Stability of Cocaine, Opiates, and Metabolites in Dried Saliva Spots

Drug abuse still represents a global problem, and it is associated with an increased risk of diseases, injuries, and deaths. Cocaine (COC) and opiates are the most abused drugs and account for a significant number of fatalities. Therefore, it is important to develop methods capable of effectively identifying and quantifying these substances. The present study aims to evaluate the long-term stability of COC, ecgonine methylester (EME), benzoylecgonine (BEG), cocaethylene (COET), norcocaine (NCOC), morphine (MOR), codeine (COD) and 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) in oral fluid samples. The analytes of interest were isolated from the matrix (50 µL) using the dried saliva spots (DSS) sampling approach and were subsequently analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS). The parameters that could influence the stability of the target compounds were studied, and these were storage temperature, light, use of preservatives (and respective concentrations), and time. The effects of each parameter were evaluated using the design of experiments (DOE) approach. The stability of the target analytes was improved when the DSS were stored at room temperature, in the presence of light and using 1% sodium fluoride. The best conditions were then adopted for the DSS storage and long-term stability was assessed. COD was only stable for 1 day, EME was stable for 3 days, COC, COET, NCOC and 6-MAM were stable for 7 days, MOR for 14 days and BEG remained stable throughout the study (136 days). This is the first study that evaluates the stability of these compounds in oral fluid samples after application in DSS cards, and optimizes the conditions in order to improve their stability.

Simultaneous Quantification of 25 Fentanyl Derivatives and Metabolites in Oral Fluid by Means of Microextraction on Packed Sorbent and LC-HRMS/MS Analysis

Fentanyl and fentalogs’ intake as drugs of abuse is experiencing a great increase in recent years. For this reason, there are more and more cases in which it is important to recognize and quantify these molecules and related metabolites in biological matrices. Oral fluid (OF) is often used to find out if a subject has recently used a psychoactive substance and if, therefore, the person is still under the effect of psychotropics. Given its difficulty in handling, good sample preparation and the development of instrumental methods for analysis are essential. In this work, an analytical method is proposed for the simultaneous determination of 25 analytes, including fentanyl, several derivatives and metabolites. OF was collected by means of passive drool; sample pretreatment was developed in order to be fast, simple and possibly semi-automated by exploiting microextraction on packed sorbent (MEPS). The analysis was performed by means of LC–HRMS/MS obtaining good identification and quantification of all the analytes in less than 10 min. The proposed method was fully validated according to the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Toxicology (SWGTOX) international guidelines. Good results were obtained in terms of recoveries, matrix effect and sensitivity, showing that this method could represent a useful tool in forensic toxicology. The presented method was successfully applied to the analysis of proficiency test samples.

Spatial, temporal and socioeconomic patterns of illicit drug use in New Zealand assessed using wastewater-based epidemiology timed to coincide with the census

AIMS

A discrete experiment in wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) timed to coincide with the census was used to investigate the spatial, temporal and socioeconomic patterns of illicit drug consumption in Auckland, Bay of Plenty and Canterbury.

METHODS

For seven consecutive days over census week (6 March 2018), wastewater was sampled from seven wastewater treatment plants and analysed for methamphetamine, cocaine (as benzoylecgonine) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Detailed sewer catchment maps were developed and, together with the data, were used to analyse drug consumption.

RESULTS

Methamphetamine (mean 22.9 ± 9.9 doses/day/1000 people) was the most consumed drug, followed by MDMA (mean 1.7 ± 1.5 doses/day/1000 people) and cocaine (mean 0.5 ± 0.3 doses/day/1000 people). Methamphetamine consumption (and to a lesser extent MDMA) was high compared to that reported for Western nations, while cocaine consumption was extremely low. Cocaine and MDMA consumption were higher in cities compared to towns. In contrast, methamphetamine was typically higher in towns. Cocaine and MDMA were consumed more at weekends. Methamphetamine use was more consistent throughout the week. MDMA and cocaine were correlated with socioeconomic advantage, whereas methamphetamine was correlated with disadvantage.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper contextualises illicit drug use in three New Zealand regions containing 18.3% of the national population and confirms the pervasiveness of methamphetamine consumption in New Zealand towns. This work demonstrates how WBE can be used to explore the socioeconomic dimensions of drug use when duly combined with other data sources like censuses.

Drug-facilitated sexual assault and other crimes: A systematic review by countries

Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) and drug-facilitated crime (DFC) constitute a mode of violence that is generally unknown to the population and may go unnoticed by health professionals. The aim of this systematic review was to analyze the victims of DFC, compiling their sociodemographic characteristics, the toxic substances used and their biological matrices and modes of action, in order to identify the substances that are commonly put to criminal use. The aim would be to establish political and health strategies that inform and warn people about possible criminal social behaviors consequent danger to health. This systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. Alcohol, benzodiazepines and cocaine were among the most commonly detected substances. In most of the hospitals, immunoassays, liquid chromatography (LC-MS), or gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses were used to identify the substances, while the most frequently used biological matrices were blood and urine. From a judicial point of view, the instrumental protocols and techniques followed for the detection of toxics in different biological matrices must guarantee the reliability and validity of the results for use in a court of law. The recommendations of international organizations should be followed and must be called upon to strengthen their respective national laws against this chemical submission (CS) phenomenon.

Aerodynamic Thermal Breakup Droplet Ionization in Mass Spectrometric Drug Analysis

Aerodynamic thermal breakup droplet ionization (ATBDI) in mass spectrometric drug analysis is considered. Cocaine, heroin, and the main alkaloids of opium (morphine, codeine, papaverine) were chosen as the test compounds. The principles of ATBDI ionization are discussed. The dependences of the intensities of the peaks of the target compounds on temperature during ATBDI ionization are also considered. In some cases, a comparison of ATBDI ionization with electrospray ionization (ESI) was performed. In addition, a comparison of methods is demonstrated by the analysis of confiscated opium that was provided by the local police department. Five major alkaloids are found in opium: morphine, codeine, thebaine, papaverine, and narcotine.

Identification and Confirmation of Fentanyls on Paper using Portable Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy and Paper Spray Ionization Mass Spectrometry

Fentanyl and its analogues play a major role in the current opioid epidemic. In particular, these highly potent opioids have become a health hazard due to their use as additives in street drugs. Consequently, rapid on-site procedures for the analysis of this class of seized drugs are needed, especially considering the reported backlog of drug samples, which must undergo identification and confirmation tests to validate the presence of an illicit substance. Paper based devices are cheap sampling and analysis vehicles that have been shown capable of allowing rapid identification and confirmation of drugs of abuse. Modifying paper substrates by imprinting nanoparticles enables surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) as well as a second analysis from the same substrate, namely paper spray ionization mass spectrometry. While such a procedure has been described for laboratory use, these illicit drug samples are typically collected in the field and this is where testing should be done. We combine paper SERS and paper spray MS on field-portable and commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) devices for the rapid and low-cost identification and confirmation of fentanyl and its analogues, enabling in situ analysis at the point of seizure of suspect samples. The commercial nature of both instruments moves this technology from the academic realm to a setting where the criminal justice system can realistically utilize it. The capabilities of this single-substrate dual-analyzer technique are further examined by sampling a variety of surfaces of forensic interest.

TESTING OF DRUGS IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF CUSTOMS CONTROL IN UKRAINE: LEGAL ASPECTS

The purpose of the study is to analyze certain aspects of the legal regulation of the examination of medicines containing narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances, or precursors in the field of customs. To achieve this goal, we analyzed the number of customs examinations carried out, new narcotic compounds identified for the first time. An analysis of the understanding of the definition "examination" and "customs examination" in the scientific literature. Two directions of the implementation of expert examinations of medicines containing narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances, or precursors in the field of customs were identified, its concept was defined. It is proposed to attribute the investigative examination to the methods of customs control. It was found out that this examination is not a forensic examination, and it can be attributed to a special class of examinations, since it has characteristic features inherent only in it: subject, tasks, objects, and research methods. Seven stages of the implementation of expert examinations of medicinal products containing narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances, or precursors during customs control are highlighted and their procedural order is analyzed.

Application of a chemiluminescence immunoassay system and GC/MS for toxicological investigations on skeletonized human remains

Hair, larvae and cardiac muscle, the only biological samples present on a skeletonized human body found in a rural area, were used for forensic toxicological analyses in order to determine possible causes of death. Since no information about the victim or the circumstances of death was available (except for the place where the corpse was found, known to be a gathering place for drug addicts), the first approach for the analysis of non-conventional matrices involved the screening of different classes of active principles, using a chemiluminescence-based screening assay designed for whole blood. The immunoassay test results showed positivity to amphetamines, cocaine and opiates on water/methanol extract from cardiac tissue, larvae and hair samples. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analyses confirmed the immunoassay results, except for amphetamines. The minimal sample preparation (hydration and extraction in an ultrasonic bath), the reduced sample volume required for the analyses, together with the correctness of results as confirmed by GC/MS, showed the suitability of the screening test for forensic applications on non-conventional matrices. Quantitative analyses in GC/MS allowed the cause of death to be ascertained on the basis of the ratio between parent drugs and metabolites.

[Comparison of sample preparation techniques in chemical-toxicological analysis of urine for the presence of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and their metabolites]

The sample preparation procedures within undirected chemical-toxicological urine analysis for GCMS and HPLC-MS/MS methods are presented. These methods are intended for analytical diagnosis of the presence of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and their metabolites in humans.

Tracking narcotics consumption at a Southwestern U.S. university campus by wastewater-based epidemiology

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) was applied to estimate the consumption of twelve narcotics within a Southwestern U.S. university campus. Seven consecutive 24-hour composite raw wastewater samples (n = 80) were obtained once per month from sampling locations capturing >95% of campus-generated wastewater. Samples were analyzed for indicators of consumption of morphine, codeine, oxycodone, heroin, fentanyl, methadone, buprenorphine, amphetamine, methylphenidate, alprazolam, cocaine, and MDMA using LC-MS/MS. Eleven indicator compounds (oxycodone, codeine, norcodeine, 6-acetylmorphine, EDDP, amphetamine, alprazolam, alpha-hydroxyalprazolam, cocaine, benzoylecgonine, and MDMA) occurred at 100% detection frequency across the study, followed by morphine-3-glucuronide (98%), noroxycodone (95%), methylphenidate (90%), heroin (7%), norfentanyl (7%), and fentanyl (5%). Estimates of average narcotics consumption ranked as follows in units of mg/day/1000 persons: heroin (474 ± 32), cocaine (551 ± 49), amphetamine (256 ± 12), methylphenidate (236 ± 28), methadone (72 ± 8), oxycodone (80 ± 6), alprazolam (60 ± 2), MDMA (88 ± 35), codeine (50 ± 4), and morphine (18 ± 3). This campus-based WBE study yielded baseline data on 12 narcotics for a U.S. campus and demonstrated for the first time the feasibility of detecting the fentanyl metabolite norfentanyl in this setting.

THE EFFECT OF THE TRAMADOL ACCUMULATED IN RAT LIVER ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IMMATURE STAGES OF THE FLESH FLY SARCOPHAGA ARGYROSTOMA (ROBINEAU-DESVOIDY, 1830) (DIPTERA: SARCOPHAGIDAE)

The present study investigated the effects of the accumulation of tramadol on the development rates of the larvae and pupae. Larvae of the flesh fly Sarcophaga argyrostoma (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830) were reared on three groups of Wister albino rat livers. One group was administered the recommended or normal dose (Dl) and the second group was injected with higher over or double dose (D2) of tramadol. Tramadol was administered by stomach tube once a day, for 3 months. The third group was injected with normal saline solution as the control. Using GC-Ms analysis, Rat livers contained 0.72 and 1.62mg/g of tramadol, in case of Dl and D2, respectively. Larvae of S. argyrostoma fed on DI and D2 rat livers contained (0.11 & 0.1 8mg/g), respectively. The corresponding tramadol concentrations persisted in the produced pupae of S. argyrostoma were (0.07 & 0.09mg/g), respectively. The accumulation of tramadol in tissues of S. argyrostoma larvae reduced the durations of larval stadia from (7.0408 1.0198 days) in case of the control to (6.6383±0.4857 days) when fed on DI liver and (6.3438±0.4826 days) when fed on D2 livers. The pupal durations was altered to (14.3750±0.4919 days) for D2 and (14.9574±0.6580 days) for DI, compared to (13.9167±1.0071 days), in case of the control. The average weight of the 3rd day larva of S. argyrostoma decreased from 18.1807±1.4949mg, in case of the control to 14.7279±1.3366mg and 14.9560±3.8210mg, when fed on Dl and D2 tramadol treated livers. In contrast, corresponding weight produced pupae increased from 14.1750±0.4667mg (control). to 15.2449±0.302mg & 15.9062±0.2888mg, in case of D1 and D2, respectively.

[Optimization of the solid-phase extraction procedure for the screening of the medicinal and narcotic substances in the blood by gas chromatography with mass-spectrometric detection]

This paper was designed to describe the application of the method for solid-phase extraction of the medicinal and narcotic substances having different physicochemical composition by gas chromatography with mass-spectrometric detection (GC-MS) for the purpose of their screening in the blood. The solid-phase extraction technique was optimized by means of the Box-Behnken modeling with the evaluation of the influence on the effectiveness of extraction of various factors including pH of the buffer solution, eluent composition, the type and the volume of the solutions used to wash the sorbent.

Identifying cases of heroin toxicity where 6-acetylmorphine (6-AM) is not detected by toxicological analyses

PURPOSE

Heroin has a half-life of 2-6 min and is metabolized too quickly to be detected in autopsy samples. The presence of 6-acetylmophine (6-AM) in urine, blood, or other samples is convincing evidence of heroin use by a decedent, but 6-AM itself has a half-life of 6-25 min before it is hydrolyzed to morphine, so 6-AM may not be present in sufficient concentration to detect in postmortem samples. Codeine is often present in heroin preparations as an impurity and is not a metabolite of heroin. Studies report that a ratio of morphine to codeine greater than one indicates heroin use. We hypothesize that the ratio of morphine to codeine in our decedents abusing drugs intravenously will be no different in individuals with 6-AM present than in individuals where no 6-AM is detected, and we report our study of this hypothesis.

METHODS

All accidental deaths investigated by the Jefferson County Coroner/Medical Examiner Office from 2010 to 2013 with morphine detected in blood samples collected at autopsy were reviewed. Five deaths where trauma caused or contributed to death were excluded from the review. The presence or absence of 6-AM and the concentrations of morphine and codeine were recorded for each case. The ratio of morphine to codeine was calculated for all decedents. Any individual in whom no morphine or codeine was detected in a postmortem sample was excluded from further study. Absence or presence of drug paraphernalia or evidence of intravascular (IV) drug use was documented in each case to identify IV drug users. The proportion of the IV drug users with and without 6-AM present in a postmortem sample was compared to the M/C ratio for the individuals.

RESULTS

Of the 230 deaths included in the analysis, 103 IV drug users with quantifiable morphine and codeine in a postmortem sample were identified allowing for calculation of an M/C ratio. In these IV drug users, the M/C ratio was greater than 1 in 98 % of decedents. When controlling for the absence or presence of 6-AM there was no statistically significant difference in the proportion of IV drug users when compared to non IV drug users with an M/C ratio of greater than 1 (p = 1.000).

CONCLUSION

The M/C ratio in IV drug users, if greater than 1, is seen in deaths due to heroin toxicity where 6-AM is detected in a postmortem sample. This study provides evidence that a M/C ratio greater than one in an IV drug user is evidence of a death due to heroin toxicity even if 6-AM is not detected in the blood. Using the M/C ratio, in addition to scene and autopsy findings, provides sufficient evidence to show heroin is the source of the morphine and codeine. Listing heroin as a cause or contributing factor in deaths with evidence of IV drug abuse and where the M/C ratio exceeds 1 will improve identification of heroin fatalities, which will allow better allocation of resources for public health initiatives.

Ion mobility spectrometry nuisance alarm threshold analysis for illicit narcotics based on environmental background and a ROC-curve approach

The discriminative potential of an ion mobility spectrometer (IMS) for trace detection of illicit narcotics relative to environmental background was investigated with a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve framework. The IMS response of cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and Δ(9)-tetrahydro-cannabinol (THC) was evaluated against environmental background levels derived from the screening of incoming delivery vehicles at a federal facility. Over 20 000 samples were collected over a multiyear period under two distinct sets of instrument operating conditions, a baseline mode and an increased desorption/drift tube temperature and sampling time mode. ROC curves provided a quantifiable representation of the interplay between sensitivity (true positive rate, TPR) and specificity (1 - false positive rate, FPR). A TPR of 90% and minimized FPR were targeted as the detection limits of IMS for the selected narcotics. MDMA, THC, and cocaine demonstrated single nanogram sensitivity at 90% TPR and <10% FPR, with improvements to both MDMA and cocaine in the elevated temperature/increased sampling mode. Detection limits in the tens of nanograms with poor specificity (FPR ≈ 20%) were observed for methamphetamine and heroin under baseline conditions. However, elevating the temperature reduced the background in the methamphetamine window, drastically improving its response (90% TPR and 3.8% FPR at 1 ng). On the contrary, the altered mode conditions increased the level of background for THC and heroin, partially offsetting observed enhancements to desorption. The presented framework demonstrated the significant effect environmental background distributions have on sensitivity and specificity.

Saliva as a Diagnostic Matrix for Drug Abuse

Scientific interest in saliva as a diagnostic matrix has greatly increased over the last decade. The Triage® screening test (Biosite Diagnostics), a rapid immunological test used to detect recreational drugs in the urine, was used to compare two biological matrixes: a non-conventional one, saliva, and a traditional one, urine. Twenty-one drug abusers collected one urine and one saliva specimen, both of which were tested with the Triage kit. Data were validated by gas-chromatography-mass-spectrometry (GC-MS). Results were positive for methadone in 9 saliva and 14 urine specimens, for opiates in 2 and 10, respectively, and for barbiturates in 2 specimens. Saliva specimens were negative for cannabis, THC, benzodiazepines and tricyclic antidepressants, although the GC-MS analysis revealed low concentrations of these drugs in the saliva. The study demonstrates the possibility of using saliva as a diagnostic matrix to test for drug-taking; however, the Triage kit must be improved before being used with saliva.

Portable Deep-Ultraviolet (DUV) Raman for Standoff Detection

Alakai Defense Systems has recently developed a man-portable ultraviolet Raman spectrometer system. The portable Raman improvised explosives detector was designed to provide rapid, standoff detection of chemicals of interest to the end user, including, but not limited to explosives, narcotics, toxic industrial chemicals, and toxic industrial materials. In this paper, we discuss general aspects of the system design and user interface. Spectral and instrument performance data are shown for several common materials involved in narcotics manufacture, as well as cocaine and heroin, with comparisons to currently marketed handheld Raman instruments.

[Peculiarities of chemico-toxicological analysis of biological material aimed to detection of narcotic and psychoactive substances misuse by servicemen]

The authors give an approval of military personnel biosphere research, which is necessary for prevention and early detection of substance misuse among military personnel of the Armed Forces. The article provides documents, regulating procedure of the chemico-toxicological analysis of a biological material, and staging of early detection of substance misuse among conscripts and professional soldiers. The authors gave information about main current problems of this activity, revealed its disadvantages and detected prevention measures.

Methadone-related deaths. A ten year overview

Over the last 10 years we have registered in our district (about 500,000 inhabitants) 36 cases of fatal methadone poisoning, involving both patients on treatment and naive subjects: this is a significant increase of deaths due to methadone use, misuse or abuse compared with previous years. Twenty-four patients (66.7%) were on methadone maintenance programs for heroin detoxification, while 12 (33.3%) were taking the drug without a medical prescription. The average blood concentration of methadone in patients undergoing a maintenance program was 1.06 mg/L (0.21-3.37 mg/L), against 0.79 mg/L (0.2-3.15 mg/L) in those taking the non-prescribed drug. Since 111 heroin-related deaths were recorded in our district in the same period, the fact that there appear to be many methadone deaths (about a third of heroin-related deaths) cannot be overlooked. The aim of this work is to understand the possible reasons for such a large number of methadone-related deaths. On this subject, we have noticed that risks associated with methadone intake are often underestimated by clinicians prescribing the drug: sometimes methadone is prescribed without taking into account patient's tolerance to opiates, and a large number of subjects enrolled in methadone maintenance programs in Italy, have also been given take-home doses, thus increasing the risk of abuse and diversion.

Are empty methadone bottles empty? An analytic study

BACKGROUND

Methadone maintenance treatment is the most widely prescribed treatment for opiate dependence with proven benefits for patients. In naïve users or in case of recreational misuse, methadone can be a source of potentially lethal intoxications, resulting in fatal overdoses. A few cases of infantile intoxications have been described in the literature, some of which resulted in death. Nowadays, more than 50,000 bottles are used every day in France, most of which are thrown away in the bin. Relatives at home, especially children, can have access to these empty bottles. This study aims to determine whether the residual quantity of methadone in the bottles is associated with a risk of intoxication for someone who has a low tolerance to opiates, such as a child.

METHODS

The methadone dosage left in a sample of 175 bottles recapped after use by the patients taking their maintenance treatment in an addiction treatment program centre was analysed during a 2-week period in March 2013.

RESULTS

The mean residual quantity of methadone left in each bottle after use is 1.9 ± 1.8 mg and 3.3 ± 2.4 mg in the sample of 60 mg bottles.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a potential danger of accidental overdose with empty bottles of methadone syrup, especially for children. To take into account this hazard, several harm reduction strategies can be proposed, such as favouring the taking of the treatment within the delivery centres rather than the 'take home' doses, asking methadone users to bring back their used bottles, and raising patients' awareness of the intoxication risks and the necessary everyday precautions. For stable patients with take home methadone, the use of capsules could be considered.

Rapid identification of a narcotic plant Papaver bracteatum using flow cytometry

In May 2011, numerous poppy plants closely resembling Papaver bracteatum Lindl., a type of narcotic plant that is illegal in Japan, were distributed directly from several large flower shops or through online shopping throughout Japan, including the Tokyo Metropolitan area. In order to better identify the narcotic plants, the relative nuclear DNA content at the vegetative stage was measured by flow cytometric (FCM) analysis in 3 closely-related species of the genus Papaver section Oxytona, namely P. orientale, P. pseudo-orientale, and P. bracteatum, based on the difference between the chromosome numbers of these species. The results showed that the nuclear DNA content differed between these 3 species, and that most of the commercially distributed plants examined in this study could be identified as P. bracteatum. The remaining plants were P. pseudo-orientale, a non-narcotic plant. In addition, the FCM results for the identification of P. bracteatum completely agreed with the results obtained by the morphological analysis, the inter-genic spacer sequence of rpl16-rpl14 (PS-ID sequence) of chloroplast DNA, and the presence of thebaine. These results clearly indicate the usefulness of FCM analysis for the identification of P. bracteatum plants, including when they are in their vegetative stage.

Flash desorption/mass spectrometry for the analysis of less- and nonvolatile samples using a linearly driven heated metal filament

In this paper, the important issue of the desorption of less- and nonvolatile compounds with minimal sample decomposition in ambient mass spectrometry is approached using ambient flash desorption mass spectrometry. The preheated stainless steel filament was driven down and up along the vertical axis in 0.3 s. At the lowest position, it touched the surface of the sample with an invasion depth of 0.1 mm in 50 ms (flash heating) and was removed from the surface (fast cooling). The heating rate corresponds to ~10(4) °C/s at the filament temperature of 500 °C. The desorbed gaseous molecules were ionized by using a dielectric barrier discharge ion source, and the produced ions were detected by a time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometer. Less-volatile samples, such as pharmaceutical tablets, narcotics, explosives, and C60 gave molecular and protonated molecule ions as major ions with thermal decomposition minimally suppressed. For synthetic polymers (PMMA, PLA, and PS), the mass spectra reflected their backbone structures because of the suppression of the sequential thermal decompositions of the primary products. The present technique appears to be suitable for high-throughput qualitative analyses of many types of solid samples in the range from a few ng to 10 μg with minimal sample consumption. Some contribution from tribodesorption in addition to thermal desorption was suggested for the desorption processes. Figure ᅟ

Causes of sudden death in patients with obstructive sleep apnea

There are few autopsy studies of patients dying suddenly with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Twenty-five forensic autopsies of unexpected sudden death in individuals with OSA were reviewed. The causes of death were as follows: cardiomyopathy (n = 11); sudden unexpected death without morphologic findings (SUDNA, n = 6); and other cardiovascular diseases not related to OSA (n = 8). The cardiomyopathy group comprised five hearts with concentric left ventricular hypertrophy without dilatation and six with left ventricular diameter >4 cm (dilated cardiomyopathy). Four of six hearts in the SUDNA group showed right ventricular dilatation compared with seven of 11 showed cardiomyopathy and one of eight miscellaneous. The degree of obesity was greatest in the dilated cardiomyopathy group (10 of 11 obese) followed by the SUDNA group (four of six obese). The cardiac findings in patients dying suddenly and unexpectedly with OSA include nonspecific cardiomyopathy, other cardiac conditions, and hearts without a morphologic cause of death, which show frequent right ventricular dilatation as the only finding.

The analysis of plant-based raw materials of unknown origin

Chosen aspects of the safety of use of several herbs received from National Medicines Institute, which came from smuggling, have been examined. The analysis has been conducted in three different aspects: (1) Possibilities of contamination of plant-based raw materials by metals of heavy elements (As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Pb). (2) Conscious smuggling of intoxicating preparation or narcotics in plant-based raw materials. (3) Radioactive contamination originating mostly from 137Cs isotope. To solve the problem, analytical methods of GFAAS and ICP-MS, X-ray diffraction and high-distributive spectrometry of gamma-radiation have been applied. Determined concentration of arsenic in all analyzed samples and the concentration of lead in one sample exceeded allowable concentration recommended by WHO. In analyzed materials, no presence of narcotics or radioactive contamination of 137Cs isotope has been detected.

Drivers under the influence of drugs of abuse: quantification of cocaine and impaired driving

In recent years, the interest in oral fluid as a biological matrix has significantly increased, particularly for detecting driving under the influence of drugs. In this study, the concentration of cocaine and its relationship with clinical symptoms in drivers suspected of driving under the influence of drugs was evaluated. A total of 154 samples of oral fluid, which tested positive for cocaine in previous immunoassay screening, Cozart Drug Detector System, were confirmed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method. In Catalonia, during 2007-2010, there were 1791 samples positive for cocaine among a total of 3468 samples taken from drivers who tested positive for any drug of abuse. The evaluation of clinical symptoms was through a questionnaire that was filled in by the police officers who collected the samples. The mean concentration of cocaine was 4.11 mg/l and median concentration was 0.38 mg/l (range 0.01-345.64 mg/l). Clinical impairment symptoms such as motor coordination, walking, speech, mood and state of pupils were not significant. The testing of oral fluids presents fewer ethical problems than blood or urine.

Determination of stimulants using gas chromatography/high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry and a soft ionization source

RATIONALE

The aim of this study was to investigate the mass spectral fragmentation of a small set of stimulants in a high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometer equipped with a soft ionization source using vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) photons emitted from different plasma gases. It was postulated that the use of a plasma gas such as Xe, which emits photons at a lower energy than Kr or Ar, would lead to softer ionization of the test compounds, and thus to less fragmentation.

METHODS

A set of nine stimulants: cocaine, codeine, nicotine, methadone, phenmetrazine, pentylenetetrazole, niketamide, fencamfamine, and caffeine, was analyzed by gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC/TOFMS) in positive ion mode with this soft ionization source, using either Xe, Kr, or Ar as plasma gases. Working solutions of the test compounds at 0.1 to 100 ng/μL were used to establish instrument sensitivity and linearity.

RESULTS

All test compounds, except methadone and pentylenetetrazole, exhibited strong molecular ions and no fragmentation with Xe-microplasma photoionization (MPPI). Methadone exhibited significant fragmentation not only with Xe, but also with Kr and Ar, and pentylenetetrazole could not be ionized with Xe, probably because its ionization energy is above 8.44 eV. The Kr- and Ar-MPPI mass spectra of the test compounds showed that the relative intensity of the molecular ion decreased as the photon energy increased.

CONCLUSIONS

When coupled to a TOF mass spectrometer this soft ionization source has demonstrated signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios from 7 to 730 at 100 pg per injection (depending on the compound), and a dynamic range of three orders of magnitude (100 pg to 100 ng) for some of the test compounds.

[Determination of morphine and codeine in forensic chemical studies with the use of a single quadrupole mass-selective detector coupled to the HPLC system]

It was shown that a single quadrupole mass-selective detector coupled to the HPLC system can be used in forensic chemical practice for the detection and quantitative measurement of morphine and codeine in forensic in various biological objects. An algorithm for the reliable identification of opiates in a concentration range starting from 0.002 mg% with a relative error below 20% (mean ca 9.5%) is proposed.

[Estimation of the usage of psychoactive substances in academic campus based on analysis of municipal waste water]

Important source of objective information about the nature and the scale of the usage of psychoactive substances becomes test of municipal waste water or surface water. From the analytical chemistry point of view municipal waste water are a complex mixture of substances therefore the authoritative analysis requires careful planning of both the place of sampling and the use of effective methods of research. The aim of this work was the attempt to estimate the scale of the usage of narcotic drugs in the academic campus Kortowo in Olsztyn during the students May holidays "Kortowiady". The positive results of the concentration of 11 -nor-9-carboxy-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) and amphetamines in the samples of effluent shall indicate the need to continue research in this field and improvement methods for the determination of narcotic drugs.

[Semi-quantitative determination of methadone by TLC]

Methadone is the main therapeutic option in heroin addiction treatment, but also an abuse substance. Given the analytical focus on the diagnosis of drug abuse and the usefulness of toxicological analysis methods in both overdose and monitoring substitution therapy, this study was aimed at the semi-quantitative determination of methadone by using Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC). By having the advantage of simplicity and rapidity, TLC finds its rightful place among the analysis methods when other relatively costly methods that involve instrumental performance are not available.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

TLC plates (silicagel GF 254 Merck), developing system methanol: strong ammonia 100: 1,5, photometric quantification at 254 nm, using TLC Scanner 3 (Camag).

RESULTS

The results show that methadone can be determined semi-quantitatively in the chromatographic conditions mentioned in the two domains tested (5 - 40 microg and 10 - 80 microg), with the best results obtained in the 5 - 40 microg domain.

CONCLUSIONS

Semi-quantitative TLC evaluation proposed by us has as main advantages the rapidity, simplicity and relatively low cost compared to other useful methods.

[The application of chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques for the analysis of certain antiinflammatory agents]

Optimal conditions for the separation of diclofenac and ketorolac in the presence of other pharmaceutical products and narcotic substances are described with the help of gas and high performance liquid chromatography. The detection limits for individual compounds were established and the characteristic ions were identified. The possibility of application of IR- and UV-spectroscopy for the analysis of selected narcotic and non-narcotic analgesics was evaluated.

Qualitative analysis using Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics: a comprehensive model system for narcotics analysis

The rapid, on-site identification of illicit narcotics, such as cocaine, is hindered by the diverse nature of the samples, which can contain a large variety of materials in a wide concentration range. This sample variance has a very strong influence on the analytical methodologies that can be utilized and in general prevents the widespread use of quantitative analysis of illicit narcotics on a routine basis. Raman spectroscopy, coupled with chemometric methods, can be used for in situ qualitative and quantitative analysis of illicit narcotics; however, careful consideration must be given to dealing with the extensive variety of sample types. To assess the efficacy of combining Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics for the identification of a target analyte under real-world conditions, a large-scale model sample system (633 samples) using a target (acetaminophen) mixed with a wide variety of excipients was created. Materials that exhibit problematic factors such as fluorescence, variable Raman scattering intensities, and extensive peak overlap were included to challenge the efficacy of chemometric data preprocessing and classification methods. In contrast to spectral matching analyte identification approaches, we have taken a chemometric classification model-based approach to account for the wide variances in spectral data. The first derivative of the Raman spectra from the fingerprint region (750-1900 cm(-1)) yielded the best classifications. Using a robust segmented cross-validation method, correct classification rates of better than ∼90% could be attained with regression-based classification, compared to ∼35% for SIMCA. This study demonstrates that even with very high degrees of sample variance, as evidenced by dramatic changes in Raman spectra, it is possible to obtain reasonably reliable identification using a combination of Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics. The model sample set can now be used to validate more advanced chemometric or machine learning algorithms being developed for the identification of analytes such as illicit narcotics.

Methadone toxicity in infants: a report of two fatalities

Fatalities in infants resulting from methadone toxicity are rare within the United Kingdom. We report two cases of fatality attributed to methadone toxicity in infants aged 3(1/2) and 15 months of age, respectively. One of the two cases was also associated with diazepam ingestion. We discuss the difficulties with the interpretation of paediatric forensic toxicology and review the current literature related to methadone and diazepam toxicity in infants and older children.

[Application of hair analysis of selected psychoactive substances for medico-legal purposes. Part II. Cases of complex fatal poisonings: interactions of heroine - cocaine - amphetamines]

The study represents an attempt at employing segmental hair analysis in complex poisonings with xenobiotic mixtures of heroine - cocaine - amphetamines in the context of the cause of death as a consequence of complex interaction mechanisms which occurred prior to death. Two cases of complex poisonings: heroine - cocaine and heroine - cocaine - amphetamines were analyzed and documented with macro- and microscopic examinations and complex toxicological examinations, including the analysis of classic biological material, i.e. samples of selective blood, and alternative material, i.e. hair samples. Determinations of opioids, cocaine and its metabolite and amphetamines in the hair biological matrix were performed using high performance liquid chromatography--atmospheric pressure chemical ionization--tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-APCI-MS-MS). Segmental hair analysis of the investigated cases indicated a prolonged intake of similar psychoactive substances and a developed adaptation of the addicted to interaction mechanisms, which, however, led gradually to multiorgan anatomopathological changes, and in consequence to death.

Monitoring of opiates, cannabinoids and their metabolites in wastewater, surface water and finished water in Catalonia, Spain

The occurrence of several opiates and cannabinoids in wastewaters and surface waters has been investigated. Most of the compounds (8 out of 11) were identified in both influent and effluents of fifteen wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Codeine, morphine, EDDP and methadone were detected in almost all samples with median values of 69ng/L; 63ng/L; 28ng/L and 18ng/L, respectively, whereas the main cannabinoid metabolite THC-COOH presented a median value of 57ng/L in influents. A rough estimate of heroin and cannabis consumption was performed from the analysis of target urinary metabolites in wastewater influents. Data obtained from influents of rural and urban WWTPs gave 0.07% of heroin consumption (0.67% for the largest urban WWTP) and 4% consumption of cannabinoids, respectively for the population aged between 15 and 64 years old. The presence of opiates and cannabinoids in surface waters used for drinking water production showed the presence of the same compounds identified in wastewater effluents at concentrations up to 76ng/L for codeine; 31ng/L for EDDP; 12ng/L for morphine and 9ng/L for methadone at the intake of the DWTP. A complete removal of all studied drugs present in surface water was achieved during the potabilization process except for methadone and EDDP (91% and 87% removal, respectively).

A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for the simultaneous quantification of 20 drugs of abuse and metabolites in human meconium

A method for the simultaneous quantification of 20 cocaine, amphetamine, opiate, and nicotine analytes in meconium, the first neonatal feces, by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was developed and validated. Specimen preparation included methanol homogenization and solid phase extraction. Two injections were required to achieve sufficient sensitivity and linear dynamic range. Linearity ranged from 0.5-25 up to 500 ng/g (250 ng/g p-hydroxymethamphetamine), and correlation coefficients were >0.996. Imprecision was <10.0% CV, analytical recovery 85.5-123.1%, and extraction efficiencies >46.7% at three concentrations across the linear range. Despite significant matrix effects of -305.7-40.7%, effects were similar for native and deuterated analytes. No carryover, endogenous or exogenous interferences were observed, with analyte stability at room temperature, 4 degrees C, and -20 degrees C and on the autosampler >70%, except for 6-acetylmorphine, hydrocodone, oxycodone, and morphine. Method applicability was demonstrated by analyzing meconium from drug-exposed neonates.

Cocaine and metabolites in waste and surface water across Belgium

Cocaine abuse, a growing social problem, is currently estimated from population surveys, consumer interviews and crime statistics. A new approach based on the analysis of cocaine (COC) and metabolites, benzoylecgonine (BE) and ecgonine methyl ester (EME), in water samples was applied to 28 rivers and 37 waste water treatment plants in Belgium using solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. While EME was undetectable, COC and BE were detectable with concentrations ranging from <1 to 753 ng/L and <1 to 2258 ng/L, respectively. BE concentrations were employed to calculate the local amount of abused cocaine. The highest values (up to 1.8 g/day cocaine per 1000 inhabitants) were found in large cities and during weekends. The estimation of cocaine abuse through water analysis can be executed on regular basis without cooperation of patients. It also gives clear geographical information, while prevention campaigns can easily be implemented and evaluated.

[Hair analysis of abused drugs with gas-chromatography mass spectrometry]

Beside the traditionally used body-fluids, defining the abuse-material by the use of hair samples is more and more widespread in the forensic toxicological practice. Using the hair allows the rectrospective examination of the abuse-material, and due to the sensitive measuring technics, even one-time use can be proven. A further possibility is the segment-analysis which allows investigation of the abuse-history retroactive for months depending on the length of the hair. The quantitative parameters of the abuse can not always be estimated precisely since the details of the build-up in the hair are complicated and are not clear even today. Furthermore, the sampling, sample preparation and the measuring method will all influence the results. Our paper reviews the opiates, cocain, amfetamin derivatives, cannabinoids, alcohol-consumption markers and the frequently found drugs in the forensic toxicology as determined by using hair samples.

An integrated QCM-based narcotics sensing microsystem

We present the design, fabrication and successful testing of a 14x14x4 mm3 integrated electronic narcotics sensing system which consists of only four parts. The microsystem absorbs airborne narcotics molecules and performs a liquid assay using an integrated quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). A vertically conductive double-sided adhesive foil (VCAF) was used and studied as a novel material for LOC and MEMS applications and provides easy assembly, electrical contacting and liquid containment. The system was tested for measuring cocaine and ecstasy, with successful detection of amounts as small as 100 ng and 200 ng, respectively. These levels are of interest in security activities in customs, prisons and by the police.

Formation of the N-methylpyridinium derivative to improve the detection of buprenorphine by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

The legally defensible identification of the narcotic, analgesic buprenorphine, in biological specimen requires considerable sensitivity due to its low therapeutic dosages and corresponding target concentrations. Application of liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry, which became the default method for buprenorphine detection, is impeded by the disadvantageous fragmentation of the stable precursor ion producing unspecific product ions of comparatively low abundance. A chemical modification to form the N-methylpyridinium ether derivative of buprenorphine is presented to improve the selectivity and sensitivity of its detection by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The reaction of buprenorphine with 2-fluoro-1-methyl-pyridinium-p-toluene-sulfonate and triethylamine as catalyst was accomplished in acetonitrile at an ambient temperature yielding a chemically stable derivative. Fragmentation of the permanently charged precursor ion (m/z = 559) leads to the formation of diagnostic and abundant fragments (e.g. m/z = 443 and 450) representing all parts of the molecule. The application of the technique to the identification of buprenorphine in hair samples demonstrates a high specificity, availability of sufficient qualifier ions and a significant (approximately 8-fold) improvement of detection limits with respect to comparable experiments based on underivatised buprenorphine.

Stability of methadone and its main metabolite in oral fluid

Saliva is a readily available specimen that can be collected by non-invasive procedures and contains many drugs of interest in screening and diagnosis. It is obtained by a painless and non invasive method of sampling; it contains the free fraction of drugs and therefore it is a good indicator of intoxication state. Inspite of its usefulness, only a few studies on long-term storage have been conducted for some drugs of abuse, while methadone stability have not been investigated yet. This lack in standardization and the scarcity of analytical protocols actually restrict saliva applications. Authors studied methadone stability on saliva during 12 months. Fifty-nine saliva samples were collected from heroin addicts in methadone treatment with the Cozart Rapiscan Collection procedure. The samples, spiked with tri-deuterated internal standards analogs of methadone and 2-ethyl-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenyl-pyrrolinium perchlorate (EDDP), were submitted to Solid Phase MicroExtraction-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS) technique. Quantitative determinations of methadone and EDDP were performed immediately and after various intervals (one month, two months, twelve months). The results obtained from this experiment show that methadone is sufficiently stable at 4 degrees C until 2 months, while a decrease have been observed for EDDP. These preliminary data prove the need to perform the analysis in a brief time, to avoid loss of EDDP. For the correct use of this biological matrix, more research and guidelines are recommended for drug testing on saliva.

Methadone in hair and sweat from patients in long-term maintenance therapy

The authors refer to their experience with alternative matrices to supervise the methadone therapy of heroin abusers. For this purpose, hair, sweat, and urine samples were collected from 10 heroin addicts and from a control group and were submitted to gas chromatographic/mass spectroscopic analysis for methadone and its main metabolite, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), determination. The advantages of alternative matrices to urine samples in the supervision of methadone maintenance therapy are discussed. In particular, the detection of methadone in sweat could be a preferable option to the urine matrix as a result of the feasibility of sampling that allows noninvasive collection, which is not susceptible to adulteration. The ratio between EDDP and methadone in sweat and hair was also calculated to provide information about program agreement.

A microarray chip for label-free detection of narcotics

A protein array chip for label-free optical detection of low molecular weight compounds has been developed. As a proof of principle, the chip is proven capable of rapidly (approximately 1 min) determining hits from aqueous cocktails composed of four common narcotics, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin, and amphetamine, using imaging surface plasmon resonance (SPR) as the detection principle. The chip is produced by injecting a mixture of antibodies and letting them self-sort and bind to narcotic analog coupled proteins already present in a predefined pattern on the supporting substrate. An indirect detection method, where antibodies are displaced from the surface upon recognition of their corresponding narcotics, is used to obtain the optical contrast and thus a detectable SPR and/or ellipsometric signal. Two types of readouts are possible from the present setup: intensity SPR images and SPR/ellipsometric sensorgrams. Positive hits were routinely obtained for analyte concentrations of 50 pg/microL and the limit of detection, without any parameter optimizations, seems to fall in the range 0.5 pg/microL (1.4 nM) for heroin, 2.5 pg/microL (8.2 nM) for cocaine, and 5 pg/microL for the other two narcotics (26 nM for ecstasy and 37 nM for amphetamine). With improved readout possibilities (sampling frequency), signal evaluation algorithms, and antibody-antigen design strategies, we believe this limit can be further improved. The chip is shown to work for many measurement cycles with excellent reproducibility. Moreover, with a more advanced fluidic system, excess injected antibodies could be collected and reused for many cycles, which could make the running costs of the system very low. The chip is in no way limited to detection of narcotics. Other low molecular weight compounds could easily be detected on the same chip. For example, trinitrotoluene detection has already been demonstrated using our chip. Possible areas of application for the system are therefore envisaged in airport and underground transport security, customs, drug interdiction, forensics, and as warning alerts on military equipment and personnel.

Roadside oral fluid testing: Comparison of the results of Drugwipe 5 and Drugwipe Benzodiazepines on-site tests with laboratory confirmation results of oral fluid and whole blood

Drugged drivers pose a serious threat to other people in traffic as well as to themselves. Reliable oral fluid screening devices for on-site screening of drugged drivers would be both a useful and convenient means for traffic control. In this study we evaluated the appropriateness of Drugwipe 5 and Drugwipe Benzodiazepines oral fluid on-site tests for roadside drug screening. Drivers suspected of driving under the influence of drugs were screened with the Drugwipe tests. Oral fluid and whole blood samples were collected from the drivers and tested for amphetamine-type stimulant drugs, cannabis, opiates, cocaine and benzodiazepines by immunological methods, GC and GC-MS. The performance evaluations of the tests were made by comparing the results of the Drugwipe tests with laboratory GC-MS confirmation results of oral fluid or whole blood. In addition to the performance evaluations of the Drugwipe tests based on laboratory results, a questionnaire on the practical aspects of the tests was written for the police officers who performed the tests. The aim of the questionnaire was to obtain user comments on the practicality of the tests as well as the advantages and weak points of the tests. The results of the performance evaluations were: for oral fluid (sensitivity; specificity; accuracy) amphetamines (95.5%; 92.9%; 95.3%), cannabis (52.2%; 91.2%; 85.1%), cocaine (50.0%; 99.3%; 98.6%), opiates (100%; 95.8%; 95.9%), benzodiazepines (74.4%; 84.2%; 79.2%) and for whole blood accordingly, amphetamines (97.7%; 86.7%; 95.9%), cannabis (68.3%; 87.9%; 84.9%), cocaine (50.0%; 98.5%; 97.7%), opiates (87.5%; 96.9%; 96.6%) and benzodiazepines (66.7%; 87.0%; 74.4%). Although the Drugwipe 5 successfully detected amphetamine-type stimulant drugs and the police officers were quite pleased with the current features of the Drugwipe tests, improvements must still be made regarding the detection of cannabis and benzodiazepines.

Fatal poisoning by alcohol and heroin

Drug abuse with alcohol consumption have been on the rise in Split-Dalmatian County for a while now. This article reports two separate cases with three deaths due to fatal combinations of heroin and alcohol. The first case of poisoning is related to a young couple, a 30-year-old man and a 28-year-old woman, who were found dead in a car, surrounded by cans of a variety alcoholic drinks. Two needles were found beside the bodies as well. The victims were registered drug abusers who had been in withdrawal programs. The second case was a 29-year-old man who was found dead in a house. Three fresh injection marks were visible on his right arm, and two needles were near his body. He was not known as a drug addict, but he had tried to commit suicide recently. Carboxyhaemoglobin was found in blood samples of both victims from the first case. The concentration was 25% and that could contribute to their death. In both described cases blood alcohol concentration was higher then 1.60 g kg(-1). Toxicology tests were positive for heroin, meconin, acetaminophen, 6-acetylmorphine, codeine, noscapine and papaverine. Ethanol, being a respiratory depressant, combined with morphine drastically increases the risk of rapid death due to respiration failure.

Evaluation of the IDS One-Step™ ELISA kits for the detection of illicit drugs in hair

This work presents the validation of a new immunological assay, the One-Step enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests from International Diagnostic Systems Corp. for the screening of drugs of abuse (cannabis, amphetamines, opiates, and cocaine) in human hair, with subsequent GC-MS confirmation. After decontamination and segmentation into small pieces, 50 mg of hair sample were incubated in 1 ml of methanol during 16 h at 40 degrees C. A 100 microL aliquot was collected and evaporated to dryness in presence of 100 microL of methanol/hydrochloric acid (99:1, v/v) to avoid amphetamines loss. The dried extract was dissolved in 100 microL of the "sample and standard diluent" solution included in the kit. This solution was submitted to analysis according to the recommended instructions of the manufacturer. During the validation phase, GC-MS confirmations were conducted according to our fully validated and published methods for opiates, cocaine, cannabis, and amphetamines determinations in hair. In a last development step, these procedures were slightly modified to directly confirm ELISA results by GC-MS using the methanolic extract. Ninety-three specimens were simultaneously screened by the ELISA tests (103 for tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)) and confirmed by GC-MS. Twenty were found positive for cannabis (THC: 0.10-6.50 ng/mg), 21 for cocaine (0.50-55.20 ng/mg), 24 for opiates (6-acetylmorphine (6-AM): 0.20-11.60 ng/mg, MOR: 0.20-8.90 ng/mg, codeine (COD): 0.20-5.90 ng/mg), and 13 for amphetamines (AP: 0.20 and 0.27 ng/mg, methamphetamine (MAP): 0.30 and 1.10 ng/mg, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): 0.22-17.80 ng/mg). No false negative results were observed according to the Society of Hair Testing's (SoHT) cutoffs (0.5 ng/mg for cocaine, 0.2 ng/mg for opiates and amphetamines, and 0.1 ng/mg for THC). The One-Step ELISA kits appear suitable due to their sensitivity and specificity for drug of abuse screening in hair. This technology should find interest in workplace drug testing or driving license regranting, especially when many samples have to be tested with a high rate of negative samples, as ELISA is an easy and high-throughput method.

Confirmation by LC–MS of drugs in oral fluid obtained from roadside testing

The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of two current on-site oral fluid (OF) drug detection devices (OraLab and Dräger), as part of the Spanish participation in the Roadside Testing Assessment Project (ROSITA Project). The study was done in collaboration with the Spanish Traffic Police, in Galicia (NW Spain), during 2004 and 2005. A total of 468 drivers selected at the police controls agreed to participate through informed consent. In addition, saliva samples were collected and sent to the laboratory to confirm the on-site results. For this purpose, two different analytical liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methods were used to detect 11 drugs or metabolites in a 300 microL sample. Simultaneous analysis of morphine, 6-acetylmorphine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDA, MDMA, MDEA, MBDB, cocaine and benzoylecgonine was carried out using 100 microL of oral fluid, after an automated solid phase extraction. A different LC-MS method was performed to detect Delta(9)-THC in 200 microL of oral fluid using liquid-liquid extraction with hexane at pH 6. Both methods were fully validated, including linearity (1-250 ng/mL, 2-250 ng/mL) recovery (>50%), within-day and between-day precision (CV<15%), accuracy (mean relative error<15%), limit of detection (0.5 and 1 ng/mL), quantitation (1 and 2 ng/mL) and matrix effect. All of the positive cases and a random selection of 30% of the negatives were analyzed for confirmation analysis. Good results (sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, positive predictive value and negative predictive value>90%) were obtained for cocaine and opiates by OraLab, and for cocaine by Dräger. However, the results for the other compounds could be improved for both detection devices. Differences in the ease of use and in the interpretation mode (visual or instrumental) were observed.