Enterotoxemia produced by lambda toxin-positive Clostridium perfringens type D in 2 neonatal goat kids

Enterotoxemia caused by Clostridium perfringens type D usually affects sheep and goats ≥ 2-wk-old. The main clinical signs and lesions of the disease are produced by the epsilon toxin (ETX) elaborated by this microorganism. However, ETX is produced in the form of a mostly inactive prototoxin that requires protease cleavage for activation. It has traditionally been believed that younger animals are not affected by type D enterotoxemia given the low trypsin activity in the intestinal content associated with the trypsin-inhibitory action of colostrum. Two Nigerian dwarf goat kids, 2- and 3-d-old, with a history of acute diarrhea followed by death, were submitted for postmortem examination and diagnostic workup. Autopsy and histopathology revealed mesocolonic edema, necrosuppurative colitis, and protein-rich pulmonary edema. Alpha toxin and ETX were detected in intestinal content, and C. perfringens type D was isolated from the colon of both animals. The isolates encoded the gene for lambda toxin, a protease that has been shown previously to activate ETX in vitro. Type D enterotoxemia has not been reported previously in neonatal kids, to our knowledge, and we suggest that lambda toxin activated the ETX.

Proportional mortality: A study of 152 goats submitted for necropsy from 13 goat herds in Quebec, with a special focus on caseous lymphadenitis

The objectives of this study were to determine the main causes of mortality, with a special focus on caseous lymphadenits as a cause of death or wasting in caprine herds from Quebec. Goats (n = 152) from 13 herds were submitted for necropsy; the cause of mortality, and the presence, location, and cause of abscesses (if present) were recorded. Proportional mortalities were distributed as: Clostridium perfringens type D enterotoxemia (17.1%), pneumonia (13.8%), paratuberculosis (10.5%), listeriosis (6.6%), pregnancy toxemia (5.3%), caprine arthritis-encephalitis (4.6%), and caseous lymphadenitis (3.9%). Caseous lymphadenitis was diagnosed in 24.3% of the submitted goats, but was not a major cause of wasting or mortality. Abscesses were localized internally in 54.1% of the cases. Paratuberculosis was diagnosed in 29 goats (16 as cause of death) and was considered a major cause of wasting and/or mortality.

Lesions in the brains of three cattle resembling the lesions of enterotoxaemia in lambs

CASE HISTORY

A 3-month-old female Angus calf was found dead, and two adult Friesian dairy cows died soon after developing nervous signs.

PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS

Grossly, bilateral and mostly symmetrical areas of haemorrhage were evident that mainly involved areas of grey matter in the brainstem from the level of the caudal colliculi to the thalamus and, in one, the internal capsule and caudate nucleus. In the occipital and caudal parietal cortex, there was extensive oedema of white matter. Histologically, in addition to haemorrhage, there was protein-rich oedema around arterioles and venules in the cerebrum, hippocampus, internal capsule, thalamus, midbrain, dorsal medulla, and central cerebellar and cerebellar folial white matter. The calf 's brain had bilateral and symmetrical oedema and necrosis affecting several brainstem nuclei and the occipital grey matter overlying areas of oedema of the corona radiata.

DIAGNOSIS

Although the cause was not established, the perivascular lesions resembled those produced in calves by the intravenous administration of epsilon toxin.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

It is possible that epsilon toxin-induced enterotoxaemia occurs naturally in cattle, and where bilateral haemorrhage is recognised in the brains of cattle, small intestinal contents should be collected for analysis of epsilon toxin.

The pathology of peracute experimental Clostridium perfringens type D enterotoxemia in sheep

The pathological findings in sheep with peracute experimental Clostridium perfringens type D enterotoxemia are described. Of 16 animals inoculated intraduodenally with a whole culture of this microorganism and a starch solution in the abomasum, 12 developed clinical signs including increased respiratory efforts, recumbency, paddling, bleating, convulsions, blindness, and opisthotonus. Diarrhea was not observed in any of the animals. The time lapse between the beginning of intraduodenal infusion and onset of clinical signs varied between 30 minutes and 26 hours, and the clinical course varied between 1 and 9 hours. Gross postmortem changes were observed in these 12 animals and included pulmonary edema; excess pericardial, peritoneal, or pleural fluid with or without strands of fibrin; liquid small intestinal contents; leptomeningeal edema; cerebellar coning; and subcapsular petechiae on kidneys. Histological changes consisted of severe edema of pleura and interlobular septa and around blood vessels and airways and acidophilic, homogeneous, proteinaceous perivascular edema in the brain. Five of 12 animals (42%) with clinical signs consistent with enterotoxemia lacked specific histological lesions in the brain. None of the intoxicated or control animals developed nephrosis. Glucose was detected in the urine of 3 of 6 animals that were tested for this analyte. These results stress the importance of the use of histological examination of the brain, coupled with epsilon toxin detection, for a definitive diagnosis of C. perfringens type D enterotoxemia in sheep.

Pathogenesis of brain damage produced in sheep by Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin: a review

Microvascular endothelial damage by the epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens type D appears to be the fundamental cause of cerebral parenchymal injury and lesions occur in a seemingly dose- and time-dependent manner. Large doses of circulating toxin produce a severe, generalised, vasogenic cerebral oedema and an acute or peracute clinical course to death. With lower doses of toxin, or in partially immune sheep, focal necrosis, often bilaterally symmetrical, occurs in certain selectively vulnerable brain regions, which appear to become fewer as the toxin dose is reduced. These cases follow a more protracted clinical course, but death is the usual outcome. The precise pathogenesis of the focal brain damage found in subacutely intoxicated sheep is unresolved, but several possible mechanisms are discussed.

Clostridium perfringens type A and beta2 toxin associated with enterotoxemia in a 5-week-old goat

Postmortem examination of a Boer buck kid that died peracutely revealed diffusely congested, edematous bowel. Clostridium perfringens Type A was isolated. Some isolates carried the gene for beta2 toxin, suggesting a role for beta2 toxin in caprine enterotoxemia, a common cause of death in growing kids.

[Study of the role of Clostridium perfringens in bovine enterotoxemia]

Bovine enterotoxaemia is an acute to peracute syndrome occurring mainly in calves and characterized by the sudden or very rapid death of the calf, with colics, convulsions and nervous disorders as clinical signs, if any. The most pronounced lesion is a necrohaemorrhagic enteritis of the jejunum, the ileum, and sometimes the colon. Suckling beef calves are the most frequently affected ones. In 67% of the 78 field cases investigated, some kind of stress was observed 24 to 36 hours prior to the death: change in diet or pasture, vaccination... The most frequently isolated bacteria, and the one isolated in highest numbers, was non-sporulated non-enterotoxigenic toxinotype A Clostridium perfringens. Reproduction of the lesions was successful in a ligated intestinal loop assay in one calf with a few of these strains, more especially with one of them, which was shown later to produce another recently described toxin, the beta 2 toxin. A role for this beta 2 toxin in bovine enterotoxaemia is thus speculated for future research.

Comparative pathology of bacterial enteric diseases of swine

Enteric bacterial infections are among the most common and economically significant diseases affecting swine production worldwide. Clinical signs of these infections include diarrhea, reduced growth rate, weight loss, and death of preweaned, weanling, grower-finisher, young and adult age breeding animals. The most common etiological agents include Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Lawsonia intracellularis, Salmonella enterica, and Brachyspira (Serpulina) spp. With the exception of Brachyspira (Serpulina) hyodysenteriae, the cause of swine dysentery, and Lawsonia intracellularis, the cause of proliferative enteropathy, the pathological changes seen with these agents closely resemble the diseases occurring in human beings. Histological changes in the intestines of swine with enteric bacterial infections include bacterial colonization without significant damage (e.g., certain enterotoxigenic E. coli and C. perfringens type A), attaching and effacing lesions with enteropathogenic E. coli and Brachyspira pilosicoli, the cause of colonic spirochetosis, inflammation with S. enterica, and necrotizing and hemorrhagic lesions with certain C. perfringens. Extraintestinal spread of bacteria and/or toxins occurs with some serotypes of E. coli and most serotypes of S. enterica. Enteric bacterial diseases of swine have been used as models to study the pathogenesis of similar diseases of human beings. Several of these pathogens are also important causes of food-borne disease in humans.

Experimental Clostridium perfringens type D enterotoxemia in goats

The effects of intraduodenal administration of Clostridium perfringens cultures and culture products in goats were evaluated to develop a reliable experimental model of enterotoxemia in this species. Five conventionally reared, 11-16-week-old Angora goat kids were dosed intraduodenally with whole cultures of C. perfringens type D; five similar animals were dosed with C. perfringens type D filtered culture supernatant; and a third group of five kids was dosed with C. perfringens type D washed cells. Two kids were used as controls and received sterile, nontoxic culture medium intraduodenally. All animals received starch solution into the abomasum. All five kids inoculated with whole culture and three of five dosed with culture supernatant and with washed cells developed central nervous system signs. Diarrhea was observed in two of five kids inoculated with whole culture, in all five of those dosed with culture supernatant, and in three of five of those that received washed cells. The most striking postmortem findings consisted of lung edema, necrotizing pseudomembranous colitis, and cerebral vasogenic edema. The protocol thus provided a reasonable model of naturally occurring enterotoxemia in goats, producing a range of clinical signs and postmortem changes similar to those observed in the natural disease.

Caprine enterotoxaemia associated with cerebral microangiopathy

Cerebral microangiopathy is described in naturally occurring clostridial enterotoxaemia in two goats. The two cases were selected from the files of two diagnostic laboratories in Australia, on the basis that the clinical syndrome and history were consistent with a diagnosis of enterotoxaemia, and that the diagnosis was confirmed by the identification of epsilon toxin in the intestinal contents. The lesions consisted of acute perivascular proteinaceous exudate in the brain and bilaterally symmetrical foci of encephalomalacia were observed in one of the goats. These brain lesions confirm that Clostridium perfringens type D enterotoxaemia may produce histologically detectable brain changes in goats.

Hepatic and renal ultrastructural lesions in experimental Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxemia in chickens

Hepatic and renal electron microscopic investigations were carried out in 10 chickens that had experimental intraduodenal infection with Clostridium perfringens Type A. Fourteen days postinfection, there were ultrastructural changes in hepatocytes and renal tubular epithelial cells; these included mitochondrial lesions (swelling, cristolysis, rarefication of the matrix, myelin figures), glycogen loss, and capillary endothelial cell swelling in both organs, as well as thickening of glomerular basement membrane. The findings are discussed with particular reference to the pathogenesis of Clostridium perfringens Type A enterotoxemia.

Is enterotoxaemia in grasscutters (Thryonomys swinderianus) caused by C. perfringens toxovars?

In 1985, in a colony of domesticated grasscutters in Cotonou/Benin (West Africa), an endemic disease that caused severe losses of up to 50 percent of the population was found. The animals regularly showed a necrotic small intestine and strongly reddened and granulated (like a raspberry) Peyer's plaques of the whole small intestine protruding into the intestinal lumen; the latter has never been described in other necrotic enteriditis caused by C. perfringens. In further investigations (Schrägle and Müller, 1989), C. perfringens strains were typed and isolated from the faeces of healthy animals, and 81.6% belonging to the type C were found, a type that causes severe necrotic enteritis in pigs. Two figures show the pathologic-anatomic findings. Meanwhile, the disease was eradicated by the use of a prophylactic vaccination.

An outbreak of enterotoxaemia caused by Clostridium perfringens type D in goats in Patagonia

Forty-four of a flock of 117 angora goats in the Rio Negro province of Argentina died within four days. Most of the animals died shortly after the onset of clinical signs, but in a few the clinical course lasted for several days. Post mortem the small and large intestines were filled with watery contents, blood and fibrin clots, and there were numerous ulcers on the mucosa. Small areas of malacia were observed histologically in the brain. Clostridium perfringens type D in pure culture was isolated from the kidneys and gut contents of the affected animals. Epsilon toxin was identified by the mouse seroneutralisation test in the supernatant solution from cultures of these isolates and in the intestinal contents of the affected animals. Heavy infestations with coccidia, nutritional and environmental stress, and an anthelmintic overdose were possible predisposing factors for the outbreak.

[The effect of antibiotics on the development of enterotoxemia-- experimental study]

When testing antibiotics in rabbits Dalacin was shown to be the most effective in inducing enterotoxaemia in rabbits. Autopsy disclosed signs of enterotoxaemia even in some animals without previous symptoms. Histopathological lesions were found even in intestines macroscopically normal. Experiments proved that after application of tested antibiotics spread through intestinal mucosa and produced a loss of microbial balance. Rabbit is to be considered suitable for modelling antibiotic-induced enterotoxaemia.

An outbreak of enterotoxaemia in suckling camels

An outbreak of enterotoxaemia was observed for the first time in suckling camels in Saudi Arabia. The animals were weak, diarrhoeic and succumbed quickly to exertion. The main pathological findings were those of acute catarrhal enteritis and acute myocardial degeneration. Clostridium perfringens was isolated from the enteric lesions; Aeromonas hydrophila was also identified. The properties of both isolates were studied.

An outbreak of enterotoxaemia in cats

Eighteen local breed cats suffered from enterotoxaemia after scavenging on chicken-remnants. They suffered from vomitus and diarrhoea and collapsed dead after a few hours. An untypable strain of Clostridium perfringens was isolated in pure form and was suspected to be the cause of the outbreak.

An experimental model for subclinical edema disease (Escherichia coli enterotoxemia) manifest as vascular necrosis in pigs

An experimental model for subclinical edema disease was developed in weanling pigs. In multiple experiments, 3-week-old pigs were weaned, then inoculated intragastrically with 10(10) colony-forming units of an SLT-IIv-positive strain of Escherichia coli originally isolated from a pig with edema disease (principals). Control pigs were inoculated with a nonpathogenic E coli strain. Of 39 principals, 8 developed clinical edema disease within 14 days after inoculation. However, 20 of 21 principals that did not develop clinical signs of edema disease, but were submitted for necropsy examination at 14 days after inoculation, had characteristic vascular lesions of edema disease. Vascular lesions, found principally in ileum and brain, consisted of segmental necrosis of myocytes in the tunica media of small arteries and arterioles. None of the pigs inoculated with a nonpathogenic strain of E coli developed edema disease or vascular lesions. None of the principals necropsied at 2 days after inoculation had vascular lesions. Development of vascular lesions by 14 days after inoculation was used as the end point for detecting subclinical edema disease in the model.

Clinical signs, treatment, and postmortem lesions in dairy goats with enterotoxemia: 13 cases (1979-1982)

Enterotoxemia attributable to Clostridium perfringens type D in goats is difficult to diagnose because of a lack of specific clinical signs or postmortem lesions, on which to base the diagnosis. This report describes the clinical signs, postmortem lesions, and clinical responses to treatment and vaccination in 4 goat herds, in which a diagnosis of enterotoxemia was confirmed. Four clinical cases had the diagnosis confirmed on the basis of signs of diarrhea or sudden death and the isolation of C perfringens and epsilon toxin from the feces at the time of admission. The 10 necropsy cases were diagnosed on the basis of the isolation of C perfringens (not typed) or epsilon toxin from the intestinal contents of goats that died with clinical signs compatible with enterotoxemia and without lesions associated with a second serious disease. Enterocolitis was the most consistent lesion reported at necropsy in the 10 goats with enterotoxemia. Ovine enterotoxemia vaccines were of limited value in preventing enterotoxemia. These observations imply that naturally induced enterotoxemia in goats involves a different pathophysiologic mechanism than that associated with enterotoxemia in sheep.

Isolation and nucleotide sequence of the F17-A gene encoding the structural protein of the F17 fimbriae in bovine enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli

The genetic determinant for production of the fimbrial F17 adhesive antigen was isolated from a bovine enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli strain. The F17-A gene, coding for the structural component of the F17 fimbrial adhesin, was cloned and sequenced. An open reading frame of 540 base pairs encoding a polypeptide of 180 amino acids, of which the NH2-terminal 21 residues are characteristic of a signal sequence, has been characterized. The mature protein lacks histidine, methionine, and tryptophan. A possible promoter and ribosome binding site as well as a possible site for termination of transcription are proposed. An important homology of the F17-A protein with fimA and papA fimbrial proteins was found. The N-terminal sequence of the mature F17-A pilin is extremely similar to the N-terminal sequence of the G fimbriae identified on human pyelonephritogenic E. coli strains.

Spontaneous necrotic enteritis in young RFM/Ms mice

Fatal necrotic enteritis was observed in mice 24-52 days old in the RFM/Ms breeding colony maintained in a clean conventional condition in the National Institute of Radiological Sciences. Gross lesions included hyperaemia, petechiae, erosion and the occasional formation of pseudomembranes in the mucosa of the ileum and caecum. Histologically, there was necrotic enteritis with numerous Gram-positive bacilli-forming spores but no inflammatory cell reaction. Non-type-A Clostridium perfringens was isolated from the intestinal contents. This disease cleared after the addition of chlortetracycline hydrochloride (11 mg/l) to the drinking water.

Experimental production of hemorrhagic enterotoxemia by Clostridium perfringens type C in maturing lambs

Maturing lambs, eight to nine months old, were dosed by the intraduodenal route with various preparations of Clostridium perfringens type C. Whole cultures of this organism or cells suspended in fresh medium, both supplemented with soybean flour as a protease inhibitor, produced acute fatal hemorrhagic enterotoxemia in these animals. The latter preparation was more effective than the former in causing disease. Without the soybean supplement the inocula did not produce fatal disease. Dosing with toxic cell-free culture supernatant fluid, with or without soybean supplement, had no lethal effect. Animals that died showed severe hemorrhagic enteritis with necrosis and sloughing of the mucosal epithelium, involving jejunum, ileum and part of duodenum. These lesions were similar to those seen in natural cases of hemorrhagic enterotoxemia in neonatal animals. This experiment demonstrated that nonimmune animals are normally protected against C. perfringens type C enterotoxemia by adequate levels of pancreatic proteases in the intestine, and that factors which inhibit or reduce these enzymes predispose animals for the development of this disease.

Experimental and spontaneous clostridial enteropathies of laboratory and free living lagomorphs

The enteric diseases of hares, European and cottontail rabbits, which are caused by members of the genus Clostridium are reviewed. Disease caused by C. perfringens Types A and E, C. spiroforme, C. difficile, C. sordellii, C. tympany cuniculi and clostridial enterotoxins are included. Tyzzer's disease also is discussed.

Enterotoxaemia involving Clostridium perfringens iota toxin in a hysterectomy-derived rabbit colony

During an explosive outbreak of fatal enteropathic disease involving Clostridium perfringens iota (i) toxin, a total of 183 deaths occurred in 18 weeks. The clinical signs and post-mortem findings are reported. Examinations for virus, Bacillus piliformis and coccidia were negative. Clostridium perfringens i toxin was detected in 22 of 27 animals examined (81.5%), but clostridia were not isolated. Various treatments were attempted. It is concluded that i toxin and the syndrome described are closely related.

Hemagglutination and colonization factors in enterotoxigenic and enteropathogenic Escherichia coli that cause diarrhea

Controversy exists as to whether all strains of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli must possess colonization factor antigen pili I or II (CFA/I, CFA/II) in order to be virulent for humans. Failure to detect CFA/I or CFA/II in enterotoxigenic strains from human diarrhea has been explained by some as due to plasmid loss and by others as evidence that CFA/I and CFA/II pili are not prerequisites for human virulence in all enterotoxigenic strains of E. coli. Seven enterotoxigenic and three enteropathogenic strains of E. coli that have been used in volunteer challenge studies were tested for CFA/I, CFA/II, and type 1 somatic pili after culture on solid agar and in broth. Six of the seven enterotoxigenic and two of the three enteropathogenic strains caused diarrhea in humans. Of these eight virulent strains, one produced CFA/I, and one had CFA/II. Threre remained four enterotoxigenic and two enteropathogenic strains that unequivocally caused diarrhea while lacking CFA/I or CFA/II. In such strains other organelles or surface properties must be operative to promote adhesion to and colonization of small intestinal mucosa. CFA/I and CFA/II are not prerequisites of virulence for all E. coli strains that cause diarrhea in humans.

Enterotoxemia in rabbits

The presence of Clostridium perfringens Type E iota toxin was confirmed from the cecal contents of 23 of 46 rabbits which died of enteritis complex. The most consistent lesions observed were hemorrhage and edema in the cecum. Rabbit toxicity tests showed the toxic cecal contents were lethal for young rabbits unless incubated with Clostridium perfringens Type E antiserum.

Enterotoxemia in two foals

Two Quarter Horse foals from different premises died from enterotoxemia. Clostridium perfringens toxins alpha and beta were demonstrated in the foal's intestines by mouse protection tests. Clostridium perfringens type C was isolated from the intestines of each foal. Histologic examination revealed hemorrhage, necrosis, and massive numbers of C perfringens.

The generalized Shwartzman reaction in association with E. coli enterotoxemia in a pig

A pig at the age of approx. 10 weeks died after four days of illness. Distinct necrotic changes were found both in the skin and the cortex of the kidneys. The histological examination revealed fibrinoid thrombi in skin vessels. In the kidneys similar thrombi were observed in capillaries of the glomeruli and in their afferent arterioles and in the interlobular arteries. In these vessels there were also a fibrinoid mural necrosis. These changes were in accordance with those expected to occur in the generalized Shwartzman reaction (GSR). The diagnosis of Escherichia coli enterotoxemia was based on the pathomorphological changes in the alimentary tract. The E. coli enterotoxemia was considered the cause of the GSR-changes.