Time-sharing contributions of A- and D-type K+ channels to the integration of high-frequency sequential excitatory post synaptic potentials at a model dendrite in rats

A- and D-type K+ channels (KA and KD channels) have unique physiological properties that play important roles in the integration of excitatory post synaptic potentials (EPSPs) in neuronal dendrites. These functions were analyzed using a computer program, NEURON, to simulate high-frequency sequential synaptic inputs, that can induce long-term potentiation (LTP). We paid close attention to the stability of the reduction of sequential EPSPs. When either KA or KD channels were included in models, the EPSP reduction ratios were less stable than containing both KA and KD channels. When both KA and KD channels were present in the model, the variance of EPSP reduction ratios was significantly smaller in comparison with that in the presence of either KA or KD channels alone. We thus concluded that the co-existence of KA and KD channels is necessary to produce stable EPSPs during the high-frequency synaptic stimulation necessary for induction of LTP.

Cloning and expression of human B cell-specific transcription factor BACH2 mapped to chromosome 6q15

The transcription factor Bach2, a member of the BTB-basic region leucine zipper (bZip) factor family, binds to a 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-responsive element and the related Maf-recognition element (MARE) by forming homodimers or heterodimers with Maf-related transcription factors. Bach2 regulates transcription by binding to these elements. To understand the function in hematopoiesis, we isolated a cDNA clone for human Bach2 (BACH2) encoding a protein of 841 amino acid residues with a deduced amino acid sequence having 89.5% identity to mouse homolog. Among human hematopoietic cell lines, BACH2 is expressed abundantly only in some B-lymphocytic cell lines. RT-PCR analysis of hematopoietic cells revealed that BACH2 mRNA is expressed in primary B-cells. Enforced expression of BACH2 in a human Burkitt cell line, RAJI that does not express endogenous BACH2, resulted in marked reduction of clonogenic activity, indicating that BACH2 possesses an inhibitory effect on cell proliferation. By fluorescent in situ hybridization, the BACH2 gene was localized to chromosome 6q15. Because deletion of the long arm of chromosome 6 (6q) is one of the commonest chromosomal alterations in human B-cell lymphoma, we examined for the loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of the BACH2 gene in human B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHL). Among 25 informative cases, five (20%) showed LOH. These results indicate that BACH2 plays important roles in regulation of B cell development.

Surgical management of genital prolapse: is chain cystourethrography useful for evaluating anatomical corrections and urinary symptoms after surgery?

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the relationship between chain cystourethrography and surgery for genital prolapse and urinary symptoms.

METHODS

A retrospective study of women with genital prolapse was conducted from January 1991 through December 1997. To assess the preoperative and postoperative anatomical situations objectively, chain cystourethrography was performed.

RESULTS

Fifty-seven patients underwent surgical repairs for genital prolapse. All of them recovered from the genital prolapse both subjectively and objectively after surgery. Chain cystourethrography is useful for evaluating postoperative anatomical corrections. However, 6 patients (12%) suffered from a recurrent feeling of genital prolapse, and 14 patients (28%) had urinary symptoms postoperatively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our treatment showed good anatomical corrections based on chain cystourethrography, and there were no prognostic differences among the surgical procedures. However, anatomical correction does not always mean improvement of urinary symptoms. Further studies are needed to clarify what factors contribute to the prognosis in such cases.

[Polysomnography]

Polysomnography(PSG) is essential for the diagnosis of all pathophysiologic conditions due to both any types of sleep disordered breathing and to any types of sleep disturbance. Since this issue's objection is to describe the outline of PSG, we will explain here about when PSG is needed, what type of measurements are necessary for PSG, and how it should be interpreted from the result of the PSG tracing for the diagnosis for sleep apnea syndrome, etc.

A thermodynamical study of the clockwork hypothesis proposed by E. Schrödinger

In the present study, the 'clockwork' hypothesis proposed by Schrödinger was examined from the viewpoint of thermodynamics. Firstly, noticing a unidirectional transfer of entropy in a heat engine, the logic was briefly explained about a close relation between this entropy transfer and an irreversible cycle performed by a working body. Next, paying attention to two fundamental differences between a heat engine and a biological system, we considered an isolated system Asigma consisting of three one-component systems (Ai, A, Ao) and noted a case that the same molecules as the component ones flowed quasistatically into Ai from the outside. Then, the unidirectional flows of the molecules, energy and entropy, which were induced by the above inflow in Asigma, were formulated on the basis of the equilibrium thermodynamics for an open system. Furthermore, it was clarified that the fundamental equation for these flows is the Schrödinger inequality and that the necessary-sufficient condition for this inequality is the existence of an irreversible cycle performed by A. Here A corresponds to a working body in a heat engine. It was, thus, concluded that the 'clockwork' hypothesis by Schrödinger is considered to be reasonable for a biological system composed of various irreversible subsystems.

Multiple organ damage caused by a new toxin azaspiracid, isolated from mussels produced in Ireland

A new type of food poisoning resulting from ingestion of mussels produced in Ireland occurred in the Netherlands in 1995 and then reoccurred in Ireland in 1997. As the causative agent, azaspiracid, was isolated in pure form and revealed to have a structure entirely unlike other known algal toxins, in vivo studies with mice were carried out to elucidate the pathological injuries caused by the toxin. By per os administration, the toxin caused necrosis in the lamina propria of the small intestine and in lymphoid tissues such as thymus, spleen and the Peyer's patches. Both T and B lymphocytes were injured. Additionally a fatty change was observed in the liver. These injuries distinctly differed from those caused by the representative diarrhetic shellfish toxin, okadaic acid.

Neuronal components of the superior and inferior tentacles in the terrestrial slug, Limax marginatus

To identify the types of neurons and to infer the patterns of connectivity in slug tentacles, we stained the neurons in the superior and inferior tentacles in the terrestrial slug, Limax marginatus, by backfilling of the tentacular nerves with Lucifer yellow. Four types of stained neurons, '(1) sensory neurons', '(2) gamma cells', '(3) ganglion cells', '(4) lateral cells', were identified both in the superior and inferior tentacles. Three subtypes of the sensory neurons, '(1a) round sensory neurons', '(1b) spindle-shaped sensory neurons', and '(1c) small sensory neurons', were found in the digits. The gamma cells and the ganglion cells were interneurons. Three subtypes of gamma cells, '(2a) round monopolar gamma cells', '(2b) round bipolar gamma cells', and '(2c) large gamma cells', were present in the digits. The ganglion cells were composed of '(3a) monopolar ganglion cells', '(3b) bipolar ganglion cells', and '(3c) elongated ganglion cells'. The monopolar and bipolar types were located both in the tentacular ganglia and digits, whereas the elongated type was present only in the tentacular ganglia. The lateral cells, whose function is unknown, were found in the dermo-muscular sheaths of the tentacles. Our study provides the first description of the neuronal map of inferior tentacles in gastropods. The results showed no differences in the morphological features of stained neurons between the superior and inferior tentacles in L. marginatus.

Bimodal effects of acetylcholine on synchronized calcium oscillation in rat cultured cortical neurons

To understand the plastic changes in neural network dynamics, we analyzed the modulating effects of cholinergic agonists on synchronized Ca(2+) oscillation in the rat primary cultured cortical neurons. At 5-10 days after establishment of the culture, neurons exhibited synchronized Ca(2+) oscillation. This Ca(2+) oscillation was derived from glutamatergic and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic synaptic inputs from neighboring neurons. Application of acetylcholine and nicotine increased, decreased, or did not change the frequency of synchronized Ca(2+) oscillation, depending on the colonies in the culture. The presence of cholinergic neurons in the culture was confirmed by immunocytochemical staining. Our study provided evidence for the first time that cholinergic neurons exert excitatory influences on GABAergic neurons as well as glutamtergic neurons, resulting in bimodal effects on the frequency of synchronized Ca(2+) oscillation in the cortical neural network.

Two different types of nonthrombogenic surfaces: PEG suppresses platelet adhesion ATP-independently but HEMA-St block copolymer requires ATP consumption of platelets to prevent adhesion

Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and a hydrophobic-hydrophilic microdomain structured block copolymer comprising poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) and polystyrene (HEMA-St) have been reported to show good blood compatibility owing to inhibition of platelet activation. By using a computer-assisted novel technique to analyze platelet behavior on the surfaces, we found two different mechanisms to prevent platelet adhesion. Platelets were prevented from adhesion and spreading on the microdomain surface and retained cell movement for a long time. The platelet movement velocity was not significantly different between PEG-grafted surfaces and HEMA-St block copolymer-cast surfaces. However, platelet motion was qualitatively different. Platelets on HEMA-St block copolymer-cast surfaces moved with rolling, spinning, and vibrating, whereas platelet movement was limited to oscillatory vibration on PEG-grafted surfaces. When platelets were treated with NaN(3), an adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis inhibitor, before contacting the surfaces, platelets movement velocity was decreased only on HEMA-St block copolymer-cast surfaces. Such an inhibitory effect was hardly observed with platelets on PEG-grafted surfaces. We propose two different mechanisms to prevent platelet adhesion onto surfaces. One is ATP-independent as observed with PEG, and the other is ATP-dependent for HEMA-St block copolymer, where platelets consume ATP to prevent adhesion.

Acquisition of neuronal proteins during differentiation of NG108-15 cells

The differentiated type of neuroblastomaxglioma hybrid cell line, NG108-15, has widely been used in in vitro studies instead of primary-cultured neurons. Here we examined whether NG108-15 cells can be used as a model for studying the neuronal differentiation process. We compared the expression of neuronal proteins (neurofilament 200 (NF200), phosphorylated-NF200 (p-NF200), microtubule associated protein 2, synaptophysin, syntaxin 1, choline acetyltransferase, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE)) and a glial protein (vimentin) between undifferentiated and differentiated NG108-15 cells by immunocytochemistry and immunoblot analysis. The expression of all neuronal proteins, with the exception of NF200 and p-NF200, was positive in differentiated cells, but almost negative in undifferentiated cells. On the other hand, cytoskeletal intermediate filaments (NF200 and p-NF200) for neurons and that (vimentin) for glia were present in both undifferentiated and differentiated cells. Furthermore, a high expression of AChE mRNA was confirmed in differentiated cells by reverse transcription-PCR analysis. Our results showed that even though the expression of cytoskeletal filaments does not change during differentiation of NG108-15 cells, these cells during differentiation can serve as an appropriate tool for investigating and understanding the mechanisms involved in neuronal development and differentiation.

Complement receptor 3-like immunoreactivity in the light green cells and the canopy cells of the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis

We observed CR3-like immunoreactivity in the central nervous system (CNS) and its surrounding peripheral nerves of the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis. In the CNS of L. stagnalis, the immunoreactivity presenting meshwork-like structure was detected in some neurosecretory cells, which are the light green cells (LGCs) and the canopy cells (CCs), both controlling the body growth. The immunoreactivity was also observed along the edges of median lip nerves. The immunoreactive regions in the median lip nerves appeared to form the axonal plates, from which the LGCs and the CCs release molluscan insulin-related peptides (MIPs) into the blood. By contrast, no immunoreactivity was detected in other neurosecretory cells or their release sites, for example the caudodorsal cells and the cerebral commissure, which release ovulation hormones. The present findings, therefore, suggested that CR3 expresses only in the neurosecretory cells releasing MIPs in L. stagnalis.

Nitric oxide suppresses fictive feeding response in Lymnaea stagnalis

Fictive feeding activity was monitored in the buccal ganglia of semi-intact preparations of the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, to examine the effects of nitric oxide (NO) released from motoneurons innervating the esophagus on the feeding response. The present results suggest that first; even the low concentration of constitutive NO precisely regulates the feeding rhythm by suppressing high frequency feeding responses; second, that the high concentration of NO released after activation of the feeding central pattern generator following appetitive stimulation of the lips suppresses the feeding rate, resulting in recurrent inhibition. This is the first direct evidence that NO can function to suppress rhythmic activity in the brain.

Temperature-dependent modulation of blood platelet movement and morphology on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-grafted surfaces

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PIPAAm) exhibits a reversible, temperature-dependent soluble/insoluble transition at its lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of 32 degrees C in aqueous media. The temperature-responsive PIPAAm was grafted onto tissue culture polystyrene (TCPS) dish surfaces by electron beam irradiation. Blood platelet behaviors on PIPAAm-grafted surface were examined by computerized image analysis and scanning electron microscopy. Platelet behaviors on this surface were dramatically dependent upon temperature, but those on poly(ethylene glycol)(PEG)-grafted or polystyrene remained unchanged. Below the 32 degrees C (LCST), platelets on PIPAAm-grafted surfaces retained a rounded shape and an oscillating vibratory microbrownian motion for extended times, similarly to those on PEG-grafted surfaces. Above the LCST, platelets readily adhered, spread and developed characteristic pseudopodia on PIPAAm-grafted surface similarly to those on TCPS. An ATP synthesis inhibitor failed to hinder prevention of platelet adhesion onto PIPAAm-grafted surface (below the LCST) suggesting that the preventive mechanism is ATP-independent similarly to that of PEG-grafted surfaces. These results correlate platelet surface activation state with the hydration and structure of polymer surfaces, and demonstrate the ability to modulate such reactions by a small temperature change in situ.

An alternatively spliced transcript of the rat nociceptin receptor ORL1 gene encodes a truncated receptor

Opioid receptor-like protein ORL1, the receptor for the neuropeptide nociceptin (also named orphanin FQ), has two alternatively spliced isoforms in the rat. This alternative splicing event is generated by retaining of intron 3, 81 bases in length, in the mRNA region encoding the second extracellular loop of ORL1. A full-length rat ORL1 receptor has 367 amino acid residues. However, as revealed by sequencing of rat ORL1 genomic DNA and cDNA, the insertion of the unspliced intron 3 brings in an in-frame stop codon and, therefore, creates a truncated open-reading frame encoding only the N-terminal half of ORL1 (from the N-terminus to an alternate extracellular tail C-terminal to the fourth transmembrane domain). The two alternatively spliced transcripts are differentially expressed in tissues. In transfected mammalian cells, the full-length ORL1 displays high-affinity and selective binding for nociceptin, and inhibits the production of cyclic AMP. In contrast, the truncated ORL1 binds nociceptin and other opioid peptides very poorly and non-selectively (affinity in micromolar range), and it does not mediate any inhibitory effects on cyclic AMP production. Apparently, this truncated ORL1 does not function as a receptor for nociceptin or other ligands tested. Such alternative splicing to create a truncated ORL1 receptor might be an endogenous mechanism to negatively regulate nociceptin/ORL1 functions.

[Effects of oral 5-HT3 antagonists on chemotherapy-induced emesis in patients with gynecologic cancers]

The efficacy of an intravenous 5-HT3 antagonist (granisetron) and four oral 5-HT3 antagonists (granisetron, ondansetron, tropisetron and ramosetron) on chemotherapy-induced emesis were investigated in 21 gynecologic cancer patients (63 courses). The severity of emesis after chemotherapy was classified in 4 grades (0: none, 1: slight loss of appetite, 2: severe loss of appetite, but tolerable, and 3: untolerable). The effect of 5-HT3 antagonists was judged by both the score for the severity of the emesis and the frequency of vomiting. The four oral 5-HT3 antagonists were almost the same in efficacy for 5 days after chemotherapy. Oral 5-HT3 antagonists were almost equipotent to intravenous granisetron for JT (paclitaxel + carboplatin) therapy or T (paclitaxel) therapy for 5 days after chemotherapy. However, they were ineffective for CAP (cisplatin + adriamycin + cyclophosphamide) therapy. From these results, oral 5-HT3 antagonists were proved to have a sufficient anti emetic effect after chemotherapy in cases of JT or T therapy. However, in cases of CAP therapy, intravenous 5-HT3 antagonists were thought to be preferable for the control of emesis due to chemotherapy.

Fatal Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis with clonal karyotype abnormality

We report a case of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) with clonal karyotype abnormality. A 5-year-old boy was admitted to our hospital with persistent high-grade fever, hepatomegaly, and pancytopenia. Laboratory data disclosed a coagulation abnormality and severe liver damage. Clonal proliferation of EBV-infected cells was detected in the bone marrow by Southern hybridization, and bone marrow cells exhibited clonal chromosomal abnormality. Although the patient was treated with immunochemotherapy according to the HLH94 protocol, the disease recurred during the induction therapy, and the patient died of disseminated intravascular coagulopathy. Considering this aggressive and fatal clinical course, it is important to take intensive therapeutic measures if karyotype abnormality is noted in the treatment of EBV-HLH patients.

Effect of cytokines on antifungal activity of human polymorphonuclear leucocytes against yeast cells of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

In our previous study, it was observed that human peripheral blood polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMNs) exhibited a fungistatic effect on yeast cells of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, and that interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), but not tumor necrosis factor-alpha or interleukin-8 (IL-8), enhanced the antifungal activity of PMNs. In the present study, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) also enhanced the PMN activity. GM-CSF-activated PMNs exhibited a killing effect on P. brasiliensis isolate Bt-4 and an enhanced fungistatic effect on isolate Aoki. IL-1beta activated PMNs to kill isolate Bt-4. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor had no effect. Combinations of IFN-gamma with GM-CSF or IL-1beta, but not a combination of GM-CSF and IL-1beta, exhibited a synergistic effect in enhancing the antifungal activity of PMNs. These results strongly suggest that PMNs activated with IFN-gamma, GM-CSF and/or IL-1beta might play an important role in host defense in early infection with P. brasiliensis due to their enhanced antifungal activity.

Prolonged recovery of cardiac output after maximal exercise in patients with chronic heart failure

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to characterize the kinetics of cardiac output during recovery from maximal exercise in patients with chronic heart failure (CHF).

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown that oxygen uptake kinetics during recovery from exercise are delayed in patients with CHF. However, the kinetics of cardiac output during recovery from maximal exercise in CHF has not been examined.

METHODS

Thirty patients with CHF performed maximal upright ergometer exercise with respiratory gas analysis. Kinetics of oxygen uptake (VO2) and carbon dioxide output (VCO2) during recovery were characterized by T1/2, the time to reach 50% of the peak values. Cardiac output was measured at 1-min intervals during exercise and recovery. Kinetics of cardiac output during recovery were characterized by the ratios of cardiac output during the first 4 min of recovery to cardiac output at peak exercise. Overshoot of cardiac output was defined as a further increase in cardiac output at 1 min of recovery above the cardiac output at peak exercise.

RESULTS

Both T1/2 VO2 and T1/2 VCO2 increased as CHF worsened. The ratios of cardiac output during recovery to cardiac output at peak exercise were significantly correlated with T1/2 VO2 (r = 0.47 to 0.62, p < 0.05) and T1/2 VCO2 (r = 0.40 to 0.70, p < 0.05). There was a negative correlation between cardiac index at peak exercise and both T1/2 VO2 (r = -0.65, p < 0.001) and T1/2 VCO2 (r = -0.60, p < 0.001). Overshoot of cardiac output was recognized in 11 of 30 patients. Cardiac index at peak exercise was significantly lower in patients with overshoot (4.5 +/- 0.9 L/min/m2) than in those without overshoot (6.1 +/- 2.1 L/min/m2, p < 0.05). However, because of a continued increase in cardiac output at 1 min of recovery in patients with overshoot, there were no differences in cardiac index after the first minute of recovery. Heart rate at peak exercise and recovery of heart rate did not differ between these groups. Overshoot of cardiac output was caused by a rebound increase in stroke volume which was due to a reduction in systemic vascular resistance.

CONCLUSIONS

Prolonged kinetics of VO2 or VCO2 during recovery from maximal exercise represent impairment of circulatory response to exercise and delayed recovery of cardiac output after exercise. Overshoot of cardiac output at 1 min of recovery was characteristic of severe CHF with poor cardiac output response to exercise.

A case of stage-IVb cervical adenocarcinoma successfully treated by combination chemotherapy: case report

A 54-year-old patient with a Stage IVb adenocarcinoma of the cervix was treated with combination chemotherapy. This regimen consisted of intravenous cisplatin (70 mg/m2) and aclacinomycin A (30 mg/m2) on Day 1, followed by mitomycin C (5 mg/m2) on Day 2 and 3. A pathologically complete response was achieved by this regimen. The patient is well and has been free of symptoms for 66 months.

Distribution and developmental changes in GABA-like immunoreactive neurons in the central nervous system of pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis

We examined three-dimensionally the arrangement of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-like immunoreactive neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) of the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, by a combination of immunohistochemistry and confocal laser scanning microscopy on whole-mount preparations. GABA-like immunoreactivity was detected in all ganglia of the adult CNS. The following distribution of immunoreactive cell bodies was noted in the adult snail. Buccal ganglia: one cell body and five pairs of cell bodies, cerebral ganglia: one pair of cell bodies, pedal ganglia: two single cell bodies, two pairs of cell bodies, and three pairs of cell clusters, and pleural ganglia: one pair of cell bodies. In the asymmetrical parietal ganglia, three cell bodies were located in the left parietal ganglion; three cell bodies and three cell clusters were located in the right parietal ganglion. In the single visceral ganglion, a few scattered individual cell bodies and a cell cluster were GABA-like immunoreactive. Our results showed that the occurrence of GABA is widely spread in the CNS of adult L. stagnalis. GABA-like immunoreactivity in the CNS was not detected in the embryo but was observed after hatching, although the number of stained cells was less than in the adult, with the exception of those in the cerebral ganglia where their number decreased with maturation. Our results provide detailed maps of the central GABA-like immunoreactive neurons in juveniles, immatures, and adults of L. stagnalis.

Clinical and pathophysiological features of amaurosis fugax in Japanese stroke patients

OBJECTIVE

It has been emphasized that amaurosis fugax (AmF) is caused by thromboembolism due to atheromatous lesions of the extracranial carotid artery (EC-CA) in Caucasian populations. However, there have been few studies of AmF in Japan. We analyzed the clinical and pathophysiologic features of AmF in 43 Japanese AmF patients.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Forty-three patients presented with AmF from a group of 2,056 Japanese patients with acute ischemic stroke. We investigated angiographic and transcranial Doppler findings, precipitating factors, medical treatment and prognosis, to elucidate the pathogenetic mechanism of AmF.

RESULTS

Angiographic findings revealed an intracranial lesion in 22 patients (51%), extracranial lesion in 16 (37%), and no abnormality in 5 (12%). Blood flow in the ophthalmic artery (OA) examined by the transcranial Doppler ultrasonography (TCD) showed normal antegrade flow in 24 patients and reversed flow in 7. Precipitating factors for AmF were seen in 7 out of 43 patients. Regarding the pathogenesis of AmF, the micro-thromboembolism originated from the internal carotid artery (ICA) in 25 patients, the thromboembolism was via the external carotid artery (ECA) in 7, the hemodynamic retinal vascular insufficiency in 6 patients showed various atheromatous changes in the intracranial carotid artery (IC-CA) or EC-CA, and the cause was unknown in 5.

CONCLUSION

In this series of patients, AmF was mainly caused by thromboembolism from IC-CA atheromatous lesions. Micro-thromboemboli from the ECA or hemodynamic retinal vascular insufficiency, although less frequent, should also be considered as possible etiologies for AmF.

Elasticity mapping of living fibroblasts by AFM and immunofluorescence observation of the cytoskeleton

Using the force mapping mode of atomic force microscopy (AFM), we measured spatial distribution of elastic moduli of living mouse fibroblasts (NIH3T3) in a physiological condition. The nuclear portion of the cellular surface is about 10 times softer than the surroundings. Stiffer fibers are confirmed in the elastic images. In order to investigate origin of the softer nuclear portion and the stiffer fibers, we fixed the identical cells imaged by the AFM, and carried out immunofluorescence observation for three types of cytoskeletal filaments--actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments, using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). A comparison between the AFM and the CLSM images revealed that the elasticity of the cells was concerned not only with the distribution of actin network, but also with intermediate filaments, whereas microtubules had no large effect on the measured elasticity.