MCI.

METHODS

This was a 24-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that enrolled 21 patients with amnestic MCI and allocated them randomly to either of 2 treatment groups: (1) benzoate group (250-1500 mg/d), or (2) placebo group. We assessed the patients' working memory, verbal learning and memory, and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and regional homogeneity (ReHo) maps at baseline and endpoint.

RESULTS

Resting-state ReHo decreased in right orbitofrontal cortex after benzoate treatment but did not change after placebo. Moreover, after benzoate treatment, the change in working memory was positively correlated with the change in ReHo in right precentral gyrus and right middle occipital gyrus; and the change in verbal learning and memory was positively correlated with the change in ReHo in left precuneus. In contrast, after placebo treatment, the change in working memory or in verbal learning and memory was not correlated with the change in ReHo in any brain region.

CONCLUSION

The current study is the first to our knowledge to demonstrate that a DAO inhibitor, sodium benzoate herein, can alter brain activity as well as cognitive functions in individuals with MCI. The preliminary finding lends supports for DAO inhibition as a novel approach for early dementing processes.

Natural plus synthetic hydrotropic solubilization using response surface methodology to optimize the solid dispersion of hydrochlorothiazide

BACKGROUND

Solubility/dissolution is said to be the key factor that influences the oral bioavailability of drug and is also the rate limiting step in formulation development.

OBJECTIVE

Hydrochlorothiazide (HCZ) is a BCS Class IV drug with low solubility and low permeability. The present work aimed to increase the solubility of hydrochlorothiazide using blends of natural and synthetic hydrotropes.

METHODS

Two hydrotropes one from natural (piperazine) and other from synthetic origin (sodium benzoate) were selected for the formulation of solid dispersion (SD) of HCZ. Preliminary trial batches were prepared by considering the safe dose of both the selected hydrotropes i.e. sodium benzoate (SB) and piperazine (PP). A 32 full factorial design was opted for preparing the optimized solid dispersion of hydrochlorothiazide.

RESULTS

The quadratic models were found to be best fitted for the studied responses, which were percent solubility and invitro drug release. The results showed increased solubility and in-vitro drug release of HCZ solid dispersions as a function of increasing levels of both hydrotropes.

CONCLUSION

In this work, it was concluded that the use of natural hydrotropes along with synthetic hydrotropes gave an effective and safe approach for the solubility enhancement of the HCZ.

Toxicological impact of sodium benzoate on inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress and biochemical markers in male Wistar rats

Sodium benzoate is a widely used food and pharmaceutical preservative due to its antibacterial and antifungal activity. In the present study effect of different concentrations of sodium benzoate on hepatic antioxidants, inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β and IL-6), biochemical markers and histopathology of liver was evaluated. Twenty five adult rats (aged 1-2 months) with 5 rats per group were randomly distributed into 5 groups. Group 1 rats were used as control and all groups (1-5) were provided with water and fed ad libitum. In addition to usual water and food, rats of group 2, 3, 4 and 5 were treated with 70, 200, 400 and 700 mg/kg b.wt of sodium benzoate once a day via oral gavage for 30 days. Our results showed that activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), glutathione-s-transferase (GST), glutathione reductase (GR) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in rats decreased significantly when treated with 200, 400 and 700 mg/kg b.wt of sodium benzoate. Increase in the concentration of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, serum total protein, albumin, globulin, urea and creatinine was found to be dose dependent. Severe histopathological damage was observed in the hepatic tissue at higher concentrations of sodium benzoate. It was noticed that high concentrations of sodium benzoate (200, 400 and 700 mg/kg b.wt) produce significant increase in inflammatory cytokine markers (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β and IL-6) in comparison to control. Sodium benzoate at concentration of 70 mg/kg b.wt did not produce any significant changes in any of the above studied parameters.

Ayurvedic formulations containing benzoic and ascorbic acids as additives: benzene formation during storage and impact of additives on quality parameters

OBJECTIVES

Ayurvedic formulations are becoming the prior choice of people as health care supplements. The increasing demand for these formulations has led to extensive development of Ayurvedic pharmaceutical industries worldwide. The reaction between the preservatives (sodium benzoates and ascorbic acid) used in these formulations could generate benzene. Benzene is classified as class-1 human carcinogen and responsible for various short and long term health effects.

METHODS

In this study, 25 formulations (containing ascorbic acid and sodium benzoate) of various manufacturers available as over the counter products were obtained and their benzene content were determined using gas chromatograph with flame ionization detector.

RESULTS

The result showed that 64% of the formulations were free from benzene contamination whereas 36% of formulations were found to be contaminated with benzene. A simple, less time-consuming, economic, and validated gas chromatographic method for estimation of benzene in Ayurvedic formulations was also developed successfully in present study.

CONCLUSIONS

The data revealed that the level of benzene was within permissible limits, yet the presence of a carcinogen in the marketed formulations intended for internal use is an alarming situation.

Formulation and Clinical Evaluation of Sodium Benzoate Oral Solution for the Treatment of Urea Cycle Disorders in Pediatric Patients

BACKGROUND

Sodium benzoate, a common food preservative, is used in the treatment of patients with urea cycle disorders (UCDs) as it stimulates ammonia removal by a non-urea cycle-based pathway. Despite its use in the clinical routine, no commercially available oral formulations currently exist. Liquid formulation is normally well accepted in pediatric age and allows precise dosage according to the children's needs.

AIMS

(1) To prepare an oral sodium benzoate solution in different tastes and determine its stability, palatability, and tolerability and (2) to describe the long-term follow-up of two pediatric patients with UCDs treated with our formulation.

METHODS

We prepared five oral solutions of sodium benzoate (200 mg/ml) by adding different flavoring agents. We measured drug concentration in the samples by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). We evaluated palatability and tolerability with adult volunteers. Long-term drug compliance and metabolic control were appraised in two pediatric patients.

RESULTS

All the oral solutions remained stable at room temperature along the 96-day test period, and they were well tolerated. The mint-flavored solution resulted the most palatable and preferred by adult volunteers. We report good drug compliance and good metabolic outcomes for both pediatric patients during the entire follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlighted the stability and tolerability of flavored sodium benzoate oral solutions. These solutions were well accepted during a long-term follow-up and guaranteed a good metabolic control. Since taste attributes are critical to ensure acceptable medication adherence in the pediatric age, flavored liquid formulations of sodium benzoate may be an efficient strategy to achieve therapeutic outcomes in UCD pediatric patients.

A mixture of potassium sorbate and sodium benzoate improved fermentation quality of whole-plant corn silage by shifting bacterial communities

AIMS

To investigate the changes in fermentation quality of whole-plant corn silage ensiled with varying dosages of mixed organic acid salts (MS), and link these dosage changes to shifts in bacterial composition.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Fermentation quality and bacterial community of corn silage ensiled with MS at four application rates (0, 0·67 g kg^-1 , 1·33 g kg^-1 , and 2·00 g kg^-1 ) were investigated. The MS consisted of 40% potassium sorbate and 60% sodium benzoate. The corn silages were conserved for 42 days. Dry matter losses and ammonia nitrogen concentration were linearly declined by up to 19·10 and 33·3% with increasing dosages of MS. MS treatments significantly reduced the pH of silage vs the control group. Further analysis indicated that the improvement of fermentation quality was the result of shifts in bacterial composition, the relative abundance of Lactobacillus paralimentarius and Pediococcus spp. increased while Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus coryniformis and Klebsiella declined with increasing dosages of MS.

CONCLUSIONS

MS effectively improved the fermentation quality of whole-plant corn silage with an optimum dosage of 2·00 g kg^-1 .

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The correlation between bacterial taxa and fermentation quality provides a potential for the development of novel silage inoculants and for the application of MS on controlling Klebsiella mastitis of livestock farms.

Precision Medicine of Sodium Benzoate for the Treatment of Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia (BPSD)

OBJECTIVE

Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) are associated with poorer prognosis of dementia. A 24-week study demonstrated that sodium benzoate, a D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) inhibitor, surpassed placebo in improving cognitive function in early-phase Alzheimer's disease; however, benzoate did not excel placebo in another 6-week study on BPSD. The current study examined whether the precision medicine approach was able to identify specific individuals with BPSD who could benefit from benzoate treatment.

METHODS

In the randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 6-week trial, 97 patients with BPSD were allocated to receive 250-1500 mg/day of sodium benzoate or placebo. Cognitive function was measured by the Alzheimer's disease assessment scale-cognitive subscale (ADAS-cog) and behavioral and psychological symptoms were mainly measured by Behavioral Pathology in Alzheimer's Disease Rating Scale (BEHAVE-AD). DAAO level, amino acids (L-serine, D-serine, L-alanine, and D-alanine, glycine), and two antioxidants (catalase, superoxide dismutase) were assayed in peripheral blood.

RESULTS

After benzoate treatment, DAAO inhibition was correlated with ADAS-cog decrease (p = 0.034), while baseline DAAO level was correlated with baseline BEHAVE-AD score. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that cognitive improvement after benzoate treatment was correlated with DAAO decrease, female gender, younger age, BMI, baseline BPSD severity, and antipsychotic use.

CONCLUSION

The finding suggests that sodium benzoate may have potential to benefit cognitive function in a fraction of BPSD patients after 6 weeks of treatment. Of note, the precision medicine approach may be helpful for identifying individuals who could respond to benzoate. More studies are warranted to confirm the preliminary findings.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The trial was registered online (https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02103673).

Exploring the therapeutic potential of sodium benzoate in acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis in rats

Background Ulcerative colitis is a chronic mucosal inflammation of the large intestine mainly affecting the colon and rectum. The lack of effective and safe therapeutic agents led to the identification of new therapeutic agents to effectively manage the symptoms and complications of ulcerative colitis. The present study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of sodium benzoate in acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis in rats. Methods Infusion of 3% acetic acid in the colon through the rectum was done to construct a rat model of ulcerative colitis. After 5 days of infusion, macroscopic, biochemical, and histopathological examinations and disease activity scoring of the colon were done to assess colonic damage. Results Acetic acid infusion resulted in severe inflammation in the colon assessed macroscopically and histopathologically. Moreover, it also led to increase in myeloperoxidase (MPO) and reduction in glutathione (GSH) levels. In the present study, repeated administration of sodium benzoate (400 and 800 mg/kg i.p.) and sulfasalazine (500 mg/kg orally) for 7 days, i.e. 2 days before and continued for 5 days after acetic acid infusion, significantly attenuated macroscopic damage and disease activity score as compared to disease control. Further, it also significantly reduced the levels of MPO and enhanced colonic levels of reduced GSH. However, the lower dose of sodium benzoate (200 mg/kg) did not show sufficient protective effect in acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis. Further, sodium benzoate per se did not show any effect in normal rats. Conclusions The observed protective effect of sodium benzoate may be due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in an ulcerative colitis model.

Sodium benzoate for the treatment of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD): A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 6-week trial

OBJECTIVE

Sodium benzoate, a D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) inhibitor, improved cognitive function of early-phase Alzheimer's disease (AD) after 24-week treatment. This study examined benzoate treatment for behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD).

METHODS

In a double-blind, 6-week trial, 97 patients with BPSD were randomized to receive placebo or benzoate (mean dose: 622.0 mg/day). The primary outcomes were ADAS-cog and BEHAVE-AD.

RESULTS

Two treatments showed similar safety and primary and secondary outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared to antecedent 24-week, higher-dose treatment for early-phase AD, benzoate appeared ineffective in this 6-week trial. Longer-duration, higher-dose trials are warranted to clarify its efficacy for BPSD.

Sodium Benzoate Attenuates Secondary Brain Injury by Inhibiting Neuronal Apoptosis and Reducing Mitochondria-Mediated Oxidative Stress in a Rat Model of Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Possible Involvement of DJ-1/Akt/IKK/NFκB Pathway

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating disease with high rates of mortality and morbidity. The aim of this study was to explore whether Sodium Benzoate (NaB) could reduce neural cell apoptosis and alleviate neurological deficits after ICH. To assess the therapeutic effects of NaB, first, we measured brain water content, neurobehavior, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity at 24 h after ICH in different groups. Then western blot and immunofluorescence staining (IF) were applied to test the levels of different proteins. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) was used to observe ultra-structures within the cells in different groups. The results showed that levels of DJ-1, p-Akt and p-IκB kinase (IKK) increased after ICH and peaked at 24 h. Besides, NaB significantly upregulated DJ-1 in both cytoplasm and mitochondria, and also increased the levels of p-Akt, p-IKK and Bcl-2/Bax ratio, but decreased the levels of caspase-3 and caspase-9. Additionally, NaB decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) while increased adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which then improving the neurological functions at 24 h and long-term (21 days) memory and spatial learning ability after ICH. However, the results mentioned above could be greatly reversed by MK2206 and rotenone. Therefore, we concluded that NaB could attenuate secondary brain injury via inhibiting neuronal apoptosis and reducing mitochondria-mediated oxidative stress via DJ-1/Akt/IKK/NFκB pathway.

Biopreservative Efficacy of Bacteriocin GP1 of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GP1 on Stored Fish Filets

The bacteriocin based strategy of biopreservation has got wide spread research interests in the recent past for their prospects in reducing usage of chemical preservatives. The bacteriocin GP1 with antibacterial activity and produced by Lactobacillus rhamnosus (L. rhamnosus) GP1 was tested for its effect on sensory (color, odor, and appearance), chemical (pH, Total Volatile Base-Nitrogen (TVB-N), Total Methyl Amine (TMA), Total Free Fatty Acid) and bacteriological (total bacterial count, count of Staphylococcus sp., Aeromonas sp., total coliform, Lactobacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Vibrio sp.) quality attributes of fish filets stored at 4 and 0°C. The sensory attributes of the fish filets treated with the bacteriocin and control from 7 to 28 days of storage in both the storage temperatures varied significantly. The pH of the raw fish increased from the initial 6.8 to 7.91 and 7.43 for the control and bacteriocin GP1, respectively, at the end of storage period (28 days) when stored at 4°C. However, the pH showed a decreasing trend with the increase in period of storage for the samples stored at 0°C. The TVB-N content of the bacteriocin treated samples stored at 4°C remained within the limit of acceptability (35 mg/100 g) at the 21st day. The TMA level also remained within the acceptable limit of 10–15 mg/100 g at the 21st day in the case of bacteriocin-treated samples. The application of bacteriocin GP1 in the stored fish was effective in controlling the growth of coliforms, Aeromonas sp., Lactobacillus sp., and Vibrio sp. in the treated fish samples. The study concluded the prospects of bacteriocin GP1 as a biopreservative in storage of fish and fish products.

Acute pediatric hyperammonemia: current diagnosis and management strategies

Acute hyperammonemia may induce a neurologic impairment leading to an acute life-threatening condition. Coma duration, ammonia peak level, and hyperammonemia duration are the main risk factors of hyperammonemia-related neurologic deficits and death. In children, hyperammonemia is mainly caused by severe liver failure and inborn errors of metabolism. In an acute setting, obtaining reliable plasma ammonia levels can be challenging because of the preanalytical difficulties that need to be addressed carefully. The management of hyperammonemia includes 1) identification of precipitating factors and cerebral edema presence, 2) a decrease in ammonia production by reducing protein intake and reversing catabolism, and 3) ammonia removal with pharmacologic treatment and, in the most severe cases, with extracorporeal therapies. In case of severe coma, transcranial Doppler ultrasound could be the method of choice to noninvasively monitor cerebral blood flow and titrate therapies.

Layer-by-layer Polyelectrolytes Coating of Alginate Microgels for Sustained Release of Sodium Benzoate and Zosteric Acid

The potential of sustaining release of very small (Mw < 250 g/mol) hydrophilic drugs up to several days from layer-by-layer (LbL) polyelectrolyte coated alginate microgels (Alg-Ms) was investigated. One purpose is to minimize post-surgical adhesions, which develop in 12 h to 3 days after surgery. The LbL polyelectrolyte layer would serve as a diffusion barrier for their release. The LbL polyelectrolyte bilayers were prepared using poly(allylamine) (PAH) and poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS). Sodium benzoate (NaB, Mw = 144 g/mol) and zosteric acid (ZA, Mw = 244 g/mol), two anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial compounds, were used as model drugs. A higher number of PAH/PSS bilayer lead to a greater sustained release of both drugs, and with 4 bilayers, the release of NaB and ZA was prolonged from 24 h to 72 h and 120 h, respectively. Fitting the data to the Ritger-Peppas' equation showed that as the bilayer number increased, the release constant and/or exponent decreased, indicating the LbL PAH/PSS bilayer effectively reduced the permeability of these two very small hydrophilic drugs. The ability to prolong the release of such small hydrophilic molecules, which has rarely been investigated previously, would find broad applications in fields such as anti-adhesion treatment and antifouling coatings.

Ascorbic acid and sodium benzoate synergistically aggravates testicular dysfunction in adult Wistar rats

BACKGROUND

The effect of the concomitant use of sodium benzoate (NaB) and ascorbic acid on human health remains controversial. Therefore, the current study is designed to investigate the effect of NaB and ascorbic acid on the testicular function of adult Wistar rats.

METHODS

Adult Wistar rats were randomly allotted into Control (vehicle; received 1 ml of distilled water), NaB-treated (SB-treated; received 100 mg/kg body weight; b.w), ascorbic acid-treated (AA-treated; received 150 mg/kg b.w) and NaB+ ascorbic acid-treated (SB+AA-treated) groups. The treatment lasted for 28 days and the administration was given orally. The body weight change was monitored. Semen analysis, biochemical assay and histological examination were performed.

RESULTS

Treatment with NaB significantly altered the cytoarchitecture of testicular tissue, sperm quality, testicular endocrine function and oxidative stress status without any alteration in body weight gain compared to control. In addition, treatment with NaB+ ascorbic acid exacerbated testicular tissue disruption, impaired sperm quality and testicular endocrine impairment with significant reduction in oxidative stress and unaltered body weight gain when compared with NaB-treated group.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that ascorbic acid and NaB synergistically aggravates testicular dysfunction. This is independent of oxidative stress status.

Potential and Challenges for the Clinical Use of d-Serine As a Cognitive Enhancer

After 25 years of its discovery in the rat brain, d-serine is a recognized modulator of synaptic plasticity and cognitive processes through its actions on the NMDA-glutamate receptor. Importantly, cognitive impairment is a core feature of conditions, such as schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, depression, and aging, and is associated to disturbances in NMDA-glutamate receptors. The d-serine pathway has been associated with cognitive deficits and these conditions, and, for this reason, d-serine signaling is subject of intense research to probe its role in aiding diagnosis and therapy. Nevertheless, this has not resulted in new therapies being incorporated into clinical practice. Therefore, in this review we will address many questions that need to be solved by future studies, regarding d-serine pharmacokinetics, possible side effects, other strategies to modulate its levels, and combination with other therapies to increase its efficacy.

Effects of sodium benzoate, a commonly used food preservative, on learning, memory, and oxidative stress in brain of mice

Sodium benzoate (SB) is a widely used preservative and antimicrobial substance in many foods and soft drinks. However, this compound is generally recognized as safe food additives, but evidence has suggested that a high intake of SB may link to attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder in children. Present study investigate the effects of oral administration of different concentrations of SB (0.56, 1.125, and 2.25 mg/mL) for 4 weeks, on the learning and memory performance tests, and also the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH), and acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE) in the mouse brain. The results showed that SB significantly impaired memory and motor coordination. Moreover, SB decreased reduced GSH and increased the MDA level in the brain significantly (P < 0.001). However, nonsignificant alteration was observed in the AChE activity. These findings suggest that short-term consumption of SB can impair memory performance and increased brain oxidative stress in mice.

Decolorization and mineralization of Amaranth dye using multiple zoned aerobic and anaerobic baffled constructed wetland

The objective of this study is to determine the reduction efficiency of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) as well as the removal of color and Amaranth dye metabolites by the Aerobic-anaerobic Baffled Constructed Wetland Reactor (ABCW). The ABCW reactor was planted with common reed (Phragmite australis) where the hydraulic retention time (HRT) was set to 1 day and was fed with synthetic wastewater with the addition of Amaranth dye. Supplementary aeration was supplied in designated compartments of the ABCW reactor to control the aerobic and anaerobic zones. After Amaranth dye addition the COD reduction efficiency dropped from 98 to 91% while the color removal efficiency was 100%. Degradation of azo bond in Amaranth dye is shown by the UV-Vis spectrum analysis which demonstrates partial degradation of Amaranth dye metabolites. The performance of the baffled unit is due to the longer pathway as there is the up-flow and down-flow condition sequentially, thus allowing more contact of the wastewater with the rhizomes and micro-aerobic zones.

Benzoate and Sorbate Salts: A Systematic Review of the Potential Hazards of These Invaluable Preservatives and the Expanding Spectrum of Clinical Uses for Sodium Benzoate

Sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate are extremely useful agents for food and beverage preservation, yet concerns remain over their complete safety. Benzoate can react with the ascorbic acid in drinks to produce the carcinogen benzene. A few children develop allergy to this additive while, as a competitive inhibitor of D-amino acid oxidase, benzoate can also influence neurotransmission and cognitive functioning. Model organism and cell culture studies have raised some issues. Benzoate has been found to exert teratogenic and neurotoxic effects on zebrafish embryos. In addition, benzoate and sorbate are reported to cause chromosome aberrations in cultured human lymphocytes; also to be potently mutagenic toward the mitochondrial DNA in aerobic yeast cells. Whether the substantial human consumption of these compounds could significantly increase levels of such damages in man is still unclear. There is no firm evidence that it is a risk factor in type 2 diabetes. The clinical administration of sodium benzoate is of proven benefit for many patients with urea cycle disorders, while recent studies indicate it may also be advantageous in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, schizophrenia, early-stage Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Nevertheless, exposure to high amounts of this agent should be approached with caution, especially since it has the potential to generate a shortage of glycine which, in turn, can negatively influence brain neurochemistry. We discuss here how a small fraction of the population might be rendered-either through their genes or a chronic medical condition-particularly susceptible to any adverse effects of sodium benzoate.

Effects of sodium benzoate on pre-pulse inhibition deficits and hyperlocomotion in mice after administration of phencyclidine

OBJECTIVE

A recent clinical study demonstrated that sodium benzoate (SB), a prototype competitive d-amino acid oxidase inhibitor, was effective in the treatment of several symptoms, such as positive and negative symptoms, and cognitive impairment in medicated patients with schizophrenia. The objective of the study was to examine the effects of SB on behavioural abnormalities such as pre-pulse inhibition (PPI) deficits and hyperlocomotion in mice after a single administration of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, phencyclidine (PCP).

METHODS

The effects of SB on behavioural abnormalities (PPI deficits and hyperlocomotion) in mice after PCP administration were examined. Furthermore, effects of SB on tissue levels of amino acids were also examined.

RESULTS

A single oral dose of SB (100, 300, or 1000 mg/kg) attenuated PPI deficits in mice after administration of PCP (3.0 mg/kg, s.c.) in a dose-dependent manner. In contrast, L-701,324 (10 mg/kg), an antagonist at the glycine site of the NMDA receptor, did not affect the effect of SB (1000 mg/kg) on PCP-induced PPI deficits. Furthermore, a single oral dose of SB (1000 mg/kg) significantly attenuated the hyperlocomotion in mice after administration of PCP (3.0 mg/kg, s.c.). However, a single oral dose of SB (1000 mg/kg) caused no changes to D-serine levels in plasma or in the frontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum of these animals.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that SB induced antipsychotic effects in the PCP model of schizophrenia, although it did not increase D-serine levels in the brain.

Pediatric drug formulation of sodium benzoate extended-release granules

Urea cycle disorders are a group of inherited orphan diseases leading to hyperammonemia. Current therapeutic strategy includes high doses of sodium benzoate leading to three or four oral intakes per day. As this drug is currently available in capsules or in solution, children are either unable to swallow the capsule or reluctant to take the drug due to its strong bitter taste. The objective of the present study was to develop solid, multiparticulate formulations of sodium benzoate, which are suitable for pediatric patients (i.e. flavor-masked, easy to swallow and with a dosing system). Drug layering and coating in a fluidized bed were applied for preparing sustained-release granules. Two types of inert cores (GalenIQ® and Suglets®) and three different polymers (Kollicoat®, Aquacoat® and Eudragit®) were tested in order to select the most appropriate polymer and starter core for our purpose. Physical characteristics and drug release profiles of the pellets were evaluated. A Suglets® core associated with a Kollicoat® coating seems to be the best combination for an extended release of sodium benzoate. A curing period of 8 h was necessary to complete film formation and the resulting drug release pattern was found to be dependent of the acidity of the release medium.

Case study for the evaluation of current treatment recommendations of guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency: ineffectiveness of sodium benzoate

BACKGROUND

Guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency is an autosomal recessively inherited disorder of creatine biosynthesis. We report a new patient with guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency and her >3-year treatment outcome.

PATIENT

This is a 6-year-old girl who was diagnosed with guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency at the age of 28 months. She presented with moderate global developmental delay, one afebrile seizure, and hypotonia between 6 and 18 months of life. She was treated with creatine and ornithine supplementation and a strict arginine-restricted diet for 42 months.

RESULTS

Mutation analysis (compound heterozygous mutations, a known c.327G>A and a novel c.58dupT [p.Trp20LeufsX65]) and enzyme studies in primary fibroblasts confirmed the diagnosis. After 33 months of therapy, her cerebrospinal fluid guanidinoacetate level decreased from 47 to 5.3 times the normal level. Brain creatine by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy increased by >75% but did not normalize in the basal ganglia and white matter after 3 years of therapy. Additional treatment with sodium benzoate for 17 months did not further improve plasma guanidinoacetate levels, which questions the relevance of this therapy.

CONCLUSION

Treatment did not improve moderate intellectual disability or normalize guanidinoacetate accumulation in the central nervous system.

Influence of temperature and preserving agents on the stability of cornelian cherries anthocyanins

Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L.) fruits are known for their significant amounts of anthocyanins which can be used as natural food colorants. The storage stability of anthocyanins from these fruit extracts, at different temperatures (2 °C, 25 °C and 75 °C), pH 3.02, in the presence of two of the most widely employed food preserving agents (sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate) was investigated. The highest stability was exhibited by the anthocyanin extract stored at 2 °C without any added preservative, with half-life and constant rate values of 1443.8 h and 0.48 × 10(-3) h(-1), respectively. The highest value of the degradation rate constant (82.76 × 10(-3)/h) was obtained in the case of anthocyanin extract stored at 75 °C without any added preservative. Experimental results indicate that the storage degradation of anthocyanins followed first-order reaction kinetics under each of the investigated conditions. In aqueous solution, the food preservatives used were found to have a slight influence on the anthocyanins' stability.

Benzoate, a D-amino acid oxidase inhibitor, for the treatment of early-phase Alzheimer disease: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-mediated neurotransmission is vital for learning and memory. Hypofunction of NMDAR has been reported to play a role in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer disease (AD), particularly in the early phase. Enhancing NMDAR activation might be a novel treatment approach. One of the methods to enhance NMDAR activity is to raise the levels of NMDA coagonists by blocking their metabolism. This study examined the efficacy and safety of sodium benzoate, a D-amino acid oxidase inhibitor, for the treatment of amnestic mild cognitive impairment and mild AD.

METHODS

We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in four major medical centers in Taiwan. Sixty patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment or mild AD were treated with 250-750 mg/day of sodium benzoate or placebo for 24 weeks. Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-cognitive subscale (the primary outcome) and global function (assessed by Clinician Interview Based Impression of Change plus Caregiver Input) were measured every 8 weeks. Additional cognition composite was measured at baseline and endpoint.

RESULTS

Sodium benzoate produced a better improvement than placebo in Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-cognitive subscale (p = .0021, .0116, and .0031 at week 16, week 24, and endpoint, respectively), additional cognition composite (p = .007 at endpoint) and Clinician Interview Based Impression of Change plus Caregiver Input (p = .015, .016, and .012 at week 16, week 24, and endpoint, respectively). Sodium benzoate was well-tolerated without evident side-effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Sodium benzoate substantially improved cognitive and overall functions in patients with early-phase AD. The preliminary results show promise for D-amino acid oxidase inhibition as a novel approach for early dementing processes.

Sodium benzoate-rich beverage consumption is associated with increased reporting of ADHD symptoms in college students: a pilot investigation

OBJECTIVE

Sodium benzoate, a common additive in popular beverages, has recently been linked to ADHD. This research examined the relationship between sodium benzoate-rich beverage ingestion and symptoms related to ADHD in college students.

METHOD

College students (N = 475) completed an anonymous survey in class in fall 2010. The survey assessed recent intake of a noninclusive list of sodium benzoate-rich beverages and ADHD-related symptoms using a validated screener.

RESULTS

Sodium benzoate-rich beverage intake was significantly associated with ADHD-related symptoms (p = .001), and significance was retained after controlling for covariates. Students scoring ≥4 on the screener (scores that may be consistent with ADHD; n = 67) reported higher intakes (34.9 ± 4.4 servings/month) than the remainder of the sample (16.7 ± 1.1 servings/month).

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that a high intake of sodium benzoate-rich beverages may contribute to ADHD-related symptoms in college students and warrants further investigation.