Nanotechnology Responses to COVID-19

Researchers, engineers, and medical doctors are made aware of the severity of the COVID-19 infection and act quickly against the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 using a large variety of tools. In this review, a panoply of nanoscience and nanotechnology approaches show how these disciplines can help the medical, technical, and scientific communities to fight the pandemic, highlighting the development of nanomaterials for detection, sanitation, therapies, and vaccines. SARS-CoV-2, which can be regarded as a functional core-shell nanoparticle (NP), can interact with diverse materials in its vicinity and remains attached for variable times while preserving its bioactivity. These studies are critical for the appropriate use of controlled disinfection systems. Other nanotechnological approaches are also decisive for the development of improved novel testing and diagnosis kits of coronavirus that are urgently required. Therapeutics are based on nanotechnology strategies as well and focus on antiviral drug design and on new nanoarchitectured vaccines. A brief overview on patented work is presented that emphasizes nanotechnology applied to coronaviruses. Finally, some comments are made on patents of the initial technological responses to COVID-19 that have already been put in practice.

Use of a common European approach for nanomaterials' testing to support regulation: a case study on titanium and silicon dioxide representative nanomaterials

The European Union (EU) continuously takes ensuring the safe use of manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) in consumer products into consideration. The application of a common approach for testing MNMs, including the use of optimized protocols and methods' selection, becomes increasingly important to obtain reliable and comparable results supporting the regulatory framework. In the present study, we tested four representative MNMs, two titanium dioxides (NM100 and NM101) and two silicon dioxides (NM200 and NM203), using the EU FP7-NANoREG approach, starting from suspension and dispersion preparations, through to their characterization and final evaluation of biological effects. MNM dispersions were prepared following a refined NANOGENOTOX protocol and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) in water/bovine serum albumin and in media used for in vitro testing. Potential genotoxic effects were evaluated on human bronchial BEAS-2B cells using micronucleus and Comet assays, and pro-inflammatory effects by cytokines release. Murine macrophages RAW 264.7 were used to detect potential innate immune responses using two functional endpoints (pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide [NO] production). The interaction of MNMs with RAW 264.7 cells was studied by electron microscopy. No chromosomal damage and slight DNA damage and an oxidative effect, depending on MNMs, were observed in bronchial cells. In murine macrophages, the four MNMs directly induced tumor necrosis factor α or interleukin 6 secretion, although at very low levels; lipopolysaccharide-induced NO production was significantly decreased by the titania and one silica MNM. The application of this approach for the evaluation of MNM biological effects could be useful for both regulators and industries.

Returning to the Patent Landscapes for Nanotechnology: Assessing the Garden that It Has Grown Into

The patent landscape, like a garden, can tell you much about its designers and users; their motivations, biases, and general interests. While both patent landscapes and gardens may appear to the casual observer as refined and ordered, an in-depth exploration of the terrain is likely to reveal unforeseen challenges including, for example, alien species, thickets, and trolls. As this Chapter illustrates, patent landscapes are dynamic and have been forced to continually evolve in response to technological innovation. While emerging technologies, such as biotechnology and information communication technology have challenged the traditional patent landscape, resulting in the pruning of certain elements here and there, the overarching framework and design has largely remained intact. But will this always be the case? As the field of nanotechnology continues to evolve and mature, the aim of this Chapter is to map how the technology has evolved and grown within the confines of existing structures and underlying foundation of the patent landscape and the implications thereof for the technology, industry, and the public more generally. The Chapter concludes by asking the question whether the current patent landscape will be able to withstand the ubiquitous nature of the technology, or whether nanotechnology, in combination with other emerging technologies, will be a catalyst for governments and policy makers to completely redesign the patent landscape.

Approaches to Develop Alternative Testing Strategies to Inform Human Health Risk Assessment of Nanomaterials

The development of alternative testing strategies (ATS) for hazard assessment of new and emerging materials is high on the agenda of scientists, funders, and regulators. The relatively large number of nanomaterials on the market and under development means that an increasing emphasis will be placed on the use of reliable, predictive ATS when assessing their safety. We have provided recommendations as to how ATS development for assessment of nanomaterial hazard may be accelerated. Predefined search terms were used to identify the quantity and distribution of peer-reviewed publications for nanomaterial hazard assessment following inhalation, ingestion, or dermal absorption. A summary of knowledge gaps relating to nanomaterial hazard is provided to identify future research priorities and areas in which a rich data set might exist to allow ATS identification. Consultation with stakeholders (e.g., academia, industry, regulators) was critical to ensure that current expert opinion was reflected. The gap analysis revealed an abundance of studies that assessed the local and systemic impacts of inhaled particles, and so ATS are available for immediate use. Development of ATS for assessment of the dermal toxicity of chemicals is already relatively advanced, and these models should be applied to nanomaterials as relatively few studies have assessed the dermal toxicity of nanomaterials to date. Limited studies have investigated the local and systemic impacts of ingested nanomaterials. If the recommendations for research prioritization proposed are adopted, it is envisioned that a comprehensive battery of ATS can be developed to support the risk assessment process for nanomaterials. Some alternative models are available for immediate implementation, while others require more developmental work to become widely adopted. Case studies are included that can be used to inform the selection of alternative models and end points when assessing the pathogenicity of fibers and mode of action of nanomaterial toxicity.

Advancing Risk Analysis for Nanoscale Materials: Report from an International Workshop on the Role of Alternative Testing Strategies for Advancement

The Society for Risk Analysis (SRA) has a history of bringing thought leadership to topics of emerging risk. In September 2014, the SRA Emerging Nanoscale Materials Specialty Group convened an international workshop to examine the use of alternative testing strategies (ATS) for manufactured nanomaterials (NM) from a risk analysis perspective. Experts in NM environmental health and safety, human health, ecotoxicology, regulatory compliance, risk analysis, and ATS evaluated and discussed the state of the science for in vitro and other alternatives to traditional toxicology testing for NM. Based on this review, experts recommended immediate and near-term actions that would advance ATS use in NM risk assessment. Three focal areas-human health, ecological health, and exposure considerations-shaped deliberations about information needs, priorities, and the next steps required to increase confidence in and use of ATS in NM risk assessment. The deliberations revealed that ATS are now being used for screening, and that, in the near term, ATS could be developed for use in read-across or categorization decision making within certain regulatory frameworks. Participants recognized that leadership is required from within the scientific community to address basic challenges, including standardizing materials, protocols, techniques and reporting, and designing experiments relevant to real-world conditions, as well as coordination and sharing of large-scale collaborations and data. Experts agreed that it will be critical to include experimental parameters that can support the development of adverse outcome pathways. Numerous other insightful ideas for investment in ATS emerged throughout the discussions and are further highlighted in this article.

Creating Inquiry Between Technology Developers and Civil Society Actors: Learning from Experiences Around Nanotechnology

Engaging civil society actors as knowledgeable dialogue partners in the development and governance of emerging technologies is a new challenge. The starting point of this paper is the observation that the design and orchestration of current organized interaction events shows limitations, particularly in the articulation of issues and in learning how to address the indeterminacies that go with emerging technologies. This paper uses Dewey's notion of 'publics' and 'reflective inquiry' to outline ways of doing better and to develop requirements for a more productive involvement of civil society actors. By studying four novel spaces for interaction in the domain of nanotechnology, this paper examines whether and how elements of Dewey's thought are visible and under what conditions. One of the main findings is that, in our society, special efforts are needed in order for technology developers and civil society actors to engage in a joint inquiry on emerging nanotechnology. Third persons, like social scientists and philosophers, play a role in this respect in addition to external input such as empirically informed scenarios and somewhat protected spaces.

Regulatory aspects of nanotechnology in the agri/feed/food sector in EU and non-EU countries

Nanotechnology has the potential to innovate the agricultural, feed and food sectors (hereinafter referred to as agri/feed/food). Applications that are marketed already include nano-encapsulated agrochemicals or nutrients, antimicrobial nanoparticles and active and intelligent food packaging. Many nano-enabled products are currently under research and development, and may enter the market in the near future. As for any other regulated product, applicants applying for market approval have to demonstrate the safe use of such new products without posing undue safety risks to the consumer and the environment. Several countries all over the world have been active in examining the appropriateness of their regulatory frameworks for dealing with nanotechnologies. As a consequence of this, different approaches have been taken in regulating nano-based products in agri/feed/food. The EU, along with Switzerland, were identified to be the only world region where nano-specific provisions have been incorporated in existing legislation, while in other regions nanomaterials are regulated more implicitly by mainly building on guidance for industry. This paper presents an overview and discusses the state of the art of different regulatory measures for nanomaterials in agri/feed/food, including legislation and guidance for safety assessment in EU and non-EU countries.

Nanomaterial categorization for assessing risk potential to facilitate regulatory decision-making

For nanotechnology to meet its potential as a game-changing and sustainable technology, it is important to ensure that the engineered nanomaterials and nanoenabled products that gain entry to the marketplace are safe and effective. Tools and methods are needed for regulatory purposes to allow rapid material categorization according to human health and environmental risk potential, so that materials of high concern can be targeted for additional scrutiny, while material categories that pose the least risk can receive expedited review. Using carbon nanotubes as an example, we discuss how data from alternative testing strategies can be used to facilitate engineered nanomaterial categorization according to risk potential and how such an approach could facilitate regulatory decision-making in the future.

[The use of nanotechnology in medicinal products in the light of European Union law]

The purpose of EU regulations in relation to nanotechnology, according to the European Commission's Communication "Regulatory aspects of nanomaterials", is to allow the public to use innovative applications of nanotechnology while ensuring a high level of safety, health care and environmental protection. This article characterizes and comments on EU legislation in respect of medicinal products containing nanomaterials. Medicinal products manufactured using nanotechnology are subject to the optional centralized authorization procedure by the European Commission authorizations for the placing on the market throughout the EU; advanced therapy medicinal products containing nanomaterials are covered by the mandatory centralized procedure. Evaluation of medicines in centralized authorization mode for the marketing of medicinal products, including those containing nanomaterials, is carried out by the Committee on Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) subject to the European Medicines Agency (EMA).

Understanding 'anticipatory governance'

Anticipatory governance is 'a broad-based capacity extended through society that can act on a variety of inputs to manage emerging knowledge-based technologies while such management is still possible'. It motivates activities designed to build capacities in foresight, engagement, and integration--as well as through their production ensemble. These capacities encourage and support the reflection of scientists, engineers, policy makers, and other publics on their roles in new technologies. This article reviews the early history of the National Nanotechnology Initiative in the United States, and it further explicates anticipatory governance through exploring the genealogy of the term and addressing a set of critiques found in the literature. These critiques involve skepticism of three proximities of anticipatory governance: to its object, nanotechnology, which is a relatively indistinct one; to the public, which remains almost utterly naive toward nanotechnology; and to technoscience itself, which allegedly renders anticipatory governance complicit in its hubris. The article concludes that the changing venues and the amplification within them of the still, small voices of folks previously excluded from offering constructive visions of futures afforded by anticipatory governance may not be complete solutions to our woes in governing technology, but they certainly can contribute to bending the long arc of technoscience more toward humane ends.

Reflecting on public engagement and science policy

This article presents a personal reflection on the evolution of thinking about public engagement with science in the UK, with a particular emphasis on the experience with nanotechnology.

The ethical and legal implications of nanotechnologies: a preliminary survey to picture the perceptions of law students and medical students

PURPOSE

The aim of this preliminary survey was to picture the current knowledge and opinions of law students and medical students about nanotechnologies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data were collected in June 2012 by interviews with 60 students of the University of Camerino (Macerata, Italy) defined as "jurist population" and 159 medical students of the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Rome, Italy) defined as "medical population".

RESULTS

The Authors found that both law and medical students have some knowledge on what nanotechnologies are; with regards to the ethical issues and risks perception, both categories indicated that nanotechnologies generate bioethical issues. Nevertheless, a high percentage of respondents believed that neither existing technologies nor nanotechnologies pose risks for human health. Opinions on regulation of nanotechnologies are instead different.

CONCLUSIONS

These preliminary findings underlined the ambiguity surrounding nanotechnologies both concerning the bioethical dimension and risks perception and their regulation. These early data therefore showed a need of additional reflection on these technologies that should be investigated more in detail; moving from students, future scientists and regulators, these data could contribute to clarify the debate on them.

Governance strategies for living technologies: bridging the gap between stimulating and regulating technoscience

The life sciences present a politically and ethically sensitive area of technology development. NBIC convergence-the convergence of nanotechnology, biotechnology, and information and cognitive technology-presents an increased interaction between the biological and physical sciences. As a result the bio-debate is no longer dominated by biotechnology, but driven by NBIC convergence. NBIC convergence enables two bioengineering megatrends: "biology becoming technology" and "technology becoming biology." The notion of living technologies captures the latter megatrend. Accordingly, living technology presents a politically and ethically sensitive area. This implies that governments sooner or later are faced with the challenge of both promoting and regulating the development of living technology. This article describes four current political models to deal with innovation promotion and risk regulation. Based on two specific developments in the field of living technologies-(psycho)physiological computing and synthetic biology-we reflect on appropriate governance strategies for living technologies. We conclude that recent pleas for anticipatory and deliberative governance tend to neglect the need for anticipatory regulation as a key factor in guiding the development of the life sciences from a societal perspective. In particular, when it is expected that a certain living technology will radically challenge current regulatory systems, one should opt for just such a more active biopolitical approach.

From cradle-to-grave at the nanoscale: gaps in U.S. regulatory oversight along the nanomaterial life cycle

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) promise great benefits for society, yet our knowledge of potential risks and best practices for regulation are still in their infancy. Toward the end of better practices, this paper analyzes U.S. federal environmental, health, and safety (EHS) regulations using a life cycle framework. It evaluates their adequacy as applied to ENMs to identify gaps through which emerging nanomaterials may escape regulation from initial production to end-of-life. High scientific uncertainty, a lack of EHS and product data, inappropriately designed exemptions and thresholds, and limited agency resources are a challenge to both the applicability and adequacy of current regulations. The result is that some forms of engineered nanomaterials may escape federal oversight and rigorous risk review at one or more stages along their life cycle, with the largest gaps occurring at the postmarket stages, and at points of ENM release to the environment. Oversight can be improved through pending regulatory reforms, increased research and development for the monitoring, control, and analysis of environmental and end-of-life releases, introduction of periodic re-evaluation of ENM risks, and fostering a "bottom-up" stewardship approach to the responsible management of risks from engineered nanomaterials.

Demand for command: responding to technological risks and scientific uncertainties

This article seeks to add to current theories of new governance by highlighting the predicament facing regulators and regulatees when dealing with new technologies. Using nanotechnologies as a study, it shows that new modes of governance (as opposed to traditional coercive, or command and control regulation) offer promising solutions to highly complex, uncertain, and contested problems of risk, such as those associated with new technologies. In this regard, nanotechnologies provide a useful test bed for the ambitions of newer, better modes of governance because there are not yet any fixed ideas about the appropriate course of action. The article suggests, however, that examples of new governance are less prominent than perhaps expected. Drawing on empirical data, it argues that, when faced with considerable epistemological, political, economic, and ethical uncertainties, regulatory stakeholders often exhibit a preference for more conventional command methods of regulation. That is not to say that new governance is entirely absent from regulatory policies on nanotechnologies, but that new governance is emerging in perhaps more subtle ways than the scholarly and policy literature predicted.

[Development of the system for nanomaterials and nanotechnology safety in Russian Federation]

The article discloses a system of guidelines establishing unified order of detection, identification of nanoparticles and nanomaterials, estimation of their safety, sanitary regulation, control and supervision in environmental objects and production of nanoindustry, evaluation and management of risk produced by nanoparticles and nanomaterials. Recent development of nanosafety system in Russian Federation serves the aim of balanced achievement of unconditional ensuring welfare of present and future human population together with promotion of advanced technologies promising lot of useful applications.

Regulatory or regulating publics? The European Union's regulation of emerging health technologies and citizen participation

'Citizen participation' includes various participatory techniques and is frequently viewed as an unproblematic and important social good when used as part of the regulation of the innovation and implementation of science and technology. This is perhaps especially evident in debates around 'anticipatory governance' or 'upstream engagement'. Here, we interrogate this thesis using the example of the European Union's regulation of emerging health technologies (such as nanotechnology). In this case, citizen participation in regulatory debate is concerned with innovative objects for medical application that are considered to be emergent or not yet concrete. Through synthesising insights from law, regulatory studies, critical theory, and science and technology studies, we seek to cast new light on the promises, paradoxes, and pitfalls of citizen participation as a tool or technology of regulation in itself. As such we aim to generate a new vantage point from which to view the values and sociotechnical imaginaries that are both 'designed-in' and 'designed-out' of citizen participation. In so doing, we show not only how publics (do not) regulate technologies, but also how citizens themselves are regulated through the techniques of participation.

Nanotechnologies in agriculture and food - an overview of different fields of application, risk assessment and public perception

Nanomaterials in agriculture and food are key issues of public and regulatory interest. Over the past ten years, patents for nanotechnological applications in the field of food and agriculture have become abundant. Uncertainty prevails however regarding their current development status and presence in the consumer market. Thus, the discussion on nanotechnologies in the food sector with its specific public perception of benefits and risks and the patterns of communication are becoming similar to the debate on genetically modified organisms. The food industry's silence in communication increased mistrust of consumer organisations and policy makers. The article discusses the background of the current regulatory debates, starting with the EU recommendation for defining nanomaterials, provides an overview of possible fields of application in agriculture and food industries and discusses risk assessment and the public debate on benefits and risks. Communicative recommendations are directed at researchers, the food industry and regulators in order to increase trust both in stakeholders, risk management and regulatory processes.

Does nanotech have a gender?

Gender is less of an issue in nanotechnology than in other areas of science and technology but, as Chris Toumey explains, public attitudes to nanotech do depend on gender.

When enough is enough

The European Commission should be regulating nanosilver, not asking for yet another report on its impact on health and the environment.

Self-propelled nanotools

We describe nanoscale tools in the form of autonomous and remotely guided catalytically self-propelled InGaAs/GaAs/(Cr)Pt tubes. These rolled-up tubes with diameters in the range of 280-600 nm move in hydrogen peroxide solutions with speeds as high as 180 μm s(-1). The effective transfer of chemical energy to translational motion has allowed these tubes to perform useful tasks such as transport of cargo. Furthermore, we observed that, while cylindrically rolled-up tubes move in a straight line, asymmetrically rolled-up tubes move in a corkscrew-like trajectory, allowing these tubes to drill and embed themselves into biomaterials. Our observations suggest that shape and asymmetry can be utilized to direct the motion of catalytic nanotubes and enable mechanized functions at the nanoscale.

FDA's evolving approach to nanotechnology

Nanotechnology has emerged as an industry with the potential to change many products regulated by the FDA. While the FDA has been regulating products containing nanoscale materials for several years, questions concerning the effectiveness of existing regulations have emerged. After a period of study and analysis, the FDA has issued three (3) draft guidance documents over the last eighteen (18) months pertaining to the use of nanoscale materials and nanotechnology in certain FDA-regulated products. As these are likely to become the "de facto" standards they merit further analysis. This article examines these draft guidance documents and provides modest commentary for those practicing in the area.

[Risks associated with nanotechnology based on European Union legislation]

The dynamic development of nanotechnology, nanomaterials provide more and more impact to the environment being a potential exposure to living organisms including humans. Current knowledge concerning the nanoparticles and nanomaterials acute humans toxicity is limited, and no one can predict long-term effects of exposure. The researchers of the study are responsible for the objective assessment of health effects of exposure to nanoparticles and nanomaterials. At the same time, the people creating the law, taking into account the results of toxicity studies should adapt legislation for safety production, sale and disposal of nanomaterials.

[Comparative analysis of modern approaches to risk estimation from artificially created nanoparticles and nanomaterials]

The article represents a review of modern approaches to problem of nanotechnologies and nanomaterials risk estimation for human health and environment that were elaborated in EU, USA and some international authorities. Submitted data suggests that there is a significant coincidence with approaches being developed and introduced in Russian Federation under the guidance of Rospotrebnadzor. Particularly criteria being used in Russian Federation and EU for classification of nanotechnologies and nanoindustry production are mainly similar. They include a) identification of nanomaterials in production, b) establishment of production disintegration possibility with concomitant migration of free nanoparticles, c) possibility of nanoparticles emission/migration both in normal conditions of utilization and in possible emergency conditions, d) degree of proximity of particular kind of production to it's consumer that means the possibility of exposition being from closely to zero (in conditions of unhabitated exploitation) up to approximately 100% (in case of medicine, food and cosmetics), e) biological examination of potential danger of nanomaterials according to current volume of scientific information. As applied to nanotechnology plants there are such criteria in use as a) nanomaterial identification, b) personnel exhibiting possibility, c) potential toxicity of stuff in aerosol nano-form, d) characteristics of biological action. Thus applied in Russia principles for nanomaterials safety estimation do not contradict to concepts of foreign authorities that builds up a possibility of said approaches harmonization to internationally recognized norms.

Adding to the mix: integrating ELSI into a National Nanoscale Science and Technology Center

This paper describes issues associated with integrating the study of Ethical, Legal and Social Issues (ELSI) into ongoing scientific and technical research and describes an approach adopted by the authors for their own work with the center for nanophase materials sciences (CNMS) at the Oak Ridge national laboratory (ORNL). Four key questions are considered: (a) What is ELSI and how should it identify and address topics of interest for the CNMS? (b) What advantages accrue to incorporating ELSI into the CNMS? (c) How should the integration of ELSI into the CNMS take place? (d) How should one judge the effectiveness of the activity? We conclude that ELSI research is not a monolithic body of knowledge, but should be adapted to the question at hand. Our approach focuses on junctures in the R&D continuum at which key decisions occur, avoids topics of a purely ethical nature or advocacy, and seeks to gather data in ways that permit testing the validity of generalization. Integrating ELSI into the CNMS allows dealing with topics firmly grounded in science, offers concrete examples of potential downstream applications and provides access to the scientists using the CNMS and their insights and observations. As well, integration provides the opportunity for R&D managers to benefit from ELSI insights and the potential to modify R&D agendas. Successful integration is dependent on the particular ELSI question set that drives the project. In this case questions sought to identify key choices, information of value to scientists, institutional attributes, key attributes of the CNMS culture, and alternatives for communicating results. The opportunity to consult with scientists on ELSI implications is offered, but not promoted. Finally, ELSI effectiveness is judged by observing the use to which research products are put within the CNMS, ORNL, and the community of external scholars.

[Are nanoparticles a new class of environmental toxin?]

In view of the toxic properties of nanoparticles, the authorities require them to be specifically identified and labeled This is in keeping with the spirit of the REACH legislation, which aims to protect consumers from products with inadequately documented risks for human health and the environment. However, the presence of natural nanoparticles in the environment must also be taken into account, together with the fact that, in any mixture of particles, the presence of a fraction of nanometer-sized particles cannot be ruled out, owing to the laws of statistical distribution. Moreover, while all toxic nanoparticles generate oxidative stress, their properties are not due solely to their size but also to their shape, surface texture and composition. Thus, nanoparticle toxicity should be considered specifically for each substance or group of substances, and the notion of intentional manufacture of nano-sized particles should be included in the impact assessment. The conditions of nanoparticle concentration/dilution and persistence, especially in water and sewage sludge, exemplified by silver and titanium oxide, suggest that nanoparticle behavior in the environment should be monitored.

Envisioning emerging nanotechnologies: a three-year panel study of South Carolina citizens

This article reports results from a three-year panel study of a nonrandom sample of 76 South Carolina citizens, recruited from a variety of walks of life, and their impressions of emerging nanotechnology. This discussion focuses on material from depth interviews conducted alongside a baseline opinion and awareness inventory at the beginning of the study, the most intensive data-gathering phase. These results are placed in the context of data from three additional surveys conducted at about equal intervals over the three years, plus exit interviews from 21 of the 34 individuals who completed the entire study. The results give insight into popular thinking about technology but little indication of strong emerging concerns, a trajectory of amplification of those concerns, or opinion polarization over time, despite some awareness of risks and potential ethical dimensions. Nanotechnology may stand out more as an example of risk attenuation than of risk amplification, consistent with most results from national surveys.

Vulnerability and social justice as factors in emergent U.S. nanotechnology risk perceptions

As an emerging domain of risk research, nanotechnologies engender novel research questions, including how new technologies are encountered given different framing and contextual detail. Using data from a recent U.S. national survey of perceived risks (N= 1,100), risk versus benefit framings and the specific social positions from which people encounter or perceive new technologies are explored. Results indicate that vulnerability and attitudes toward environmental justice significantly influenced risk perceptions of nanotechnology as a broad class, while controlling for demographic and affective factors. Comparative analyses of different examples of nanotechnology applications demonstrated heightened ambivalence across acceptability when risk versus benefit information was provided with application descriptions (described in short vignettes as compared to the general category "nanotechnology," absent of risk or benefit information). The acceptability of these nano-specific vignettes varied significantly in only some cases given indexes of vulnerability and attitudes toward environmental justice. However, experimental narrative analyses, using longer, more comprehensive descriptive passages, show how assessments of risks and benefits are tied to the systematically manipulated psychometric qualities of the application (its invasiveness and controllability), risk messaging from scientists, and the social implications of the technology with regard to justice. The article concludes with discussion of these findings for risk perception research and public policy related to nanotechnology and possibly other emerging technologies.

The social, moral & ethical issues raised by nanotechnology in the field of medicine

The areas in medicine that are and will be influenced by nanoscale science and technology are stem cell research, genetic modification of human beings and the construction of artificial organisms. A non-negotiable moral imperative is the fact that the law is under an obligation to uphold the sanctity and integrity of the human genome which encapsulates humankind's basic genetic inheritance and thereby the human heritage of our species. The research possibilities opened up by nanoscience will push the current boundaries of life forms, because they alter life forms at their most basic (viz genetic) level. They empower scientists to create novel life forms that would not otherwise exist and they combine aspects of different life forms that would not otherwise be integrated. These groundbreaking areas of research place the scientists and their work in an area of moral quicksands. Research involving human design and modification places those scientists in a domain where current morality indicates they do not belong. They are literally 'playing God'.

Nanomedicines--what are they?

Nanomedicines are drug formulations based on tiny structures (nanoparticles) usually measuring between 1nanometre (nm) and 100nm. More broadly, the term nanotechnology encompasses the production and application of structures, devices or systems by controlling the shape and size of materials at the nanometre scale.1 Nanotechnologies are used in a wide range of applications, including aerospace materials, cosmetics and in medicine.1,2 Here we discuss the application of this increasingly important technology to drug therapy.

Legal aspects of the risks raised by nanotechnologies in the field of medicine

The major breakthroughs achieved in nanotechnologies open new avenues in the field of healthcare--aid to diagnosis, upgrading medical treatment efficacy, development of regenerative medicine--but they are also associated with risks, hence the increasing need of legislation. So far very little research work has been conducted on this technology whose applications are still limited and whose potential hazards are not yet clearly apprehended. The more and more frequent uses of nanoparticles in medical imaging and in current research projects dealing with tissue engineering or RFID raises the following question: is the current legislative framework relevant in light of the specificities of nano-objects? The challenge is twofold: the legal approach must encompass the nanometric element itself as a "legal object" but it must include the use of nanotechnologies and their final aims. There is still some degree of uncertainty concerning the innocuity of nanoparticles so that the use of nanoelements in aid to medical diagnosis and in clinical trials must take into account and anticipate the potential harmful effects on patients and on biomedical research teams. But due to the fact that a clear understanding of nanoparticles as specific objects with new features is still missing, the existing regulations on chemical substances, medicinal products, medical devices or cosmetics do not seem to be appropriate. So considering nanoparticles as "singular" legal objects is a prerequisite requiring an approach based on the precautionary principle. Misusing nanotechnologies in the medical field is also a cause for great concern. Threats on individual freedom and on private life as well as on human identity are real and they raise recurring questions. The possible deviations in the use of these techniques, the temptations to "trespass the limits" are also common to info technologies and to biotechnologies but the threats triggered by the nanotechnologies are enhanced by the possibilities offered by the nanometric size and the expected convergence of these different technologies. One should refer to leading guiding principles in order to solve the future conflicts between the different sets of values, especially in the medical field by always remembering the Hippocratic oath "primum non nocere, deinde curare"

Nanomaterials and the environmental risk: is there some room left for ethics and law?

How legitimate may be the concern posed by the nanotechnologies for health and environment,this effort for reaching a better knowledge of the biotoxicity of nanomaterials is not enough. As Pr Didier Sicard noted, we believe that the ethical reflection should not be the good conscience that may help science in getting rid of social fears. But the ethical reflection is there also to discuss taboo issues in the perspective of a better societal understanding.

Regulatory approaches to worker protection in nanotechnology industry in the USA and European union

A number of reports have been published regarding the applicability of existing regulatory frameworks to protect consumers and the environment from potentially adverse effects related to introduction of nanomaterials into commerce in the United States and the European Union. However, a detailed comparison of the regulatory approaches to worker safety and health in the USA and in the EU is lacking. This report aims to fill this gap by reviewing regulatory frameworks designed to protect workers and their possible application to nanotechnology.

[Employer's obligation of safety and nanomaterials]

Health and Safety law at work is influenced by the intervention of the European Union. The model of prevention of occupational risks is set by the 1989 framework directive. The question of its applicability to nanomaterials divides the Commission and the European Parliament. This model was welcomed differently by member states. Employers are generally under an obligation to adopt best means to assure workers' safety, while French law imposes an obligation to get results. This obligation concerns each aspect of the employment contract's execution and is analysed as an effective way to esure the prevention of occupational risks. If risks associated with nanomaterials seem to be taken into consideration by our system of worker protection, it seems however that prevention will be difficult to implement.

United States Government Accountability Office report on nanotechnology: nanomaterials are widely used in commerce, but EPA faces challenges in regulating risk

Nanotechnology involves the ability to control matter at the scale of a nanometer--one billionth of a meter. The world market for products that contain nanomaterials is expected to reach $2.6 trillion by 2015. In this context, the United States Government Accountability Office (GAO): (1) identified examples of current and potential uses of nanomaterials, (2) determined what is known about the potential human health and environmental risks from nanomaterials, (3) assessed actions the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has taken to better understand and regulate the risks posed by nanomaterials as well as its authorities to do so, and (4) identified approaches that other selected national authorities and U.S. states have taken to address the potential risks associated with nanomaterials. The GAO analyzed selected laws and regulations, reviewed information on the EPA's Nanoscale Materials Stewardship Program, and consulted with EPA officials and legal experts to obtain their perspectives on the EPA's authorities to regulate nanomaterials.

Navigating the patent landscapes for nanotechnology: English gardens or tangled grounds?

The patent landscape, like a garden, can tell you much about its designers and users: their motivations, biases, and general interests. While both patent landscapes and gardens may appear to the casual observer as refined and ordered, an in-depth exploration of the terrain is likely to reveal unforeseen challenges including, for example, alien species, thickets, and trolls. As this chapter illustrates, patent landscapes are dynamic and have been forced to continually evolve in response to technological innovation. While emerging technologies such as biotechnology and information communication technology have challenged the traditional patent landscape, the overarching framework and design have largely remained intact. But will this always be the case? The aim of this chapter is to highlight how nanotechnology is challenging the existing structures and underlying foundation of the patent landscape and the implications thereof for the technology, industry, and public more generally. The chapter concludes by asking the question whether the current patent landscape will be able to withstand the ubiquitous nature of the technology, or whether nanotechnology will be a catalyst for governments and policy makers for overhauling the current landscape design.

Nanotechnology and nanomaterials: toxicology, risk assessment, and regulations

Nanomaterials have very unique chemical and physical properties that suggest potential health hazards, but limited health and safety information exists for engineered nanomaterials. This review identifies a need for expanding efforts for addressing health and safety concerns in nanotechnology development and in nanotoxicology of engineered nanomaterials. The efforts include research to generate data for safety evaluation, toxicologic evaluation of potential human health effects, risk assessment to support risk-management decision-making, and regulations development to protect human health and the environment. The federal government's current understanding is that existing statutory authorities are adequate to address oversight of nanotechnology and its applications. On the other hand, the present review identifies weaknesses in the current research efforts and inadequacies in existing regulations. A collaborative effort involving multidisciplinary groups is a key element to address the related needs and issues. While federal agencies with regulatory responsibilities are looked upon to develop and implement sound policies and regulations to protect public health and the environment, state agencies may be required to initiate policies which rapidly incorporate new innovations and address public concerns. To address current and futures need related to nanotechnology, the responsible state agencies need to fill the information gaps and address the health and environmental issues. In California, activities have been initiated, but legislative authority and resources are required to provide risk assessment and health protection in an efficient and timely manner.

Recent patents on electrophoretic displays and materials

Electrophoretic displays (EPDs) have made their way into consumer products. EPDs enable displays that offer the look and form of a printed page, often called "electronic paper". We will review recent apparatus and method patents for EPD devices and their fabrication. A brief introduction into the basic display operation and history of EPDs is given, while pointing out the technological challenges and difficulties for inventors. Recently, the majority of scientific publications and patenting activity has been directed to micro-segmented EPDs. These devices exhibit high optical reflectance and contrast, wide viewing angle, and high image resolution. Micro-segmented EPDs can also be integrated with flexible transistors technologies into flexible displays. Typical particles size ranges from 200 nm to 2 micrometer. Currently one very active area of patenting is the development of full-color EPDs. We summarize the recent patenting activity for EPDs and provide comments on perceiving factors driving intellectual property protection for EPD technologies.

Recent progress on fabrication of calcium-based inorganic biodegradable nanomaterials

Calcium-based inorganic biodegradable nanomaterials (CIBNs) including calcium phosphate, hydroxyapatite (HA), calcium silicate, calcium carbonate, and calcium sulfate, are important materials and have been widely used in biomedical field. Although CIBNs have been intensively studied, there are only a few synthesis methods that showed promising characteristics for practical applications. Here, we intend to review recent progress in the synthesis of the CIBNs including both patents and papers. In addition, the mechanisms of CIBNs are introduced. Finally, the current and future developments are put forward. In summary, we briefly review the patents and the patent-interrelated papers concerning the fabrication, mechanism, and future development of CIBNs in this mini-review. The paper provides an overview about the potential application of nanotechnology in biomedical field.

Semimetal nanowires and their superlattices in anodic alumina membranes

Semimetal Bi and Sb are important thermoelectric materials. Since theoretical calculation predicted that thermoelectric efficiency can be improved as the dimension of materials decreases, the synthesis and physical properties of Bi-based nanostructures (nanowires, nanotubes, nanobelts, nanoplates) have attracted great interests. This review begins with a survey of the patents and reports on the recent developments of Bi-based nanowires. We focus on Bi-based nanowires fabricated by pulsed electrodeposition in anodic alumina membranes, which are main achievements in our group. Based on the literatures and patents, from synthesis of Bi-based nanowires and their alloys and superlattices, to physical properties including electronic transport, thermal expansion, and thermoelectricity will be demonstrated.

Morphology tailoring of nano/micro-structured conductive polymers, composites and their applications in chemical sensors

Conductive polymer is one of the important multi-functional materials. It has many applications in light-emitting diodes, chemical sensors, biosensors, et al. This paper provides a relatively comprehensive review on the progress of conductive polymer and composite as sensitive film for sensors to chemical vapors including patents, papers and our preliminary research results. Especially, the feature of conjugated polymers, the processing technology, doping characteristics and some factors affecting gas responses are discussed. Otherwise, the developments of nanostructured conductive polymer and organic-inorganic hybrid film sensor with high sensitivity and rapid response to vapors are also described, and some suggestions are proposed.

Nanoparticles for improved therapeutics and imaging in cancer therapy

Nanotechnology involves creation and utilization of materials, devices or systems on the nanometer scale. The field of nanotechnology is currently undergoing explosive development on many fronts. The technology is expected to generate innovations and play a critical role in drug delivery and imaging. There has been tremendous progress made in the use of polymer and lipid based nanoparticles (NPs) for drug delivery and imaging. Recently, more attention has been given to incorporating inorganic NPs such as gold and magnetic NPs with both imaging and therapeutic capabilities into polymer and lipid based NPs for improved therapy and imaging in cancer treatment. In this review article, the recent progress in the development of multiplex polymer, lipid, and inorganic NPs towards optimizing techniques for drug delivery and multimodal imaging will be discussed along with the relevant patents.

Recent developments in the fabrication of ordered nanostructure arrays based on nanosphere lithography

Since it was invented two decades ago, Nanosphere Lithography (NSL) has been widely studied as a low cost and flexible technique to fabricate nanostructures. Based on the registered patents and some selected papers, this review will discuss recent developments of different NSL strategies for the fabrication of ordered nanostructure arrays. The mechanism of self-assembly process and the techniques for preparing the self-assembled nanosphere template are first briefly introduced. The nanosphere templates are used either as shadow masks or as moulds for pattern transfer. Much more work now combines NSL with other lithographic techniques and material growth methods to form novel nanostructures of complex shape or various materials. Hence, this review finally gives a discussion on some future directions in NSL study.