Mapping the scientific knowledge and approaches to defining and measuring hate crime, hate speech, and hate incidents: A systematic review

Background

The difficulties in defining hate crime, hate incidents and hate speech, and in finding a common conceptual basis constitute a key barrier toward operationalisation in research, policy and programming. Definitions disagree about issues such as the identities that should be protected, the types of behaviours that should be referred to as hateful, and how the 'hate element' should be assessed. The lack of solid conceptual foundations is reflected in the absence of sound data. These issues have been raised since the early 1990s (Berk, 1990; Byers & Venturelli, 1994) but they proved to be an intractable problem that continues to affect this research and policy domain.

Objectives

Our systematic review has two objectives that are fundamentally connected: mapping (1) original definitions and (2) original measurement tools of hate crime, hate speech, hate incidents and surrogate terms, that is, alternative terms used for these concepts (e.g., prejudice-motivated crime, bias crime, among many others).

Search Methods

We systematically searched over 19 databases to retrieve academic and grey literature, as well as legislation. In addition, we contacted 26 country experts and searched 211 websites, as well as bibliographies of published reviews of related literature, and scrutiny of annotated bibliographies of related literature.

Inclusion Criteria

This review included documents published after 1990 found in academic literature, grey literature and legislation. We included academic empirical articles with any study design, as well as theoretical articles that focused specifically on defining hate crime, hate speech, hate incidents or surrogate terms. We also reviewed current criminal or civil legislation that is intended to regulate forms of hate speech, hate incidents and hate crimes. Eligible countries included Canada, USA, UK, Ireland, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Australia and New Zealand. For documents to be included in relation to research objective (1), they had to contain at least one original definition of hate speech, hate incidents or hate crimes, or any surrogate term. For documents to be included in relation to research objective (2), they had to contain at least one original measurement tool of hate speech, hate incidents or hate crimes, or any surrogate term. Documents could be included in relation to both research objectives.

Data Collection and Analysis

The systematic search covered 1 January 1990 to 31 December 2021, with searches of academic databases conducted between 8th March and 12th April 2022 yielding 35,191 references. We carried out country-specific searches for grey literature published in the same time period between 27th August and 2nd December 2021. These searches yielded a total of 2748 results. We coded characteristics of the definitions and measurement tools, including the protected characteristics, the approaches to categorise the 'hate element' and other variables. We used univariate and bivariate statistical methods for data analysis. We also carried out a social network analysis.

Main Results

We provide as annex complete lists of the original definitions and measurement tools that met our inclusion criteria, for the use of researchers and policy makers worldwide. We included 423 definitions and 168 measurement tools in academic and grey literature, and 83 definitions found in legislation. To support future research and policy work in this area, we included a synthetic assessment of the (1) the operationalisability of each definition and (2) the theoretical robustness and transparency of each measurement tool. Our mapping of the definitions and measurement tools revealed numerous significant trends, clusters and differences between and within definitions and measurement tools focusing on hate crime, hate speech and hate incidents. For example, definitions and measurement tools tend to focus more on ethnic and religious identities (e.g., racism, antisemitism, Islamophobia) compared to sexual, gender and disability-related identities. This gap is greater in the definitions and measurement tools of hate speech than hate crime. Our analysis showed geographical patterns: hate crime definitions and measurement tools are more likely to originate from Anglophonic countries, especially the USA, but hate speech definitions and measurement tools are more likely to originate from continental Europe. In terms of disciplinary fragmentation, our social network analysis revealed that the collaboration and exchange of conceptual frameworks and methodological tools between social sciences and computer science is limited, with most definitions and measurement tools clustering along disciplinary lines. More detailed findings are presented in the results section of the report.

Authors' Conclusions

There is an urgent need to close the research and policy gap between the protections of 'ethnic and religious identities' and other (less) protected characteristics such as gender and sexual identities, age and disability. There is also an urgent need to improve the quality of methodological and reporting standards in research examining hate behaviours, including transparency in methodology and data reporting, and discussion of limitations (e.g., bias in data). Many of the measurement tools found in the academic literature were excluded because they did not report transparently how they collected and analysed the data. Further, 41% of documents presenting research on hate behaviours did not provide a definition of what they were looking at. Given the importance of this policy domain, it is vital to raise the quality and trustworthiness of research in this area. This review found that researchers in different disciplinary areas (e.g., social sciences and computer science) rarely collaborate. Future research should attempt to build on existing definitions and measurement tools (instead of duplicating efforts), and engage in more interdisciplinary collaborations. It is our hope that that this review can provide a solid foundation for researchers, government, and other bodies to build cumulative knowledge and collaboration in this important field.

A Systematic Literature Review of the Impact of COVID-19 on the Health of LGBTQIA+ Older Adults: Identification of Risk and Protective Health Factors and Development of a Model of Health and Disease

It is important to understand the differential impact of COVID-19 on the health of older lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, intersex, asexual, and people with other sexual orientations and forms of gender expression (LGBTQIA+). The objective of this study is to systematically review the impact of COVID-19 on LGBTQIA+ older adults' health including risk and protective factors. We reviewed a total of 167 records including LGBTQIA+ older adults published since 2019. Two independent reviewers screened titles and abstracts and extracted information of 21 full-text records meeting inclusion criteria using COVIDENCE software. The results show that the negative health consequences are exacerbated by personal risk (e.g., perceived homo/transphobia and ageism in LGBTQIA+ communities) and environmental factors (e.g., heterosexism within health services). The negative impact seems to be reduced by personal protective (e.g., resilience, spirituality, and hobbies) and environmental factors (e.g., technology use to increase social participation and social rituals). In conclusion, the health of LGBTQIA+ older adults has been disproportionately affected during the pandemic associated to the latest coronavirus (COVID-19). The experiences of LGBTQIA+ older adults during the pandemic are integrated in a Model of Health and Disease for LGBTQIA+ older adults. Specific strategies to promote health and well-being in this community are provided.

Non-affirmation minority stress, internalized transphobia, and subjective cognitive decline among transgender and gender diverse veterans aged 45 years and older

OBJECTIVES

To examine the associations of two measures of minority stress, non-affirmation minority stress and internalized transphobia, with subjective cognitive decline (SCD) among transgender and gender diverse (TGD) veterans.

METHOD

We administered a cross-sectional survey from September 2022 to July 2023 to TGD veterans. The final analytic sample included 3,152 TGD veterans aged ≥45 years. We used a generalized linear model with quasi-Poisson distribution to calculate prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) measuring the relationship between non-affirmation minority stress and internalized transphobia and past-year SCD.

RESULTS

The mean age was 61.3 years (SD = 9.7) and the majority (70%) identified as trans women or women. Overall, 27.2% (n = 857) reported SCD. Adjusted models revealed that TGD veterans who reported experiencing non-affirmation minority stress or internalized transphobia had greater risk of past-year SCD compared to those who did not report either stressor (aPR: 1.09, 95% CI: 1.04-1.15; aPR: 1.19, 95% CI: 1.12-1.27).

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrate that proximal and distal processes of stigma are associated with SCD among TGD veterans and underscore the need for addressing multiple types of discrimination. Above all, these results indicate the lasting sequelae of transphobia and need for systemic changes to prioritize the safety and welfare of TGD people.

Anticipated Stigma and Social Barriers to Communication Between Transgender Women Newly Diagnosed with HIV and Health Care Providers: A Mediation Analysis

Purpose: We assessed whether anticipated stigma (i.e., fear of public mistreatment due to gender identity) impacts communication between transgender women (TGW) living with HIV and health care providers. Methods: This is a secondary analysis of baseline data from Trans Amigas, a study conducted in Brazil, 2018. The study population consisted of TGW living with HIV, older than 18 years, residing in the São Paulo metropolitan area. We used multivariable logistic regression (α = 0.05), mediation, and bootstrapping for the analysis. Results: One hundred and thirteen participants completed the study. Fear of public mistreatment had an adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of 7.42 (p = 0.003) for difficulty reporting new symptoms to providers. Concerning fear of public mistreatment, we found that unemployment had an aOR of 3.62 (p = 0.036); sex work, an aOR of 2.95 (p = 0.041); and issues related to name change in documents, an aOR of 2.71 (p = 0.033). For the indirect effect on difficulty reporting new symptoms, mediated by fear of public mistreatment, unemployment had an aOR of 1.52 (confidence interval [CI] = 0.88-2.24); sex work, an aOR of 1.48 (CI = 0.81-2.52); and name change issues, an aOR of 1.47 (CI = 0.96-2.43). Conclusions: Anticipated stigma was associated with communication difficulties between TGW living with HIV and providers. Our data suggest that structural factors associated with anticipated stigma could indirectly impact on difficulty reporting new symptoms. These findings indicate the importance of considering social contexts that intersect with individual experiences when analyzing communication barriers between providers and patients, and the need to strengthen social policies for TGW in Brazil. Clinical Trial Registration number: R34MH112177.

What Underlies the Opposition to Trans-Inclusive Policies? The Role of Concerns About Male Violence Versus Attitudes Toward Trans People

Transgender women's access to women-only spaces is controversial. Arguments against trans-inclusive policies often focus on cisgender women's safety from male violence, despite little evidence to suggest that such policies put cisgender women at risk. Across seven studies using U.S. and U.K. participants (N = 3,864), we investigate whether concerns about male violence versus attitudes toward trans people are a better predictor of support for trans-inclusive policies and whether these factors align with the reasons given by opponents and supporters regarding their policy views. We find that opponents of these policies do not accurately report their reasons for opposition: Specifically, while opponents claim that concerns about male violence are the primary reason driving their opposition, attitudes toward transgender people more strongly predicted policy views. These results highlight the limitations of focusing on overt discourse and emphasize the importance of investigating psychological mechanisms underlying policy support.

An Examination of Predictors of Prejudice Against Transgender Individuals

We examined associations between prejudice toward transgender people, aggression proneness, history of family violence, contact and closeness with transgender people, and education about issues that impact transgender individuals. We also examined the moderating effects of contact, education, and closeness on the relations between aggression and history of family violence with prejudice. There were 360 participants (M age = 31.34, SD = 12.47, range 18-75) who completed the survey online. Participants were recruited through social media, websites, and MTurk. Higher levels of aggression proneness were related to higher levels of prejudice. Higher levels of education about issues that impact transgender people and prior contact with a transgender person were associated with less prejudice. In a multiple regression analysis, the strongest predictor of prejudice was education about transgender people and topics. Moderation analyses revealed that prior contact may buffer the effects of aggression proneness on prejudiced beliefs.

Normalising intolerance: the efforts of Christian Right groups to block LGBTIQ+ inclusion in South African schools

Post-apartheid, South Africa has come a long way in making the inclusion of gender and sexuality equality explicit in its Constitution. To make schools more inclusive for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer (LGBTIQ+) identifying learners, the Department of Basic Education has developed what it claims are South Africa's first guidelines regarding sexual orientation, gender identity and sex characteristics (SOGIESC). Despite the emphasis on equality in South Africa's post-apartheid policies, which set out to protect the rights of LGBTIQ+ individuals, there has been a backlash from conservative advocacy groups, many with links to the US Christian Right. This paper argues that contrary to the disinformation being propagated by anti-LGBTIQ + groups, it is queer and transgender individuals who experience extreme levels of violence and marginalisation in schools. The empirical research makes explicit the bullying and exclusion that transgender and gender-diverse youth experience in school; however, this evidence is neglected in conservative claims that SOGIESC (SOGIESC) guidelines and Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE) endanger other learners. Notably, and in stark contrast to those advocating for measures to make schools safer for LGBTIQ + learners, far-right advocacy groups have no empirical basis to support their claims.

Cultural Competence and Social Work: Sexual and Gender Diversity in Two Universities in the South of Europe

This study aims to analyze cultural competence through the knowledge and attitudes regarding LGBT people held by the students of social work at two universities in southern Spain (N = 512). An ex post facto correlational study has been conducted. The Sex Education and Knowledge about Homosexuality Questionnaire, the Modern Homonegativity Scale and the Negative Attitudes toward Transgender People Scale have been applied to gather information. Data analysis was carried out using frequencies, descriptive statistics, correlations and inferential statistics. The findings show that men, religious, and politically conservative people reported higher levels of homonegative and transphobic attitudes than women, non-religious and politically more liberal people. There is also a lack of specific knowledge on the reality of and specific legislation regarding LGBT people. There is a need to continue to examine and to progress in the training of future social workers in cultural competence, incorporating the contributions of feminist theory.

Pride & prejudice: A scoping review of LGBTQ + medical trainee experiences

PURPOSE

LGBTQ + medical trainees experience significant discrimination. These individuals are stigmatized within a hetero- and cis-normative system, resulting in poorer outcomes in mental health and increased stress regarding career trajectory compared with their hetero- and cis-identifying counterparts. However, literature on the barriers experienced during medical training in this marginalized group is limited to small heterogeneous studies. This scoping review collates and explores prominent themes in existing literature on the personal and professional outcomes of LGBTQ + medical trainees.

METHODS

We searched five library databases (SCOPUS, Ovid-Medline, ERIC, PsycINFO and EMBASE) for studies that investigated LGBTQ + medical trainees' academic, personal, or professional outcomes. Screening and full text review were performed in duplicate, and all authors participated in thematic analysis to determine emerging themes, which were iteratively reviewed to consensus.

RESULTS

From 1809 records, 45 met inclusion criteria (κ = 0.57). Major themes that emerged in the literature included the prevalence of discrimination and mistreatment faced by LGBTQ + medical trainees from colleagues and superiors, concerns regarding disclosure of sexual and/or gender minority identity, and overall negative impacts on mental health including higher rates of depression, substance use, and suicidal ideation. There was a noted lack of inclusivity in medical education and having an LGBTQ + identity had a large impact on career trajectory. Community with peers and mentors was an important determinant of success and belonging. There was a noteworthy lack of research on intersectionality or positive interventions that improved outcomes for this population.

CONCLUSION

This scoping review highlighted important barriers facing LGBTQ + medical trainees, identifying substantial gaps in the existing literature. Research on supportive interventions and predictors of training success is lacking and will be important to foster an inclusive education system. These findings provide critical insights for education leaders and researchers to help create and evaluate inclusive and empowering environments for trainees.

Transgender and Gender Diverse People's Fear of Seeking and Receiving Care in Later Life: A Multiple Method Analysis

The purpose of the current research is to understand concerns about receiving care in a sample of transgender, gender nonbinary, and gender diverse (TGD) adults across the lifespan. A total of 829 participants, predominantly from the United States and Canada, aged 18-70, completed the Trans Metlife Survey on Later-Life Preparedness and Perceptions in Transgender-Identified Individuals (TMLS) section on caregiving and are included in this study. We found middle-aged adults, people of Color, and people living with a disability reported the highest level of concern for their ability to function independently because of financial resources, physical concerns, cognitive impairment, or a lack of someone to care for them. Researchers found five overarching thematic categories: (a) No concerns, (b) Anticipated discrimination, (c) Loss of control, (d) Quality of life, and (e) General concerns. Practice implications include recommendations for practitioners to develop care plans with TGD residents and clients to learn the best strategies for affirming their gender identity (e.g., clothing preferences) and to assist TGD residents and clients with the completion of advance directives to allow them to outline their end-of-life care plan, including instructions for gender affirmative care in the event of incapacitation (e.g., dementia, stroke).

Violence Against LGBTIQ+ People at Universities: The Need to Uncover a Silent Reality

Violence against LGBT community can manifest in different forms and exists in all spheres of society, including education. The main purpose of this article is to deepen the understanding of the state of the art about violence grounded in sexual orientation or gender identity in higher education in order to identify gaps for further research. The topic of this state-of-the-art literature review is the presence and magnitude of these forms of violence in the Spanish higher education system. For this reason, the inclusion criteria were empirical studies about the prevalence of violence against LGBTIQ+ individuals in the Spanish educational system. After analyzing the 25 articles that met the inclusion criteria, the main findings point that despite the existence of numerous international studies of the presence of violence against LGBTIQ+ people at colleges, little is known about this reality in Spain. The Spanish university system continues to remain hermetic, and violence against LGBTIQ+ people is silenced and hidden. Practice, policy and research implications of the findings are discussed in this article, highlighting the need of further research in this field. In this context, the research project Uni4Freedom, addresses this social and educational problem to contribute to the creation of safer universities for the LGBTIQ+ community and people who support them.

Palimpsests of trans rights: trans-positive stickers and the contestations of transphobia in public space

In recent years, the rights of trans people in the United Kingdom and elsewhere have been increasingly under scrutiny. This paper considers forms of resistance to Trans Exclusionary Radical Feminism (TERF) and neo-fascist gender conservative movements in Edinburgh, Scotland through an analysis of trans-positive stickers in public space. Using an archive of 461 images of trans-rights-related stickers photographed in Edinburgh between August 2018 and May 2022, we explore how trans-positive activism is publicly (en)countering transphobic politics and discourses. Our analysis begins by examining palimpsests of conflict, or the layerings of trans-positive and transphobic stickers - removed, written on, or covered up - in the materiality of public space. We then turn to the transformative potential of stickers as materials of resistance, arguing that trans-positive stickers can undermine transnormative, TERF and neo-fascist gender conservative ideologies and political tactics. Stickers offer public expressions of allyship, communicate political solidarity across social justice movements and marginalised communities, and also provide representations of non-normative trans identities and embodiments. Through this analysis, we present the political potential of stickers as important materials of public resistance that intervene in transphobic political and cultural discourses to produce trans-affirming encounters in public space.

Tradeoffs, Constraints, and Strategies in Transgender and Nonbinary Young Adults' Romantic Relationships: The Identity Needs in Relationships Framework

Prior research suggests that prejudice and structural disadvantage (e.g., cissexism, racism, sexism) put transgender and nonbinary (TNB) young adults at risk for adverse romantic relationship experiences, yet supportive romantic relationships may help TNB young adults cope with these stressors and promote their psychological wellbeing. Accordingly, there is a need to better understand how TNB young adults navigate romantic relationships in the context of prejudice and structural disadvantage. To address this topic, we analyzed in-depth interviews with TNB young adults (18-30 years; N=30) using template-style thematic analysis, guided by intersectionality as an analytical framework. Our analysis resulted in three themes. Theme 1 describes how prejudice and structural disadvantage constrained the strategies that TNB young adults used to pursue fulfilling romantic relationships (e.g., leaving adverse relationships). Theme 2 addresses the tradeoffs that some participants faced in their romantic relationships, including tradeoffs between psychological needs related to their social identities (e.g., gender identity affirmation) and general psychological needs (e.g., intimacy). Theme 3 highlights individual and contextual factors (e.g., lessons from prior romantic relationships) that helped participants build fulfilling romantic relationship. These themes form the basis for the Identity Needs in Relationships Framework, a new conceptual framework addressing how TNB young adults navigate romantic relationships in the context of prejudice and structural disadvantage. The framework offers an explanation for why some TNB young adults maintain romantic relationships that seem to undermine their wellbeing, and it draws attention to strategies and resources that may help TNB young adults form fulfilling romantic relationships despite the prejudice and structural disadvantage they face.

"As a Trans Person You Don't Live. You Merely Try to Survive and Apologize Every Day for Who You Are" - Discrimination Experiences Among Trans Individuals in Greece"

This qualitative study sheds light on an issue very little research has been conducted on so far, the discrimination trans people in Greece are subjected to every day. The findings presented in this paper are part of a larger study focusing on trans persons' life experiences in contemporary Greece. Eleven participants identified various discrimination areas, employment, education, family, romantic relationships and daily life; participants also pointed out specific measures that would contribute to the improvement of their life. Findings are discussed in relation to measures toward eliminating discrimination against trans persons such as the improvement of gender recognition legislation, an increase in general education regarding gender identity issues and the need for transgender-focused research.

Disclosure Experiences for Transgender and Nonbinary Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence

While transgender individuals experience high rates of intimate partner violence (IPV), current gendered and heteronormative depictions of IPV in society may create unique barriers for transgender survivors who attempt to disclose their abuse, thus leaving survivors without access to support resources. This study sought to understand the barriers to disclosure transgender survivors face and how they overcome these barriers. Through in-depth interviews with transgender IPV survivors (n = 9), the researcher found that experiences of IPV were often inseparable from survivors' experiences of their gender identity. Both external and internalized transphobia served as barriers which framed how participants viewed their abuse and who they disclosed their abuse to. Conversely, transgender-affirming support helped participants overcome these barriers. These barriers and aids also took different forms and meanings based upon other intersecting identities, such as gender and ability status. Implications for researchers and service providers, as well as directions for future research are reviewed.

Attitudes towards Trans Men and Women in Spain: An Adaptation of the ATTMW Scale

This article presents the results of the adaptation and validation of the Attitudes Toward Trans Men and Women (ATTMW) scale-a measure capable of detecting transphobic positions towards trans men and women-in the Spanish context. A total of 310 prospective teachers from different stages of education participated in the study on its adaptation. In order to provide quantitative evidence of validity, confirmatory factor analysis and regression analysis with different constructs and sociodemographic variables were carried out. Internal consistency reliability was adequate. The study demonstrated that the ATTMW is a psychometrically sound instrument for the assessment of attitudes towards trans people, especially with items that categorize trans women and men as second-class people.

Sissy Dance $1: The More and More of Gender

In a scholarly yet playful conversation, the authors explore why analytic thought about trans remains so intransigently difficult. They propose that countertansferential responses to trans patients manifest not just in clinical work but also as blockages to psychoanalytic theorizing. They draw on extensive experience treating trans and non-binary patients, on teaching and supervisory work, and on analytic scholarship to think about why and how theorizing on trans stalls. Whereas in the social realm trans bodies are often hyper-sexualized, in metapsychology and the consulting room trans is notably desexualized. What is the cost of that and why does it occur? The authors locate the problem in the disaggregation of gender from the sexual, arguing that not only has this separation outlived its (once exigent) metapsychological utility, but that it is itself a defense against the anxiety of polymorphous perversity and psychic bisexuality that trans bodies can awaken in analysts of all genders, and especially in cisgender analysts.

"Words Aren't Supposed to Hurt, But They Do": Sexual and Gender Minority Youth's Bullying Experiences

Sexual and gender minority youth (SGMY) are more likely to experience bullying and violence compared to the youth who do not identify as SGMY, leading to increased risk of poor mental and physical health outcomes, and poor academic performance. Few studies explore the entire range of bullying experienced by sexual and gender minority youth (SGMY). The purpose of this study was to qualitatively describe the ways in which SGMY experience bullying victimization. We conducted semi-structured interviews with a diverse sample of 20 SGMY aged 14-18 years (median age 16 years) recruited from online social media. The sample included 10 participants who identified as cisgender girls, 4 who identified as cisgender boys, 2 who identified as transgender, and 4 who identified as another gender identity. Ten participants identified as bisexual, six identified as lesbian, and four identified as gay. Findings indicated six common experiences of bullying among the participants: (a) verbal harassment; (b) gender policing; (c) physical violence; (d) sexual harassment; (e) treated as sexual perpetrators and deviants; and (f) and social exclusion. SGMY described how bullying victimization ranged from overt to concealed attitudes and behaviors, and they articulated how several forms of bullying are likely not experienced by heterosexual and cisgender youth. These results support findings from prior qualitative studies and suggest that efforts to address school-based bullying may benefit from a more complete awareness of the range of bullying victimization experienced by SGMY. Development of multi-item scales of bullying that reflect the six common experiences of bullying presented in this study would allow researchers to quantitatively explore the range of bullying behaviors experienced by SGMY, and would aid in the conceptualization and successful implementation of anti-bullying interventions.

What Happens When a Trans Patient Happens

Transphobia, now emerging as a limit to the analytic attitude, requires the kind of psychoanalytic investigation that continues in response to misogyny, homophobia, and biphobia, as they figure in both clinical practice and theory building. Without a psychoanalytic investigation into the dynamics of transphobia in psychoanalysis, efforts to conceptualize trans subjects in an analytically open and neutral manner must falter. An exploration of the author's own efforts to overcome transphobic bias, as well as an analysis of transphobic dynamics in a well-known case in the literature, show some of the challenges that arise when attempts at thinking psychoanalytically get caught up in conscious and unconscious forms of transphobia.

Intimate Partner Violence Help-Seeking in the U.S. Transgender Survey

Research finds that transgender survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) often face transphobia-related barriers to reaching help. Due partially to a dearth of larger datasets supporting multivariate analyses, it is unclear whether sociodemographic factors can further hinder transgender help-seeking. Addressing these gaps, logistic regression secondary data analyses were conducted with 15,198 transgender IPV survivors from the nationally-representative 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. Odds of seeking help from survivor agencies were significantly greater for survivors who are trans men, assigned-female-at-birth genderqueer, Alaska Native or American Indian, poorer, transphobia victims, and victims of any IPV type, especially controlling IPV. In addition, odds of not seeking help due fearing transphobic responses were significantly greater for survivors who are trans women, asexual or bisexual, poorer, younger, undocumented, childless, ever homeless, transphobia victims, or victims of any IPV type, particularly sexual IPV. Implications for future research and population-specific service provision are discussed.

The Binary Order of Things: A Discursive Study of Nursing Students' Talk on Providing, and Learning About, LGBT Patient Care

Against the backdrop of the healthcare inequities and maltreatment facing LGBT patients, recommendations have been made for the inclusion of LGBT health topics in nursing curricula. Based on data collected in focus group discussions with South African nursing students, we complicate the assumption that training focused on health-specific knowledge will effectively reform providers' prejudicial practices. Findings reveal ambivalence: silence and discrimination versus inclusive humanism. Participants drew on discourses of ignorance, religion, and egalitarian treatment to justify their inadequacy regarding LGBT patients; while doing so, however, they deployed othering discourses in which homophobic and transphobic disregard is rendered acceptable, and "scientifically" supported through binary, deterministic views of sexuality and gender. Such "expert" views accord with Foucault's notion of "grotesque discourse." We conclude with a discussion of the findings' implications for nursing education; we call for the recognition and teaching of binary ideology as a form of discursive violence over LGBT lives.

The Adaptation and Validation of the Trans Attitudes and Beliefs Scale to the Spanish Context

This article examines the reliability and validity of the adaptation of the Trans Attitudes and Beliefs Scale (TABS), an instrument capable of detecting transphobic positions, to the Spanish context. A total of 829 psychology students participated in the adaptation procedure. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed to study the fit of the new scale to the factor structure of the original scale (interpersonal comfort, gender identity beliefs, and human value). Convergent validity evidence showed significant correlations and predictive levels with different constructs and sociodemographic variables. The internal consistency of the mean scores was adequate at the global level. The study showed that the TABS is a psychometrically sound instrument for the assessment of attitudes toward trans people, particularly in the context of debates over access to rights and the lack of professional training in disciplines such as psychology.

Attitudes toward Transsexuality, Empathy, and Bullying in Young Population

Affective-sexual and gender diversity is an increasingly distinctive and extended reality and should be acknowledged and respected. From a psychosocial and educational point of view, it is appropriate to review young people’s attitudes and knowledge regarding this, relating them to aspects such as empathy, violence, or bullying, to implement quality education in the early stages of primary education. The main objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between empathy levels, attitudes toward transsexuality, and bullying among Spanish university students. The sample consisted of 247 students. Instruments were administered to evaluate negative attitudes toward transsexual people, gender ideology, transphobia, bullying, and empathy. Inverse relationships were found between transphobia and empathy. Regression analysis demonstrated the predictive ability of empathy on attitudes toward transsexual people. The results of this study are expected to increase awareness in society and encourage appropriate, satisfactory, or tolerable coexistence, in which all individuals can be free to live and express themselves. While the results indicated that the quality of life of transgender people has comparatively improved, there is still a long way to go.

Context, Types, and Consequences of Violence Across the Life Course: A Qualitative Study of the Lived Experiences of Transgender Women Living With HIV

Violence is a known driver of HIV vulnerability among transgender (trans) women, who are disproportionately impacted by HIV globally. Violence is also a barrier to accessing HIV prevention, treatment, and support. Yet, little is known about the everyday experiences of violence faced by trans women living with HIV, who live at the intersection of a marginalized gender identity and physical health condition. To address this gap, this study draws on semi-structured, individual interviews conducted 2017-2018 with a purposive sample (selected based on diverse identities) of trans women living with HIV (n = 11) participating in a large, community-based cohort study in three Canadian provinces. Framework analysis was used to identify key themes, patterns within themes between participants, and patterns across themes among participants. Findings showed that trans women living with HIV experience specific contexts of violence shaped at the intersection of stigma based on gender identity, gender expression, and HIV status, among other identities/experiences. Violence experienced in childhood (e.g., familial rejection, bullying) increased trans women's likelihood of being exposed to a violent social context in young adulthood (e.g., state violence perpetuated by the police, interpersonal violence perpetuated by sexual partners, and community violence perpetuated by society-at-large/the general public), which increased trans women's HIV vulnerability; once living with HIV trans women were subjected to discursive violence from healthcare providers. These multiple forms of violence have serious consequences for trans women living with HIV's ongoing social, mental, and physical well-being. The findings suggest that interventions are urgently needed to reduce violence against trans women in childhood and young adulthood, in addition to reducing violence against trans women living with HIV perpetuated by healthcare providers in adulthood, to both proactively and responsively promote their safety, health, and well-being.

Countertransference Madness: Supervision, Trans∗, and the Sexual

Drawing on Ferenczi's "confusion of tongues" paradigm, the author argues that the internalization of the supervisor's superego has the potential not only to expand the supervisee's ego (introjection), but also to repress their idiosyncratic functions and attack their thinking activity (intropression). To illustrate this argument, the author recounts his own supervised treatment of a transgender patient during which the supervisor-supervisee transference lapsed into a sadomasochistic dialectic and a folie à deux, leading to the premature termination of both the therapy and the supervision. While the initial interpretation of this experience underscored the supervisor's transphobia, the après-coup of writing up the case has revealed more complex thinking. Accordingly, the countertransference madness to which the author succumbed with his supervisor can now be understood as the unbinding of repressed infantile sexuality and the reenactment of paradoxical scenarios that the patient experienced with his parents.

Experiences of Transgender Participants in Emergency Departments: Findings from the OutLook Study

Purpose: Even in cases of medical emergency, mistreatment and negative experiences in life or in medical settings can deter trans patients from seeking necessary care. The purpose of this study was to identify factors associated with trans persons' emergency department (ED) avoidance in the mixed urban-rural Region of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Methods: The OutLook Study was a community-based partnership that created an online, cross-sectional questionnaire for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and other sexual and gender minority community members. Participants in this analysis were 16 years of age or older, lived, worked, or attended school in Waterloo Region, and identified as trans (n=112). Binary logistic regression was used to test associations between sociodemographic, resilience, and risk variables, and ED avoidance. Sociodemographic variables statistically significant at p<0.05 at the bivariate level were included as controls to explore different combinations of resilience and risk factor in multivariable models. Results: Participants reporting complete or partially complete medical transitions were more likely to report ED avoidance, compared to those who had not initiated medical transition. Elevated transphobia was associated with greater likelihood of avoidance. However, increasing levels of social support decreased the likelihood of avoidance. In multivariable models, social support, support from a special person, and transphobia were always significant, regardless of controlled variables. Conclusion: Transphobia-enacted in the contexts of everyday life and health care-can deter patients from seeking care. Patient-centered care requires careful attention to trans identity and health needs, especially in emergency settings. In the absence of structural changes, providers can take steps to mitigate the erasure and discrimination trans patients experience and anticipate when accessing EDs.

"It's Not in Your Head": Gaslighting, 'Splaining, Victim Blaming, and Other Harmful Reactions to Microaggressions

Secondary microaggressions refer to the ways in which people of historically dominant groups negate the realities of people of marginalized groups. Gaslighting describes the act of manipulating others to doubt themselves or question their own sanity; people confronted for committing microaggressions deny the existence of their biases, often convincing the targets of microaggressions to question their own perceptions. 'Splaining (derived from mansplaining/Whitesplaining) is an act in which a person of a dominant group speaks for or provides rationale to people of marginalized groups about topics related to oppression or inequity. Victim blaming refers to assigning fault to people who experience violence or wrongdoing and is used as a tool to discredit people of marginalized groups who speak out against microaggressions or any injustices. Finally, abandonment and neglect refer to a bystander's failure to address or acknowledge microaggressions. Although these terms are commonly known among marginalized communities (and frequently used in popular media), there is a dearth in academic literature that substantiates these phenomena and relates them to microaggressions. The purpose of this article is to review these concepts in the psychological literature and to demonstrate the psychological harm caused by these behaviors on interpersonal and systemic levels.

"They Don't Think Like Us": Exploring Attitudes of Non-Transgender Students Toward Transgender People Using Discourse Analysis

Literature concerned with attitudes toward transgender (TG) individuals has been found to be lacking. Predominant research is quantitative and the few qualitative studies either investigated TG experience or attitudes of those with personal experience of TG people.This study investigated this topic using a qualitative approach employing semi-structured interviews exploring beliefs, understanding, and experience of TG people. Foucauldian Discourse Analysis was used to analyze the language used to construct a "transgender" discourse. Participants were cisgender, heterosexual, female participants from Black and ethnic minority backgrounds (n = 6).Prevalent discourses were; "Heteronormativity as a Benchmark," "The Ease of Disclosure'" and "Actualising the Other." Participants consistently drew on discourse that constructed TG as "other." Findings indicate a need to attend to context, as well as content, when exploring attitudes and that covert forms of prejudice need to be addressed and could inform anti-prejudice interventions and the creation of future transphobia measurements.

Legislation restricting access to public restrooms and changing facilities for transgender individuals in Texas (US): A qualitative analysis of testimony

An alarming amount of legislation in the United States has sought to restrict the rights of transgender people, often targeting access to public spaces or restrooms. One example of this legislation is the Texas Privacy Act (Senate Bill 6; 2017), which detailed "regulations and policies for entering or using a bathroom or changing facility" (Texas Legislature Online).Aims: The hearing for SB 6 included over 18 hours of public testimony, which we analyzed to better understand arguments for and against this bill.Methods: We conducted a thematic analysis of this public testimony.Results: Supporters of SB 6 frequently framed their arguments in terms of safety and security, economic impact, and privacy and dignity. Those opposing SB 6 focused on discrimination, safety and security, and the effects of transgender people being forced into the wrong facilities.Discussion: These findings can aid in understanding education that may help to combat viewpoints that lead to passing such legislation and contributes to understanding how legal policies shape views of gender.

The Role of Masculinity Threat in Homonegativity and Transphobia

According to the precarious manhood perspective, masculinity threat triggers various compensatory mechanisms and heightens motivation to restore and reaffirm masculinity via typically masculine attitudes and behaviors. Four experiments aiming to examine the effect of masculinity threat on prejudices toward sexual and gender minorities were undertaken, controlling for adherence to sex role stereotypes. Our studies showed that Polish men representing university and high school students exposed to gender threat experienced increased negative affect (Experiment 1) and expressed higher prejudices toward gay people (Experiment 2) and transgender individuals (Experiments 3a and 3b). Furthermore, Experiment 2 revealed an effect of masculinity threat on modern prejudices predominantly toward gay people but not old-fashioned homonegativity. The results are discussed in terms of the role of masculinity threat as the mechanism responsible for gender differences in the attitudes toward sexual and gender minorities.

On the theory of mental representation block. a novel perspective on learning and behavior

Understanding the mechanisms behind memory, learning, and behavior is crucial to human development and significant research has been done in this area. Classical and operant conditioning and other theories of learning have elucidated different mechanisms of learning and how it modulates behavior. Even with advances in this area, questions remain on how to unlearn faulty ideas or extinguish maladaptive behaviors. In this paper, a novel theory to improve our understanding of this area is proposed. The theory proposes that as a consequence of the brain's energy efficiency evolutionary adaptations, all learning following memory consolidation, reconsolidation, and repeated reinforcements or strengthening over time, results in a phenomenon called mental representation block. The implications of this block on learning and behavior are significant and broad and include cognitive biases, belief in a creator or God, close-mindedness, dogmatism, physician misdiagnosis, racism, homophobia, and transphobia, susceptibility to deception and indoctrination, hate and love, artificial intelligence and creativity.

Measuring Explicit Prejudice and Transphobia in Nursing Students and Professionals

Trans* people frequently report attitudes of prejudice/transphobia in health professionals. Conversely, health professionals indicate the lack of adequate training to care for these people and its impact on the quality of care provided.

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to evaluate the explicit prejudices/transphobia of health students and professionals and compare them with the general population in Tenerife.

METHODS

A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out with the Genderism and Transphobia Scale (GTS) and the Negative Attitude towards Trans* people Scale (EANT) with a total of 602 participants.

RESULTS

We found a low mean level of explicit prejudice/transphobia, with little/no differences between occupation groups. Explicit transphobia was correlated with being a man, less educated, and heterosexual, and not personally knowing a trans* person. Men and women were less transphobic about trans* people whose identities coincided with their own.

CONCLUSION

All participants showed a low mean level of explicit transphobia. This result is not incompatible with unconscious prejudice, which may translate to discriminatory behaviors. Interventions to change negative attitudes are still needed, since even a small percentage of transphobic health professionals could exert a considerable negative impact on health care. In professionals without transphobic attitudes, the barriers identified by trans* people might be a problem due to the lack of specific training.

Implicit Transgender Attitudes Independently Predict Beliefs About Gender and Transgender People

Surprisingly little is known about transgender attitudes, partly due to a need for improved measures of beliefs about transgender people. Four studies introduce a novel Implicit Association Test (IAT) assessing implicit attitudes toward transgender people. Study 1 (N = 294) found significant implicit and explicit preferences for cisgender over transgender people, both of which correlated with transphobia and transgender-related policy support. Study 2 (N = 1,094) found that implicit transgender attitudes predicted similar outcomes among participants reporting no explicit preference for cisgender versus transgender people. Across Study 3a (N = 5,647) and Study 3b (N = 2,276), implicit transgender attitudes predicted multiple outcomes, including gender essentialism, contact with transgender people, and support for transgender-related policies, over and above explicit attitudes. This work introduces a reliable means of measuring implicit transgender attitudes and illustrates how these attitudes independently predict meaningful beliefs and experiences.

Narratives of transphobic violence in the Mexican province of Colima: A psychosocial analysis

BACKGROUND

Mexico has the second-highest index of crimes motivated by transphobia in the world. Transphobic violence manifests in a pervasive and complex manner in a country where violence permeates all aspects of social life. Some progress has been made to improve transgender rights and fight discrimination, but this has had an unequal impact in different geopolitical and cultural contexts within the country, particularly outside of metropolitan centers.

AIM

The study explores how transphobia is experienced in the conservative province of Colima and how transphobic practices play a part in shaping transgender subjective experience and identity construction. A psychosocial theoretical framework is adopted to attend to the relationship between cultural, institutional and interpersonal practices in this process.

METHODS

A qualitative approach is used to explore how different forms of transphobic violence are experienced by trans women in Colima. A purposive sample of 12 trans women, aged 22-38 years took part in narrative interviews which were analyzed thematically. Findings: The analysis is organized into three themes: (a) narratives of gender identity construction (b) gender expression and experiences of transphobic violence in Colima (c) sites for social support and change.

DISCUSSION

We argue that the psychosocial processes related to transphobia are context-specific shaping transgender identities and limiting and regulating gender expression. Family, education, LGBT community and the police were identified as key sites for support against or source of transphobic violence.

CONCLUSION

Despite the challenging socio-political context interventions are needed in policy and institutional practices to tackle stigma, transphobia and, trans-misogyny and improve the lives of transgender people living in regional areas in the global south.

Transgender population's experiences with regard to accessing reproductive health care in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa: A qualitative study

Background

The transgender population has unique health risks, including increased risk of mental illness, substance abuse, suicide and a high prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Worldwide studies indicate that this population is marginalised and faces barriers in accessing health care. In South Africa, there is limited information and research on the transgender population’s interaction with health services.

Aim

The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of the transgender population in accessing health care facilities for sexual and reproductive needs.

Setting

The study took place in KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa.

Methods

A qualitative study combining phenomenological and critical ethnographic approaches was conducted to explore the experiences of the transgender population in the health care setting. Critical ethnography was chosen because it is an emancipatory method that highlights the plight of disenfranchised groups, and phenomenology was used to illuminate experiences of the transgender population. Purposive snowball sampling was applied to select nine transgender participants who had experiences of contact with a health care setting. Data collection was performed through semi-structured interviews and a focus group discussion.

Results

Participants provided details about the paucity of facilities, resources and targeted programmes to cater for the transgender populations’ sexual and reproductive health needs. The participants engage in high-risk behaviour, comprising unprotected sex and use of cross-gender hormones without medical supervision. Furthermore, the participants reported experiences of hostile and discriminatory behaviour by healthcare workers.

Conclusion

It emerged that there is a paucity of resources and knowledge to provide appropriate health care services to the transgender population, resulting in adverse experiences. Policies on transgender care and training of health workers will contribute towards improvement of health care access for the transgender population.

Measuring LGBTQ Microaggressions: The Sexual Orientation Microaggressions Scale (SOMS) and the Gender Identity Microaggressions Scale (GIMS)

Microaggressions are brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, intentional or unintentional, that demonstrate bias toward members of historically marginalized groups. While numerous quantitative studies on racial microaggressions have emerged in recent years, studies on sexual orientation and gender identity microaggressions have been mostly qualitative-likely due to limited measures of anti-LGBTQ microaggressions. In this three-part study, the Sexual Orientation Microaggressions Scale (SOMS) and the Gender Identity Microaggressions Scale (GIMS) are introduced to empirically explore the multifaceted experiences of microaggressions toward lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer (LGBQ) people and transgender and gender nonconforming (TGNC) people. In Study 1 (N = 260), a principal components analysis yielded a five-factor structure of sexual orientation microaggressions; in Study 2, a new sample (N = 140) is used to confirm the utility of the SOMS. In Study 3, the GIMS is piloted with a sample of TGNC participants (N = 160). Implications for future studies are discussed.

A Decade of Microaggression Research and LGBTQ Communities: An Introduction to the Special Issue

Though the Supreme Court of the U.S. legalized same-sex marriage in 2015, heterosexism and transphobia has continued to manifest through many systems in the US - from lack of federal protection in employment non-discrimination laws to polices that prohibit transgender people from using bathroom and public facilities that match their gender identities. Heterosexist and transphobic discrimination have also persisted through interpersonal interactions - ranging from more overt forms (e.g., hate crimes, bullying) to more subtle forms of discrimination, otherwise known as microaggressions. Since 2008, there have been hundreds of articles written on microaggressions, with dozens focusing specifically on experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) people. Qualitative and quantitative studies have revealed that LGBTQ people who experience microaggressions have reported negative outcomes like depression, low self-esteem, and trauma. This special issue aims to further Microaggression Theory by providing theoretical and empirical papers that focus on the manifestation and impact of microaggressions on LGBTQ people. Using an interdisciplinary approach, articles range in topic from intersectional identities, to health and psychological outcomes, to advancing research methods. Future studies regarding microaggressions and LGBTQ people are discussed- highlighting the influence of the changing landscape of heterosexism and transphobia within general society, as well as new dynamics that have formed and developed within LGBTQ communities.

Queer ethics and fostering positive mindsets toward non-binary gender, genderqueer, and gender ambiguity

Background: Alongside the growth in visibility of gender identities and presentations such as genderqueer, non-binary and gender neutral, there is ridicule and backlash in wider culture, as well as more subtle invisibility and misgendering. While there exists social psychology research about negative and positive attitudes to trans people, this is restricted to those whose gender identity is at odds with their sex assigned at birth, and who identify with binary gender. Social psychology has extended to the more subtle workings of transphobia, but there is little consideration of the distinctiveness of attitudes and responses to those whose genders cannot be attributed in binary ways, and thus how these may be challenged. Methods: In keeping with the methods of social theory, this article brings together a diverse and complementary range of conceptual fields in new ways to diagnose a novel cause and solution to these negative attitudes. Using queer theory, feminist ethics, and empirical studies in post-tolerance sociology and social psychology, it argues that negative social responses to genderqueerness stem not only from overt prejudice in the form of transphobia but from binary genderism, the conviction that there are only two genders. Results and conclusion: This article proposes fostering greater diversity-literacy and empathy for difference as a more effective approach than minority identity-based 'prejudice reduction' approaches. A norm-critical approach to deconstructing gender norms is proposed, thus fostering positive attitudes to genderqueerness. It is therefore demonstrated how best to foster enabling social contexts for genderqueerness, with positive implications for the physical and social health and wellbeing of gender variant people. This approach can be applied in organizations, institutions, and by service providers who interact with genderqueer individuals, in that it can inform a shift to approaching diversity positively in ways that are not restricted to pre-determined and binary identity categories.

Critical consciousness moderates the relationship between transphobia and "bathroom bill" voting

In recent years, antitransgender legislation that focuses on gender and the use of public restrooms-so-called bathroom bills-has been considered in many states in the United States. The present study was designed to extend research on transphobic attitudes and elucidate links between religious fundamentalism, social dominance orientation, transphobia, and voting for bathroom bills. Further, we examined the moderating influence of critical consciousness on the relationship between transphobic attitudes and voting on a hypothetical bathroom bill. Results of a moderated mediation multinomial logistic regression path analysis using data from a sample of 282 college students (154 women and 128 men) indicated that religious fundamentalism and social dominance orientation were associated with transphobic attitudes. Transphobia was associated with lower likelihood to vote against or abstain from voting on the bill, compared to voting for it. Critical consciousness was also associated with greater likelihood of voting against the bill rather than for it. The interaction between transphobia and critical consciousness was associated with voting against rather than for the bill, such that at higher levels of transphobia, those higher in critical consciousness were more likely to vote against the bill rather than for it. Implications for incorporating critical consciousness into advocacy efforts to promote transgender rights are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Attitudes Toward Transgender Men and Women: Development and Validation of a New Measure

A series of three studies were conducted to generate, develop, and validate the Attitudes toward Transgender Men and Women (ATTMW) scale. In Study 1, 120 American adults responded to an open-ended questionnaire probing various dimensions of their perceptions of transgender individuals and identity. Qualitative thematic analysis generated 200 items based on their responses. In Study 2, 238 American adults completed a questionnaire consisting of the generated items. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed two non-identical 12-item subscales (ATTM and ATTW) of the full 24-item scale. In Study 3, 150 undergraduate students completed a survey containing the ATTMW and a number of validity-testing variables. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) verified the single-factor structures of the ATTM and ATTW subscales, and the convergent, discriminant, predictive, and concurrent validities of the ATTMW were also established. Together, our results demonstrate that the ATTMW is a reliable and valid measure of attitudes toward transgender individuals.

Reactions to Transgender Women and Men in Public Restrooms: Correlates and Gender Differences

This study examined reactions to transgender people in public restrooms. Participants (n = 158) completed measures of essentialism and trait aggression and read scenarios where they imagined sharing a restroom with a transwoman or a transman. Participants indicated which restroom targets should use and rated potential negative reactions. Results indicate that targets were assigned to restrooms corresponding to birth sex rather than chosen identity. Women's reactions to transgender women were more negative than men's; men were more negative in reactions toward transmen. Essentialism predicted some (but not all) reactions for all participants. Among women, trait aggression predicted negative reactions, but only to transmen. Among men, aggression predicted negative reactions, but only toward transwomen. This suggests that despite views that transgender people belong in birth-sex restrooms, men and women's trait aggression predicts negative reactions toward them in such instances.

Latino men who have sex with transgender women: the influence of heteronormativity, homonegativity and transphobia on gender and sexual scripts

Latino men who have sex with transgender women make up an overlooked sector of the population that requires more attention than is currently given in sexuality and gender studies, particularly in regard to their non-commercial, long-term sexual and romantic relationships with transgender women. Sixty-one sexual histories were selected for this qualitative analysis from a larger study on Latino male bisexuality in the New York City metropolitan area. Findings suggest that participants' sexual and gender scripts with transgender women are strongly regulated by heteronormativity. Furthermore, homonegativity and transphobia often intersect in the lived experiences of men who have sex with transgender women, resulting in relationship conflicts over the control of transgender women's bodies, sexual behaviours and gender performance both in public and in private. Findings also suggest that low relationship conflict is more common among men who have sex with transgender women who exhibit diverse sexual roles (being both insertive and receptive during anal sex), or transgress heteronormative scripts through dialogue of desires and/or by embracing transgender women as human beings and not as hyperfeminised objects of desire. Stigma reduction and alternatives to heteronormative interventions are needed to improve relationship dynamics and potentially positively impact on the sexual health and overall wellbeing of Latino men who have sex with transgender women and their transgender partners.

Transphobia Among Students Majoring in the Helping Professions

The study was designed to further the understanding of transphobia among students majoring in the helping professions including social work, occupational therapy, and nursing. The study's hypotheses examined the effects of transgender content in education (e.g., textbooks and lectures), religiosity, contact with transgender people, and several sociodemographic variables with transphobia. Differences in transphobia levels between social work students and those in aligned professions were also explored. The sample consisted of 600 students of a public, urban university in New York City who participated in an online survey. Measures included transphobia and transgender content scales. Students reported (75%) a deficient amount of transgender content in education, and almost one half of the sample reported moderate to high levels of transphobia. Other findings showed that transgender content in education was positively correlated with transphobia, and 1-way ANOVA showed that transphobia differed significantly across the majors. The author suggestions included increasing transgender content in textbooks, lectures, and class discussions as well as developing field sites that provide students with opportunities to serve this population.

Validation Study of the Revised Version of the Scale of Prejudice Against Sexual and Gender Diversity in Brazil

In Brazil, there is a deficit of culturally adapted tools to assess prejudice against sexual and gender diversity with empirically demonstrable validity and reliability. Prejudice against non-heterosexual orientations is a strong problem within Brazilian culture and is particularly related to nonnormative expressions of gender. To address these issues, a scale was created. The objective of this article is to validate the revised version of this instrument developed for the specificities of Brazilian culture and establish its reliability. The revised version of Scale of Prejudice Against Sexual and Gender Diversity (PASGD) was completed by 8,184 undergraduate students from southern Brazil. Analysis was conducted using the item response theory (IRT) model for rating scale data, criterion validity, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The scale showed good validity and reliability. The results indicate that the PASGD is a useful tool for assessing prejudice in the Brazilian context, adapted for the local Brazilian reality.

Understanding How Policy and Culture Create Oppressive Conditions for LGBTQ2S Youth in the Shelter System

This study examined the experiences that lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, and two-spirit (LGBTQ2S) homeless youth have in shelters and the disjunctures that occur for this population in Toronto's shelter system. The attitudes and behaviors of shelter workers and management toward LGBTQ2S youth were also explored. A critical action research approach, informed by critical ethnography and institutional ethnography was employed. Thirty-three people participated in this study in the Greater Toronto Area. The study triangulated data from interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis. The systemic enactment of homophobia, transphobia, and hegemonic masculinity are often normalized in shelters and create significant barriers to safe, accessible, and supportive services for LGBTQ2S youth. Excessive bureaucratic regulation and the lack of necessary bureaucratic regulation in highly significant areas play a key role in creating the disjunctures that occur for LGBTQ2S youth in shelters.

The Impact of Social Connectedness and Internalized Transphobic Stigma on Self-Esteem Among Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Adults

The transgender and gender non-conforming (TGNC) community continues to represent a notably marginalized population exposed to pervasive discrimination, microaggressions, and victimization. Congruent with the minority stress model, TGNC individuals persistently experience barriers to wellbeing in contemporary society; however, research uncovering resilience-based pathways to health among this population is sparse. This study aimed to explore the impact and interaction between internalized transphobic stigma and a potential buffer against minority stress-social connectedness-on the self-esteem of TGNC identified adults. Data were collected from 65 TGNC identified adults during a national transgender conference. Multiple regression analysis reveals that self-esteem is negatively impacted by internalized transphobia and positively impacted by social connectedness. Social connectedness did not significantly moderate the relationship between internalized transphobia and self-esteem. Micro and macro interventions aimed at increasing social connectedness and decreasing internalized transphobic stigma may be paramount for enhancing resiliency and wellbeing in the TGNC community.