Neural evidence supports a dual sensory-motor role for insect wings

Flying insects use feedback from various sensory modalities including vision and mechanosensation to navigate through their environment. The rapid speed of mechanosensory information acquisition and processing compensates for the slower processing times associated with vision, particularly under low light conditions. While halteres in dipteran species are well known to provide such information for flight control, less is understood about the mechanosensory roles of their evolutionary antecedent, wings. The features that wing mechanosensory neurons (campaniform sensilla) encode remains relatively unexplored. We hypothesized that the wing campaniform sensilla of the hawkmoth, Manduca sexta, rapidly and selectively extract mechanical stimulus features in a manner similar to halteres. We used electrophysiological and computational techniques to characterize the encoding properties of wing campaniform sensilla. To accomplish this, we developed a novel technique for localizing receptive fields using a focused IR laser that elicits changes in the neural activity of mechanoreceptors. We found that (i) most wing mechanosensors encoded mechanical stimulus features rapidly and precisely, (ii) they are selective for specific stimulus features, and (iii) there is diversity in the encoding properties of wing campaniform sensilla. We found that the encoding properties of wing campaniform sensilla are similar to those for haltere neurons. Therefore, it appears that the neural architecture that underlies the haltere sensory function is present in wings, which lends credence to the notion that wings themselves may serve a similar sensory function. Thus, wings may not only function as the primary actuator of the organism but also as sensors of the inertial dynamics of the animal.

Carbon Nanofiber Cement Sensors to Detect Strain and Damage of Concrete Specimens Under Compression

Cement composites with nano-additions have been vastly studied for their functional applications, such as strain and damage sensing. The capacity of a carbon nanofiber (CNF) cement paste has already been tested. However, this study is focused on the use of CNF cement composites as sensors in regular concrete samples. Different measuring techniques and humidity conditions of CNF samples were tested to optimize the strain and damage sensing of this material. In the strain sensing tests (for compressive stresses up to 10 MPa), the response depends on the maximum stress applied. The material was more sensitive at higher loads. Furthermore, the actual load time history did not influence the electrical response, and similar curves were obtained for different test configurations. On the other hand, damage sensing tests proved the capability of CNF cement composites to measure the strain level of concrete samples, even for loads close to the material's strength. Some problems were detected in the strain transmission between sensor and concrete specimens, which will require specific calibration of each sensor one attached to the structure.

Ultrasensitive Wearable Soft Strain Sensors of Conductive, Self-healing, and Elastic Hydrogels with Synergistic "Soft and Hard" Hybrid Networks

Robust, stretchable, and strain-sensitive hydrogels have recently attracted immense research interest because of their potential application in wearable strain sensors. The integration of the synergistic characteristics of decent mechanical properties, reliable self-healing capability, and high sensing sensitivity for fabricating conductive, elastic, self-healing, and strain-sensitive hydrogels is still a great challenge. Inspired by the mechanically excellent and self-healing biological soft tissues with hierarchical network structures, herein, functional network hydrogels are fabricated by the interconnection between a "soft" homogeneous polymer network and a "hard" dynamic ferric (Fe³⁺) cross-linked cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs-Fe³⁺) network. Under stress, the dynamic CNCs-Fe³⁺ coordination bonds act as sacrificial bonds to efficiently dissipate energy, while the homogeneous polymer network leads to a smooth stress-transfer, which enables the hydrogels to achieve unusual mechanical properties, such as excellent mechanical strength, robust toughness, and stretchability, as well as good self-recovery property. The hydrogels demonstrate autonomously self-healing capability in only 5 min without the need of any stimuli or healing agents, ascribing to the reorganization of CNCs and Fe³⁺ via ionic coordination. Furthermore, the resulted hydrogels display tunable electromechanical behavior with sensitive, stable, and repeatable variations in resistance upon mechanical deformations. Based on the tunable electromechanical behavior, the hydrogels can act as a wearable strain sensor to monitor finger joint motions, breathing, and even the slight blood pulse. This strategy of building synergistic "soft and hard" structures is successful to integrate the decent mechanical properties, reliable self-healing capability, and high sensing sensitivity together for assembling a high-performance, flexible, and wearable strain sensor.

A Wearable Hydration Sensor with Conformal Nanowire Electrodes

A wearable skin hydration sensor in the form of a capacitor is demonstrated based on skin impedance measurement. The capacitor consists of two interdigitated or parallel electrodes that are made of silver nanowires (AgNWs) in a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) matrix. The flexible and stretchable nature of the AgNW/PDMS electrode allows conformal contact to the skin. The hydration sensor is insensitive to the external humidity change and is calibrated against a commercial skin hydration system on an artificial skin over a wide hydration range. The hydration sensor is packaged into a flexible wristband, together with a network analyzer chip, a button cell battery, and an ultralow power microprocessor with Bluetooth. In addition, a chest patch consisting of a strain sensor, three electrocardiography electrodes, and a skin hydration sensor is developed for multimodal sensing. The wearable wristband and chest patch may be used for low-cost, wireless, and continuous monitoring of skin hydration and other health parameters.

Structural Health Monitoring Using Textile Reinforcement Structures with Integrated Optical Fiber Sensors

Optical fiber-based sensors “embedded” in functionalized carbon structures (FCSs) and textile net structures (TNSs) based on alkaline-resistant glass are introduced for the purpose of structural health monitoring (SHM) of concrete-based structures. The design aims to monitor common SHM parameters such as strain and cracks while at the same time acting as a structural strengthening mechanism. The sensor performances of the two systems are characterized in situ using Mach-Zehnder interferometric (MZI) and optical attenuation measurement techniques, respectively. For this purpose, different FCS samples were subjected to varying elongation using a tensile testing machine by carefully incrementing the applied force, and good correlation between the applied force and measured length change was observed. For crack detection, the functionalized TNSs were embedded into a concrete block which was then exposed to varying load using the three-point flexural test until destruction. Promising results were observed, identifying that the location of the crack can be determined using the conventional optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) technique. The embedded sensors thus evaluated show the value of the dual achievement of the schemes proposed in obtaining strain/crack measurement while being utilized as strengthening agents as well.

Strong Strain Sensing Performance of Natural Rubber Nanocomposites

A detail study concerning the strain (tensile) dependent electrical conductivity of elastomeric composites is reported in this present paper. Multiwall carbon nanotubes (CNT), conducting carbon black (CB), and their combinations were considered as conducting filler in cross-linked natural rubber matrix. The loadings of the fillers were considered from 3 to 11 phr (filler concentration close to their percolation threshold). Without hindering the elastic nature of the composite (reversible stretchability up to several 100%), the change of relative resistance, ΔR/R₀ (ΔR is the change in the resistance with respect to strain and R₀ is the initial resistance of the sample) of the CB filled composites was found to be as much as ∼1300 at around 120% elongation. This value is much higher than any other reported values obtained from conducting polymeric composites. It was found that CNT offered a strong strain dependent character in the regime 100% to 150% elongation, whereas, the carbon black filled natural rubber showed strong strain dependencies at 50% to 100% elongation strain. The combination of two different fillers could be exploited to tailor and manipulate the sensing operating regime from 50% to 150% strain depending on the ratios of the two filler system. Additionally, after several loading-unloading cycles, the conductivity of the sample was very stable for CB filled system but for CNT filled system the conductivity of the sample was altered. This type of elastic materials could be used in structural health monitoring, sensors in different dynamic elastomeric parts like tires, valves, gaskets, engine mounts, etc.

Highly Stretchable, Strain Sensing Hydrogel Optical Fibers

A core-clad fiber made of elastic, tough hydrogels is highly stretchable while guiding light. Fluorescent dyes are easily doped into the hydrogel fiber by diffusion. When stretched, the transmission spectrum of the fiber is altered, enabling the strain to be measured and also its location.

Graphene-Elastomer Composites with Segregated Nanostructured Network for Liquid and Strain Sensing Application

One of the critical issues for the fabrication of desirable sensing materials has focused on the construction of an effective continuous network with a low percolation threshold. Herein, graphene-based elastomer composites with a segregated nanostructured graphene network were prepared by a novel and effective ice-templating strategy. The segregated graphene network bestowed on the natural rubber (NR) composites an ultralow electrical percolation threshold (0.4 vol %), 8-fold lower than that of the NR/graphene composites with homogeneous dispersion morphology (3.6 vol %). The resulting composites containing 0.63 vol % graphene exhibited high liquid sensing responsivity (6700), low response time (114 s), and good reproducibility. The unique segregated structure also provides this graphene-based elastomer (containing 0.42 vol % graphene) with exceptionally high stretchability, sensitivity (gauge factor ≈ 139), and good reproducibility (∼400 cycles) of up to 60% strain under cyclic tests. The fascinating performances highlight the potential applications of graphene-elastomer composites with an effective segregated network as multifunctional sensing materials.

Forest trees filter chronic wind-signals to acclimate to high winds

Controlled experiments have shown that trees acclimate thigmomorphogenetically to wind-loads by sensing their deformation (strain). However, the strain regime in nature is exposed to a full spectrum of winds. We hypothesized that trees avoid overreacting by responding only to winds which bring information on local climate and/or wind exposure. Additionally, competition for light dependent on tree social status also likely affects thigmomorphogenesis. We monitored and manipulated quantitatively the strain regimes of 15 pairs of beech (Fagus sylvatica) trees of contrasting social status in an acclimated stand, and quantified the effects of these regimes on the radial growth over a vegetative season. Trees exposed to artificial bending, the intensity of which corresponds to the strongest wind-induced strains, enhanced their secondary growth by at least 80%. Surprisingly, this reaction was even greater - relatively - for suppressed trees than for dominant ones. Acclimated trees did not sense the different types of wind events in the same way. Daily wind speed peaks due to thermal winds were filtered out. Thigmomorphogenesis was therefore driven by intense storms. Thigmomorphogenesis is also likely to be involved in determining social status.

Three-Dimensional Force Measurements During Rapid Palatal Expansion in Sus scrofa

Rapid palatal expansion is an orthodontic procedure widely used to correct the maxillary arch. However, its outcome is significantly influenced by factors that show a high degree of variability amongst patients. The traditional treatment methodology is based on an intuitive and heuristic treatment approach because the forces applied in the three dimensions are indeterminate. To enable optimal and individualized treatment, it is essential to measure the three-dimensional (3D) forces and displacements created by the expander. This paper proposes a method for performing these 3D measurements using a single embedded strain sensor, combining experimental measurements of strain in the palatal expander with 3D finite element analysis (FEA). The method is demonstrated using the maxillary jaw from a freshly euthanized pig (Sus scrofa) and a hyrax-design rapid palatal expander (RPE) appliance with integrated strain gage. The strain gage measurements are recorded using a computer interface, following which the expansion forces and extent of expansion are estimated by FEA. A total activation of 2.0 mm results in peak total force of about 100 N-almost entirely along the direction of expansion. The results also indicate that more than 85% of the input activation is immediately transferred to the palate and/or teeth. These studies demonstrate a method for assessing and individualizing expansion magnitudes and forces during orthopedic expansion of the maxilla. This provides the basis for further development of smart orthodontic appliances that provide real-time readouts of forces and movements, which will allow personalized, optimal treatment.

Minimally Intrusive Optical Micro-Strain Sensing in Bulk Elastomer Using Embedded Fabry-Pérot Etalon

A variety of strain sensors have been developed to measure internal deformations of elastomeric structures. Strain sensors measuring extremely small mechanical strain, however, have not yet been reported due mainly to the inherently intrusive integration of the sensor with the test structure. In this work, we report the development of a minimally intrusive, highly sensitive mechanical strain transducer realized by monolithically embedding a Fabry-Pérot (FP) etalon into a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) block test structure. Due to the extreme sensitivity of the FP resonance condition to the thickness of the spacer layer between the two reflectors, the limit of detection in the mechanical deformation can be as low as ~110 nm with a 632.8 nm laser used as the probing light. The compatibility of PDMS with additive fabrication turned out to be the most crucial enabling factor in the realization of the FP etalon-based strain transducer.

A new twist on gyroscopic sensing: body rotations lead to torsion in flapping, flexing insect wings

Insects perform fast rotational manoeuvres during flight. While two insect orders use flapping halteres (specialized organs evolved from wings) to detect body dynamics, it is unknown how other insects detect rotational motions. Like halteres, insect wings experience gyroscopic forces when they are flapped and rotated and recent evidence suggests that wings might indeed mediate reflexes to body rotations. But, can gyroscopic forces be detected using only changes in the structural dynamics of a flapping, flexing insect wing? We built computational and robotic models to rotate a flapping wing about an axis orthogonal to flapping. We recorded high-speed video of the model wing, which had a flexural stiffness similar to the wing of the Manduca sexta hawkmoth, while flapping it at the wingbeat frequency of Manduca (25 Hz). We compared the three-dimensional structural dynamics of the wing with and without a 3 Hz, 10° rotation about the yaw axis. Our computational model revealed that body rotation induces a new dynamic mode: torsion. We verified our result by measuring wing tip displacement, shear strain and normal strain of the robotic wing. The strains we observed could stimulate an insect's mechanoreceptors and trigger reflexive responses to body rotations.

Sensing features of long period gratings in hollow core fibers

We report on the investigation of the sensing features of the Long-Period fiber Gratings (LPGs) fabricated in hollow core photonic crystal fibers (HC-PCFs) by the pressure assisted Electric Arc Discharge (EAD) technique. In particular, the characterization of the LPG in terms of shift in resonant wavelengths and changes in attenuation band depth to the environmental parameters: strain, temperature, curvature, refractive index and pressure is presented. The achieved results show that LPGs in HC-PCFs represent a novel high performance sensing platform for measurements of different physical parameters including strain, temperature and, especially, for measurements of environmental pressure. The pressure sensitivity enhancement is about four times greater if we compare LPGs in HC and standard fibers. Moreover, differently from LPGs in standard fibers, these LPGs realized in innovative fibers, i.e., the HC-PCFs, are not sensitive to surrounding refractive index.

Piezoresistive effect in carbon nanotube fibers

The complex structure of the macroscopic assemblies of carbon nanotubes and variable intrinsic piezoresistivity of nanotubes themselves lead to highly interesting piezoresistive performance of this new type of conductive material. Here, we present an in-depth study of the piezoresistive effect in carbon nanotube fibers, i.e., yarnlike assemblies made purely of aligned carbon nanotubes, which are expected to find applications as electrical and electronic materials. The resistivity changes of carbon nanotube fibers were measured on initial loading, through the elastic/plastic transition, on cyclic loading and on stress relaxation. The various regimes of stress/strain behavior were modeled using a standard linear solid model, which was modified with an additional element in series to account for the observed creep behavior. On the basis of the experimental and modeling results, the origin of piezoresistivity is discussed. An additional effect on the resistivity was found as the fiber was held under load which led to observations of the effect of humidity and the associated water adsorption level on the resistivity. We show that the equilibrium uptake of moisture leads to the decrease in gauge factor of the fiber decrease, i.e., the reduction in the sensitivity of fiber resistivity to loading.

Self-Sensing Properties of Alkali Activated Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) Composites Reinforced with Carbon Fibers

In recent years, several researchers have shown the good performance of alkali activated slag cement and concretes. Besides their good mechanical properties and durability, this type of cement is a good alternative to Portland cements if sustainability is considered. Moreover, multifunctional cement composites have been developed in the last decades for their functional applications (self-sensing, EMI shielding, self-heating, etc.). In this study, the strain and damage sensing possible application of carbon fiber reinforced alkali activated slag pastes has been evaluated. Cement pastes with 0, 0.29 and 0.58 vol % carbon fiber addition were prepared. Both carbon fiber dosages showed sensing properties. For strain sensing, function gage factors of up to 661 were calculated for compressive cycles. Furthermore, all composites with carbon fibers suffered a sudden increase in their resistivity when internal damages began, prior to any external signal of damage. Hence, this material may be suitable as strain or damage sensor.

A practical data recovery technique for long-term strain monitoring of mega columns during construction

A practical data recovery method is proposed for the strain data lost during the safety monitoring of mega columns. The analytical relations among the measured strains are derived to recover the data lost due to unexpected errors in long-term measurement during construction. The proposed technique is applied to recovery of axial strain data of a mega column in an irregular building structure during construction. The axial strain monitoring using the wireless strain sensing system was carried out for one year and five months between 23 July 2010 and 22 February 2012. During the long-term strain sensing, three different types of measurement errors occurred. Using the recovery technique, the strain data that could not be measured at different intervals in the measurement were successfully recovered. It is confirmed that the problems that may occur during long-term wireless strain sensing of mega columns during construction could be resolved through the proposed recovery method.

A strain-based load identification model for beams in building structures

A strain-based load identification model for beam structures subjected to multiple loads is presented. The number of sensors for the load identification model is the same as the number of load conditions acting on a beam structure. In the model, the contribution of each load to the strains measured by strain sensors is defined. In this paper, the longitudinal strains measured from multiplexed fiber Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensors are used in the load identification. To avoid the dependency on the selection of locations for FBG sensors installed on a beam structure, the measured strain is expressed by a general form of a strain sensing model defined by superimposing the distribution shapes for strains from multiple loads. Numerical simulation is conducted to verify the model. Then, the load identification model is applied to monitoring of applied loads on a 4 m-long steel beam subjected to two concentrated loads. In the experiment, seven FBG sensors and nine electrical strain gages (ESGs) were installed on the surface of the bottom flange. The experimental results indicate a good agreement between estimated loadings from the model and the loads applied by a hydraulic jack.

Multifunctional Cement Composites Strain and Damage Sensors Applied on Reinforced Concrete (RC) Structural Elements

In this research, strain-sensing and damage-sensing functional properties of cement composites have been studied on a conventional reinforced concrete (RC) beam. Carbon nanofiber (CNFCC) and fiber (CFCC) cement composites were used as sensors on a 4 m long RC beam. Different casting conditions (in situ or attached), service location (under tension or compression) and electrical contacts (embedded or superficial) were compared. Both CNFCC and CFCC were suitable as strain sensors in reversible (elastic) sensing condition testing. CNFCC showed higher sensitivities (gage factor up to 191.8), while CFCC only reached gage factors values of 178.9 (tension) or 49.5 (compression). Furthermore, damage-sensing tests were run, increasing the applied load progressively up to the RC beam failure. In these conditions, CNFCC sensors were also strain sensitive, but no damage sensing mechanism was detected for the strain levels achieved during the tests. Hence, these cement composites could act as strain sensors, even for severe damaged structures near to their collapse.

Focused electron beam induced deposition: A perspective

BACKGROUND

Focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) is a direct-writing technique with nanometer resolution, which has received strongly increasing attention within the last decade. In FEBID a precursor previously adsorbed on a substrate surface is dissociated in the focus of an electron beam. After 20 years of continuous development FEBID has reached a stage at which this technique is now particularly attractive for several areas in both, basic and applied research. The present topical review addresses selected examples that highlight this development in the areas of charge-transport regimes in nanogranular metals close to an insulator-to-metal transition, the use of these materials for strain- and magnetic-field sensing, and the prospect of extending FEBID to multicomponent systems, such as binary alloys and intermetallic compounds with cooperative ground states.

RESULTS

After a brief introduction to the technique, recent work concerning FEBID of Pt-Si alloys and (hard-magnetic) Co-Pt intermetallic compounds on the nanometer scale is reviewed. The growth process in the presence of two precursors, whose flux is independently controlled, is analyzed within a continuum model of FEBID that employs rate equations. Predictions are made for the tunability of the composition of the Co-Pt system by simply changing the dwell time of the electron beam during the writing process. The charge-transport regimes of nanogranular metals are reviewed next with a focus on recent theoretical advancements in the field. As a case study the transport properties of Pt-C nanogranular FEBID structures are discussed. It is shown that by means of a post-growth electron-irradiation treatment the electronic intergrain-coupling strength can be continuously tuned over a wide range. This provides unique access to the transport properties of this material close to the insulator-to-metal transition. In the last part of the review, recent developments in mechanical strain-sensing and the detection of small, inhomogeneous magnetic fields by employing nanogranular FEBID structures are highlighted.

CONCLUSION

FEBID has now reached a state of maturity that allows a shift of the focus towards the development of new application fields, be it in basic research or applied. This is shown for selected examples in the present review. At the same time, when seen from a broader perspective, FEBID still has to live up to the original idea of providing a tool for electron-controlled chemistry on the nanometer scale. This has to be understood in the sense that, by providing a suitable environment during the FEBID process, the outcome of the electron-induced reactions can be steered in a controlled way towards yielding the desired composition of the products. The development of a FEBID-specialized surface chemistry is mostly still in its infancy. Next to application development, it is this aspect that will likely be a guiding light for the future development of the field of focused electron beam induced deposition.