Wild and semi-domesticated food plant consumption in seven circum-Mediterranean areas

A Floristic Survey of Wild Edible Plants in Tuscan Maremma, Italy

This study explores the floristic diversity of wild edible plants (WEPs) in the area surrounding Tirli, a small village in the Tuscan Maremma, Italy. Field surveys identified 128 vascular plant taxa across 46 families and 106 genera, with Asteraceae (26 taxa), Rosaceae (10 taxa), and Lamiaceae (8 taxa) being the most represented. The dominant life-forms are scapose Hemicryptophytes, scapose Therophytes, and rosulate Hemicryptophytes, with Euro-Mediterranean, Subcosmopolitan, and Steno-Mediterranean distributions prevailing. Statistical analyses revealed significant associations between life-forms and edible plant parts: scapose and rosulate Hemicryptophytes were linked to leaf use, scapose Therophytes to root use, and Phanerophytes to fruit use. The Asteraceae family exhibited exceptional versatility, being associated with various edible parts. Notably, the endemic species Centaurea nigrescens Willd. subsp. pinnatifida (Fiori) Dostál was recorded for the first time in the Tuscan Maremma, underscoring the area's naturalistic value. Traditional culinary practices were linked to some edible plants, which were analyzed for bioactive compounds, including photosynthetic pigments, primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and antioxidant activity. The results confirmed their biochemical richness and functional properties. This study emphasizes the ecological, nutritional, and cultural significance of Tirli's wild edible flora, promoting biodiversity conservation, cultural heritage preservation, and sustainable food practices.

Ethnobotanical knowledge in Calabria (southern Italy): A summary review

This paper presents a comprehensive overview of ethnobotanical knowledge in Calabria, southern Italy. The diverse plant uses and knowledge in the region stem from the cultural contributions of various populations that have inhabited the area since ancient times. To achieve the stated objective, an in-depth review of 16 bibliographic sources published between 1950 and 2024 was conducted, and data on ethnobotanical uses was extracted. The data were then analyzed using various indices, including CI, CV, FC, PPV, RFC, RI, and UV, to determine the most relevant species, families, and plant parts. A total of 4873 records were collected. The analysis shows that the Asteraceae family is the most used, while Urtica dioica L. and Sambucus nigra L. are the most frequently used species according to the CV index. Medicinal and alimentary purposes are the most common types of use. This study could serve as a foundation for further detailed research, contributing to the valorisation of the ethnobotanical heritage of this region.

Ethnobotanical review of traditional use of wild food plants in Japan

BACKGROUND

Japan, which has a diverse climate, is home to 8118 species of wild vascular plants, with more than 1000 of these species considered edible. However, there are fewer studies on the use of wild food plants in Japan than in other parts of the world. This research aims to provide an ethnobotanical review of the traditional food use of wild plants in Japan. It draws upon the largest database of traditional Japanese foodways, with a specific focus on the period approximately 1930. This occurred prior to Japan's rapid economic growth, which resulted in significant changes in the use of wild plants.

METHODS

The use of wild food plants in Japan was reviewed by studying the collection of Japanese foodways (Nihon no shokuseikatsu zenshu), which is the largest database on Japanese traditional foodways and contains records of approximately 52,000 dishes, including food uses of wild plants. The review extracted the local and common names, use locations, uses, processing and cooking methods, habitats and other relevant details pertaining to the reported use of wild food plants. This information was subsequently analyzed via Excel.

RESULTS

A total of 268 taxa belonging to 87 families used in Japan approximately 1930 were documented. Asteraceae was the most frequently reported family as well as the most species-rich family. In terms of use, vegetables composed the largest group, followed by dessert fruits. The majority of species have been documented in only a limited number of reports. The review revealed local traditional uses of plants, including the use of plants as binders for making rice cake, the selection of plants according to their sex, and techniques for detoxifying toxic plants.

CONCLUSION

A comparison with those of previous studies on wild species used in other Asian regions revealed a similar preference for vegetables. However, notably, in Japan, ferns are also consumed in considerable quantities. Conversely, further elucidation is clearly needed with respect to certain matters, including the perception of plant sex and the relationships between diverse ash components and detoxification techniques. It is evident that further ethnobotanical research is needed, both in the form of an examination of ethnographic records and in the field, to gain a deeper understanding of the use of wild food plants in Japan.

Is Boiling Bitter Greens a Legacy of Ancient Crete? Contemporary Foraging in the Minoan Refugium of the Lasithi Plateau

Wild greens (WGs) play a significant role in Mediterranean diets (MDs), reflecting botanical and cultural diversities, mainly influenced by a complex conglomerate of local human ecologies. This study investigates local ecological knowledge (LEK) linked to traditional gathering and consumption of WGs in the Lasithi Plateau of eastern Crete, where human genetic studies one decade ago showed very peculiar patterns, hypothesising that the Minoan civilisation took refuge there before it disappeared. A field ethnobotanical study was conducted to document the diversity of WGs and their detailed local culinary uses in the Lasithi area by interviewing 31 study participants. Fifty-nine folk taxa (species and subspecies) were recorded, corresponding to fifty-eight botanical taxa. A quotation index was measured to assess the cultural significance of WGs in the study areas; logistic regression analysis was adopted to understand the impact of sensory classifications of WGs and their local cooking methods. Lasithi's foraging showed a notable prevalence of bitter-tasting WGs, which play a central role in local cognition and culinary practices. This bitterness aspect of WGs, potentially influenced by cultural preferences and genetic factors, probably suggests a connection to the ancient Lasithi's inhabitants, i.e., Minoan dietary habits. We found that bitterness is the predominant sensory attribute in Lasithi, characterising 45.76% of the WGs. These findings underscore the complex interplay between local ecologies and biodiversity, LEK, and dietary traditions, highlighting the importance of WGs in understanding the evolution of foraging and plant culinary diversities across the Mediterranean.

Wild Species from the Family Apiaceae, Traditionally Used as Food in Some Mediterranean Countries

Mediterranean countries are a cauldron of cultural exchange, with a strong emphasis on wild plants in cuisine traditions. Many of these plants belong to the family Apiaceae. The common climate determines the common range of distribution. While many plants have wide distribution, the range of distribution of others is restricted to Western Mediterranean or North Africa. This review investigates wild plants from the family Apiaceae traditionally used as food in 13 study sites-11 countries in the Mediterranean and adjacent territories-the mainland and 3 islands. The aim is to trace patterns of native distribution versus consumption. As a result, 81 wild umbellifers are listed, traditionally used as food. Their consumption and distribution patterns are described and discussed. Interestingly in 8 of the 13 study sites (61.5%) are recorded 50 plant taxa (66.7% of all wild umbellifers, traditionally used as food) which are consumed in only one particular country. These are as follows: 8 taxa in Morocco, 9 taxa in Spain, 2 taxa in Sicily, 3 taxa in Bulgaria 3 taxa in Crete, 8 taxa in Armenia, 14 taxa in Turkey, and 3 taxa in Jordan. However, these 50 restrictedly consumed plants are distributed in more than one country (except 15 taxa, which are endemics). Many of the plants that are used in certain countries are not consumed by the neighboring people. The results of the two statistical tests, namely Jaccard index and heatmap clustering (double dendrogram), are discussed. The presence of an outlier, such as Bulgaria, which shares borders, history, and culture with Greece and Turkey, emphasizes the importance of local climate for plant distribution and consumption over cultural interactions. The same was observed for some pairs of countries, such as Spain and Morrocco and Turkey and Armenia, although they had the highest number of common plants that are both distributed and consumed as food.

Ethnobotanical Survey of Culturally Important Plants and Mushrooms in North-Western Part of Croatia

The Republic of Croatia is spread in geographical and climatic conditions that support a great diversity of habitats and associated plant taxa, many of which can be used for food or medicine. However, urbanization, loss of natural habitats, as well as changes in people's dependence on the natural resources from the surrounding environment may lead to the loss of valuable knowledge about the use of plants and mushrooms. With the aim of studying and preserving this knowledge in the continental north-western part of Croatia, an ethnobotanical survey was undertaken at the two study areas-Valpovo and Đurđevac, which included a total of 17 settlements. A total of 103 informants, 65% female and 35% male, aged between 22 and 83 years, participated in an interview using pre-planned questionnaires. The informants reported 131 plants belonging to 55 families and 17 mushroom taxa. The largest number of plants belonged to the families of Rosaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, and Apiaceae. In both areas, the informants cultivate and also gather wild plants, but these practices are better preserved in the area of Đurđevac where 109 taxa from 47 families were recorded. In addition to cultivated and gathered plants, informants from the Valpovo area also reported the use of purchased plants. Plants and mushrooms are mostly used as food (21 plant taxa and 17 mushrooms), but plants also serve as medicine (68 taxa), as both food and medicine (35 taxa), feed for cattle (11 taxa), repellent (four taxa), and/or space freshener (two taxa). The most frequently used wild plants are Chamomilla recutita, Mentha x piperita, and Urtica dioica, while Boletus edulis, Agaricus campestris, and Macrolepiota procera are the most often used mushrooms. The results indicate that the local people in the studied north-western part of Croatia still nurture the practice of cultivating and gathering plants and that herbal remedies are considerably important among the informants. The study should be further extended to broaden and preserve valuable ethnobotanical knowledge and encourage the protection of culturally important plants of the studied area.

Wild Edible Plants Used in Dalmatian Zagora (Croatia)

BACKGROUND

Dalmatian Zagora has experienced significant depopulation trends over recent decades. The area is very interesting because of its rich biodiversity of species as well as its history of the use of wild foods. Since there is a danger of permanent loss of knowledge on the use of wild edibles, we focused our research on recording traditions local to this area.

METHODS

We conducted interviews with 180 residents.

RESULTS

A record was made of 136 species of wild food plants and 22 species of edible mushrooms gathered in the area. The most frequently collected species are Rubus ulmifolius Schott, Cornus mas L., Portulaca oleracea L., Asparagus acutifolius L., Sonchus spp., Morus spp., Taraxacum spp., Amaranthus retroflexus L., Cichorium intybus L., and Dioscorea communis (L.) Caddick & Wilkin.

CONCLUSIONS

The list of taxa used is typical for other (sub-)Mediterranean parts of Croatia; however, more fungi species are used. The most important finding of the paper is probably the recording of Legousia speculum-veneris (L.) Chaix, a wild vegetable used in the area.

Long-Term Monitoring of the Traditional Knowledge of Plant Species Used for Culinary Purposes in the Valencia Region, South-Eastern Spain

The aim of this study is to inventory and study ethnobotanical knowledge of edible plants in the Valencian Community (Spain). In respect to culinary uses, 92 species of plant were reported to be edible, finding the following uses: 58 raw, 52 cooked, 16 fried, 7 dried, 21 in liquors and beverages, 25 in dessert and sweets, 11 as seasoning, 17 in pickles, and 10 to curdle milk. We prepared a database that includes genus, family, scientific, and vernacular names in Spanish and Catalan for each plant. We also created a classification of nine edible uses and plant parts used, being Asteraceae (n = 18), Brassicaceae (n = 7), Chenopodiaceae (n = 6), and Rosaceae (n = 6) the families most characterized for gastronomic purposes. The species with the most elevated cultural importance (CI) values were Foeniculum vulgare (CI = 1.389), Cynara scolymus (CI = 1.374), Papaver rhoeas (CI = 1.211), Beta vulgaris (CI = 1.167), and Juglans regia (CI = 1.155). The most used parts were the leaves (71), flowers (25), and branches (19), while the least used were roots (9) and seeds (8). Traditional knowledge of these plants helps to preserve traditional cuisine, promote the local economy and, in several species, encourage their cultivation.

The genus Scorzonera L. (Asteraceae): A comprehensive review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, chemotaxonomy, and other applications

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Scorzonera L. comprises of approximately 175 species, which are mainly distributed in temperate and arid regions of Central Europe, Central Asia, and Africa. Twenty-nine Scorzonera traditional ethnomedicines have been used for treating colds and fevers, pulmonary diseases, asthma, dyspepsia, malignant stomach neoplasia, liver disorder, jaundice, kidney diseases, mastitis, women's vaginitis, herpes zoster, poisonous ulcers, rheumatic pain, diabetic, atherosclerosis, headache, hypertension, dysentery, pregnant vomiting, snakebites, etc. AIM OF THE REVIEW: This review aims to systematically evaluate the genus Scorzonera over its ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology, discuss the relationship between traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties, and put forward some suggestions to promote further development and utilization of Scorzonera.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This review is based on published scientific research works obtained from the following databases: Elsevier, Web of Science, PubMed, Springer, Wiley, Taylor & Francis, Google Scholar, CNKI, Baidu Scholar, ResearchGate, and others (the Flora of China, 1997 edition; Chinese herbal books, PhD dissertation and Master thesis in Chinese).

RESULTS

The genus 81 Scorzonera plants have been studied for their traditional usage, phytochemistry, and pharmacology. Altogether 421 chemical constituents are isolated from the 54 species of Scorzonera, which include sesquiterpenoids, monoterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenoids, steroids, quinic acid derivatives, flavonoids, cumarinoids, lignanoids, phenylpropanoids, stilbene derivatives, benzylphthalides, kava lactones, phenolics, aliphatic acids, phthalic acids, alkanes, vitamins, sugars, alkaloids, and other constitutes. Besides those listed above, there are also volatile oils, polysaccharides, tannins, amino acids, enzymes, and inorganic elements. The extracts and compounds extracted from 55 Scorzonera species exhibit extensive pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, wound healing, anti-cancer, hepatoprotective, anti-microbial, anti-ulcerogenic, antidiarrheal, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, repairing cerebral ischemia, antidepressant, immunomodulatory activities, enzyme inhibitory effects, etc. Clinical applications strongly indicate that certain species are effective in treating herpes zoster and pregnancy resistance. Certain species are studied over applicationssuch as pharmacokinetic and histological distribution, and toxicity, the product extraction process, quick-freezing processing technology, synthesized metabolites, etc. Chemotaxonomy is also discussed on Scorzonera.

CONCLUSION

This review provides information on traditional usage, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, chemotaxonomy, other applications aspects, and future prospects of the genus Scorzonera. However, only around one third of Scorzonera species have been studied so far. This review may be used as the basis for future endeavors, including further biological and chemical investigations, and efforts of seeking more applications.

Traditional knowledge 10 min far from Barcelona: ethnobotanical study in the Llobregat river delta (Catalonia, NE Iberian Peninsula), a heavily anthropized agricultural area

BACKGROUND

The right floodplain at the Llobregat river delta (Catalonia, NE Iberian Peninsula) constitutes an agricultural periurban area adjacent to Barcelona, which has remained ethnobotanically unexplored until now. This area comprises a very heavily anthropized mosaic of soil uses-urban, industrial, natural, agricultural-including the Agricultural Park of Baix Llobregat. The main aim of this work has been to collect and analyze the ethnoflora of this area in order to fill a gap in the ethnobotanical knowledge in industrialized areas.

METHODS

The followed methodology has been based on semi-structured interviews. The obtained data have been qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed and compared with other studies.

RESULTS

Data have been gathered from 83 informants. The interviewed informants referred 1965 use reports from 292 taxa, including both non-cultivated and cultivated species, from 85 botanical families. Among those, 451 were referred to medicinal uses, 1247 to food uses and 267 to other uses. In the present study, 779 vernacular names have been reported for 287 taxa. In addition to medicinal and food uses, this study significantly enhances our understanding of some agrosilvopastoral uses of plants, artistic use of plants and insights into folk functional foods. In this regard, we propose a novel quantitative ethnobotany index (the folk functional food index) to assess the relative significance of taxa employed as folk functional foods.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study highlight the enduring presence of ethnobotanical knowledge in this periurban agricultural region and underscore the significance of its preservation.

Inhibitory Effects of Ehretia tinifolia Extract on the Excessive Oxidative and Inflammatory Responses in Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Mouse Kupffer Cells

Ehretia tinifolia (E. tinifolia) L., an evergreen tree with substantial biological activity, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, has been used in many herbal and traditional medicines. To elucidate its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and the underlying mechanisms, we applied a methanol extract of E. tinifolia (ETME) to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse immortalized Kupffer cells. ETME suppressed the LPS-induced increase in nitric oxide, a mediator for oxidative stress and inflammation, and restored LPS-mediated depletion of total glutathione level by stabilizing antioxidative nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the subsequent increase in heme oxygenase-1 levels. Furthermore, ETME inhibited the LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6. The inhibitory effects of ETME on pro-inflammatory responses were regulated by ETME-mediated dephosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs: p38, p44/p42, and stress-associated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase) and inhibition of nuclear localization of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). These results suggest that ETME is a possible candidate for protecting Kupffer cells from LPS-mediated oxidative stress and excessive inflammatory responses by activating antioxidant Nrf2/HO-1 and inhibiting pro-inflammatory NF-κB and MAPKs, respectively.

Bitter Is Better: Wild Greens Used in the Blue Zone of Ikaria, Greece

The current study reports an ethnobotanical field investigation of traditionally gathered and consumed wild greens (Chorta) in one of the five so-called Blue Zones in the world: Ikaria Isle, Greece. Through 31 semi-structured interviews, a total of 56 wild green plants were documented along with their culinary uses, linguistic labels, and locally perceived tastes. Most of the gathered greens were described as bitter and associated with members of Asteraceae and Brassicaceae botanical families (31%), while among the top-quoted wild greens, species belonging to these two plant families accounted for 50% of the wild vegetables, which were consumed mostly cooked. Cross-cultural comparison with foraging in other areas of the central-eastern Mediterranean and the Near East demonstrated a remarkable overlapping of Ikarian greens with Cretan and Sicilian, as well as in the prevalence of bitter-tasting botanical genera. Important differences with other wild greens-related food heritage were found, most notably with the Armenian and Kurdish ones, which do not commonly feature many bitter greens. The proven role of extra-oral bitter taste receptors in the modulation of gastric emptying, glucose absorption and crosstalk with microbiota opens new ways of looking at these differences, in particular with regard to possible health implications. The present study is also an important attempt to preserve and document the bio-cultural gastronomic heritage of Chorta as a quintessential part of the Mediterranean diet. The study recommends that nutritionists, food scientists, and historians, as well as policymakers and practitioners, pay the required attention to traditional rural dietary systems as models of sustainable health.

Quality and Safety of Ready-to-Eat Golden Thistle (Scolymus hispanicus L.): A New Product for Traditional Italian Dishes

Golden thistle (Scolymus hispanicus L.) is a wild edible plant belonging to Asteraceae family, with a great potential for food applications. The aim of this study was to identify the best cooking procedure able to provide a high-quality, ready-to-use product. For this purpose, leaf midribs (the most used edible part of the plant) were cooked by boiling, steaming, and 'sous vide', and the cooked products were compared for their phenolic content and composition, antioxidant activity, sugar and inorganic ion content, organoleptic characteristics, and microbial safety, this latter also during storage. In general, boiling caused a decrease in the value of these parameters, despite being the best product for taste and overall acceptability. On the contrary, steaming and 'sous vide' resulted in the best treatments to preserve antioxidant activity, total phenols, and chlorogenic acid. In particular, in 'sous vide' cooked samples, a significant increase in the value of these parameters and a remarkable decrease in nitrate content were found. Moreover, 'sous vide' resulted in the best treatment also regarding microbial safety during shelf life; actually, after 15 days of storage at 8 °C, Enterobacteriaceae and mesophilic aerobic bacteria were not detectable in 'sous vide' samples. These results contributed to increase the knowledge of a wild edible plant with high nutritional properties and promoting its consumption by obtaining a ready-to-use product with good organoleptic characteristics and endowed with a long period of shelf life.

Catching the Green—Diversity of Ruderal Spring Plants Traditionally Consumed in Bulgaria and Their Potential Benefit for Human Health

The global climate and societal challenges in the recent years urge us to strengthen food security; thus, the rediscovery of wild foods and foraging practices is also part of the sustainability agenda. Utilization of underappreciated sources such as ruderal plants could be a valuable option, especially for vulnerable parts of the society. We present data on traditional knowledge on spring edible ruderal plant taxa preserved in rural regions of Bulgaria, combining field studies in the period 2017–2022 that were compared to the available recent and historical ethnographic and (ethno)botanical literature. Semi-structured interviews were performed with representatives of 94 households in North and South Bulgaria, focusing on collection practices, used parts, and preparation methods. We list 65 edible ruderals, belonging to 22 plant families, of which 19 appeared only in the literature sources. Unlike in the Mediterranean tradition, edible ruderal plants in Bulgaria were regarded unfavorably, as poverty food. Amaranthaceae and Asteraceae were the most represented families, with 10 taxa each. About half of the taxa were collected for their leaves or whole young herbage that is used as pastry fillings, in stewed, and in cooked dishes. Taxa used in raw salads were mostly from the literature sources. The most diverse utilization was recorded in the southern-most regions of Bulgaria, where immediate tasting of the gathered plants was reported by the participants as the way to collect food plants. The bitter ones or those with an unappealing smell were considered non-edible and were avoided. References about biologically active compounds and potential benefits were collected, classified, and discussed in regard to their potential benefits for human health.

Wild Edible Plants of Andalusia: Traditional Uses and Potential of Eating Wild in a Highly Diverse Region

A review of ethnobotanical sources focused on traditionally-used wild food plants in Andalusia (southern Spain), one of the most biodiverse regions in Europe, is carried out. With 21 original sources plus some previously unpublished data, the dataset shows a high diversity of these traditional resources, reaching 336 species or c. 7% of the total wild flora. Cultural aspects related to the use of some species are discussed and data are compared with similar works. The results are discussed through the lens of conservation and bromatology. For 24% of the edible plants, informants also mentioned a medicinal use (achieved by consuming the same part of the plant). In addition, a list of 166 potentially edible species is provided based on a review of data from other Spanish territories.

Very High Food Plant Diversity among Ethnic Groups in Northern Thailand

The combination of the high biodiversity and many ethnicities in Thailand results in extensive ethnobotanical studies, especially in the northern part of the country. Here we have assembled 7620 records from 60 references regarding how plants are used for food among 14 ethnicities in northern Thailand. The uses are based on 1182 different plant species. Vegetables are the most common food category, which contributed more than 60% of all use-reports and involved nearly 900 species. This was followed by the dessert fruit category, which included about 350 species and over 1800 use-reports. The similarity among the different ethnicities was low and the number of uses and species recorded among different ethnicities were significantly related to the number of studies that had been conducted for each group. This implies that additional ethnobotanical studies are still needed in order to conserve and compile the valuable traditional knowledge related to food plants. Many exotic species are now an important part of traditional knowledge, whereas rare endemic species are uncommon among wild food plants. This situation leads to a loss of traditional knowledge about food plants and reduced awareness of their importance. As a key to using this great reservoir of food for local people, traditional knowledge related to local wild food plants can contribute to the zero-hunger goal of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG). More studies on the nutrient content and health properties of these plants could lead to the development of new crops to meet present consumer demands.

Wild leafy vegetables: A potential source for a traditional Mediterranean food from Lebanon

Introduction

In Lebanon, wild leafy vegetables (WLVs) continue to be an essential component of people's diet. Nevertheless, little ethnobotanical research has addressed this important potential source for food and nutrition.

Methods

In this study, an ethnobotanical survey was carried out between 2018 and 2022 across 21 villages/towns involving 151 local informants by semi-structured interviews.

Results and discussion

A list of 158 plant species which was still gathered and consumed by traditional Lebanese communities was compiled. The species belonged to 21 families and the most diverse families were Asteraceae (77 species), Brassicaceae (22), and Apiaceae (11). Native species accounted for 147 of the cited species, five of which were endemics to Lebanon and Syria. According to the Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) index, Anchusa azurea, Centaurea hyalolepis, Chondrilla juncea, Eruca vesicaria, Pseudopodospermum molle, Pseudopodospermum papposum, and Taraxacum sect. Taraxacum were reported for the first time among the top popular species. Basal rosettes were the main parts consumed both raw and/or cooked. Informants perceived a decline in availability primarily due to habitat loss and land degradation. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), six of cited species were classified as globally threatened (EN or VU), five of which were narrow endemics. These species scored substantial RFC values. Findings indicate that WEVs of Lebanon offer a promising potential to support food diversity and dietary quality of traditional communities and that threatened endemic species present a high conservation priority. Future research on nutritional contents of these species and highly rated WLVs is recommended.

Encapsulating Calendula arvensis (Vaill.) L. Florets: UHPLC-HRMS Insights into Bioactive Compounds Preservation and Oral Bioaccessibility

Wild edible plants, once consumed in times of famine or for health purposes, today represent an interesting dietary supplement, aimed at enriching local dishes and/or formulating healthy nutraceutical products. In fact, the broad content of different, and diversely bioactive, specialized metabolites therein suggests new scenarios of use which, in order to be as functional as possible, must maximize the bioactivity of these compounds while preserving their chemistry. In this context, based on a recent investigation on the metabolic profile of the organs of Calendula arvensis that highlighted that florets are abundant in flavonol glycosides and triterpene saponins, the freeze-drying encapsulation of their alcoholic extract (FE) into maltodextrin (MD) was investigated. FE-MD chemical composition was evaluated using Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR), while ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS/MS) techniques were employed to unravel FE compound preservation also during in vitro simulated digestion. The establishment of H-bonds between FE compounds and MD hydroxyl groups was in line with FE-MD biocompatibility in Caco-2 cells, while in vitro digestion mostly affected structural integrity and/or diversity. Flavonol compounds underwent deglycosylation and demethylation, while deacylation, beyond oxidation, involved triterpene saponins, which massively preserve their aglycone core.

Nutritional values and phytochemical analysis of Allium calocephalum Wendelbo, a valuable endemic wild garlic to Zagros mountains

Wild edible plants provide the local people with food and medicines and are considered one of the natural ecosystem services. These wild edible diets and herbal medicine always reflect local communities' regional identity and their traditional ecological knowledge. In the new global economy, the natural product field has become a central issue for preserving the traditional culture related to nature, particularly in the context of a sustainable environment. This research study aims to determine the nutritional value and phytochemical contents in a wild population of Allium calocephalum. This wild edible garlic, endemic to the Zagros mountains, is overharvested by Kurdish rural people to enhance their food security at a household level and to perpetuate the preservation of their natural heritage. Here, we estimated the total phenols, flavonoids, carbohydrates, protein, fibers, ash, oil yield, and significant mineral content in both leaves and bulbs of A. calocephalum. Phytochemical analyses were conducted at the Faculty of Agricultural Engineering Sciences (University of Duhok) and the environmental directory of Duhok, Kurdistan Region of Iraq, to get an overview of its nutrients and phytochemical values. Interestingly, a high level of phenolic compounds was obtained from bulbs (0.684 mg gallic acid equivalents/g of dry extract, eq.100g-1). The lowest level of phenolic compounds was found in leaves (0.522 mg gallic acid equivalents/g of dry extract, eq.100g-1). Simultaneously, the bulbs extract gave higher content of flavonoid compounds than the leaves extract (6.31 and 4.73 μg quercetin equivalents/g of dry extract, eq.100g-1, respectively, for the bulbs and leaves). The highest dry weight basis of total carbohydrates, energy value (Kcal), oil content, and moisture content were observed in bulbous parts, and the values were 71.75, 408.86 (Kcal), 9.52, and 92.37, respectively. On the other side, the highest dry weight basis of total protein, fibers, and Ash content was observed in shoot parts, and the values were 15.93, 13.89, and 9.32, respectively. The evidence from this research study supports the idea that this Zagrosian endemic wild garlic enhances the food security and the nutrient diet values of the rural Kurdish people. Keywords: Wild garlic; ethnobotany; edible plants; food security; natural resources; herbal medicine.

Assessment of the Volatile Profiles and Identification of Differentiating Aromas of Wild Undervalued Plants

Wild edible plants have played an important role in traditional diets, including the Mediterranean diet. Many of these plants have acquired an undervalued status, since they are under-appreciated in terms of their nutritional, organoleptic qualities, or their seasonality. However, some of these species are still used in local gastronomy for their aromatic and taste characteristics. This study has investigated the quantitative and qualitative aromatic characteristics of seven undervalued wild plants that determine their organoleptic characteristics. Volatiles of the fresh leaves of each species have been determined by head-space solid-phase microextraction, a sensitive and solvent-free technique, coupled with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. A total of 37 compounds with remarkable quantitative and qualitative differences were identified. In general, benzenoids and monoterpenoids were the most abundant groups, while branched unsaturated hydrocarbons, fatty alcohols, and sesquiterpenoids were the minor groups. Benzyl nitrile, benzyl isothiocyanate, p-cymene, and 2-hexenal were the main individual volatiles, while benzyl alcohol, eugenol, and α-copaene were the differentiating aromas. The results display that the undervalued species studied could be a suitable choice to include as new environmentally friendly crops, providing a double benefit to producers, because they are a possible way to achieve sustainable production systems, and they are an alternative for consumers, because these plants provide flavors that have high organoleptic qualities.

Chorta (Wild Greens) in Central Crete: The Bio-Cultural Heritage of a Hidden and Resilient Ingredient of the Mediterranean Diet

An ethnobotanical field study focusing on traditional wild greens (WGs) was carried out in Central Crete, Greece. Through thirty-one semi-structured interviews, a total of fifty-five wild green plants and their culinary uses and linguistic labels were documented; they were mostly consumed boiled (vrasta) or fried (tsigariasta), as a filling for homemade pies. Comparison with some Greek historical data of the 19th and 20th centuries showed that WGs have remained resilient and are still present in the current Cretan diet. Cross-cultural comparison with the WGs gathered and consumed in other areas of the Central and Eastern Mediterranean demonstrated a remarkable diversity of Cretan WGs and important similarities with those consumed in Greek-speaking Cyprus, the Bodrum area of Turkey, coastal Syria, and Southern Italy. We discussed the cognitive categories linked to Chorta, as well as the possible origin of an original "bulk" of post-Neolithic food weeds that could have spread from the Fertile Crescent westwards across the Mediterranean basin over a few millennia. The current study represents a crucial effort to document and preserve the bio-cultural gastronomic heritage of Chorta and it is advisable that both biology and history scholars, as well as policy makers, pay needed attention to the WGs of the Cretan and Mediterranean diet.

Lead contamination of soils, sediments, and vegetation in a shooting range and adjacent terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems: A holistic approach for evaluating potential risks

It is well accepted that shooting ranges constitute hotspots of Pb contamination. This study evaluated the degree of Pb contamination of soils, sediments and vegetation within the boundaries of a highly visited shooting range, as well as the fluvial transport and dispersal of Pb, and therefore the contamination of adjacent river and water reservoir. Soils in the shooting range were severely contaminated with Pb, as indicated by the values of enrichment and contamination factor. The concentration of Pb in these soils ranged from 791 mg kg^-1 to 7265 mg kg^-1, being several dozens or even hundreds of times higher compared with control background samples. A temporary stream being in close proximity was also polluted, though to a much lesser extent. The degree of Pb contamination was negatively correlated with the distance from the shooting range. To this effect, the degree of contamination of the river and the water reservoir being in the vicinity of the shooting range was negligible, as sediments and water samples preserved similar Pb concentrations with control samples. However, cultivated (olives) and wild native plant species grown in the area of the shooting range were found to uptake and accumulate high concentrations of Pb in their tissues (even 50 times higher compared with control samples). The severe contamination of soils, sediments and vegetation in the studied shooting range can provoke very high ecological risks. Overall, results suggest that management measures should be undertaken within the boundaries of the studied shooting range.

Short-range attraction and oviposition stimulant of a biocontrol agent, Galerucella placida Baly (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) toward weed leaf surface waxes

Two Polygonaceae weeds, Rumex dentatus L. and Polygonum glabrum Willd. are abundant in wheat- and rice-fields, respectively, in India. Galerucella placida Baly (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is a biocontrol agent of these two weeds. The importance of long-chain alkanes and free fatty acids present in leaf surface waxes of these weeds was assessed as short-range attractant and ovipositional stimulant in G. placida females. Extraction, TLC, GC-MS and GC-FID analyses demonstrated 19 n-alkanes from n-C14 to n-C35 and 14 free fatty acids from C12:0 to C22:0 in leaf surface waxes. Hentriacontane was predominant among alkanes in both weeds, while oleic acid and docosanoic acid were predominant among free fatty acids in R. dentatus and P. glabrum, respectively. Females of G. placida were attracted toward one leaf equivalent surface wax of both weeds against the control solvent (petroleum ether) in a short Y-tube olfactometer bioassay. But, the insect could not differentiate between one leaf equivalent surface wax of R. dentatus and P. glabrum, indicating that both weed leaves were equally attractive in females. A synthetic blend of either 2.44, 35.57 and 23.58 μg ml-1 of octadecane, heptacosane and nonacosane, respectively, resembling the amounts present in one leaf equivalent surface wax of R. dentatus or 4.08, 19.54 and 23.58 μg ml-1 of octadecane, palmitoleic acid and docosanoic acid, respectively, resembling the amounts present in one leaf equivalent surface wax of P. glabrum acted as short-range attractant and ovipositional stimulant in G. placida. These results could be a basis for host plant specificity of the biocontrol agent.

Ethnobotanical study on wild edible plants traditionally used by Messiwa people, Morocco

BACKGROUND

The traditional knowledge on wild edible plants has been shown in many studies a worrying decline throughout the last few decades. Therefore, the first aim of this study was to document the population knowledge on wild edible plants among the Messiwa people. The second objective was to assess the traditional knowledge of our informants according to their socio-economic status.

METHODS

The survey was conducted among 149 informants through a semi-structured questionnaire. The relative importance of the plants was obtained by calculating the relative frequency of citation (RFC) for each species. To compare means, we used Student's t test for two-group comparisons and Snedecor's F-test for multi-group comparisons. The multi-range Duncan test was used for multiple mean comparisons. The correspondence factor analysis (CFA) was also used.

RESULTS

A set of 64 species belonging to 56 genera from 34 families has been collected and identified. The species used for nutritional and medicinal purposes represent 56%, while 44% were used exclusively as nutritional plants. The most used parts are, respectively, the aerial parts (58%), the fruits (17%), the underground parts (13%), the seeds (8%), and finally the flowers (5%). On the other hand, the higher level of knowledge on wild edible plants was found among women, the elderly, illiterate, married people, and those engaged in agricultural occupations.

CONCLUSION

This work could be a basis to be reproduced on other regions in Morocco and to be widened through pharmacological and nutritional studies in order to promote and valorize these wild edible plants.

Patterns of Traditional and Modern Uses of Wild Edible Native Plants of Chile: Challenges and Future Perspectives

Wild Edible Plants (WEPs) still play a vital role in the subsistence of many traditional communities, while they are receiving increasing recognition in tackling food security and nutrition at the international level. This paper reviews the use patterns of native WEPs in Chile and discusses their role as future crops and sources of food products. We conducted an extensive literature review by assessing their taxonomic diversity, life forms, consumption and preparation methods, types of use (traditional and modern), and nutritional properties. We found that 330 native species were documented as food plants, which represent 7.8% of the total flora of Chile. These species belong to 196 genera and 84 families. The most diverse families are Asteraceae (34), Cactaceae (21), Fabaceae (21), Solanaceae (20) and Apiaceae (19), and the richest genera in terms of number of species are Solanum (9), Ribes (8), Berberis (7), Hypochaeris (7) and Oxalis (6). Perennial herbs are the predominant life form (40%), followed by shrubs (35%), trees (14%), and annual and biannual herbs (11%). Fruits (35.8%), roots (21.5%) and leaves (20.0%) are the parts of plants consumed the most. Nine different food preparation categories were identified, with 'raw' forming the largest group (43%), followed by 'beverages' (27%), 'savoury preparations' (27%), and 'sweet' (13%). Almost all native Chilean WEPs have reported traditional food uses, while only a few of them have contemporary uses, with food products mainly sold in local and specialised markets. Species' richness, taxonomic diversity and family representation have similar patterns to those observed for the world flora and other countries where surveys have been carried out. Some Chilean native WEPs have the potential to become new crops and important sources of nutritious and healthy products in the food industry. However, there are still many gaps in knowledge about their nutritional, anti-nutritional and biochemical characteristics; future research is recommended to unveil their properties and potential uses in agriculture and the food industry.

The Renaissance of Wild Food Plants: Insights from Tuscany (Italy)

This paper provides an overview of wild food plants traditionally used in the gastronomy of Tuscany, an Italian region with high biological diversity and whose cultural heritage is well known. Forty-nine bibliographic sources, including five unpublished studies, were reviewed. A list of species with ecological characteristics, plant parts used, use category (food, liquor, or seasoning), methods of preparation (raw or cooked), and recipes is presented. The use of 357 taxa (3711 use reports, URs), was recorded, belonging to 215 genera and 72 botanical families. Over the total taxa, 12 are new for Tuscany, 52 seem not to be present in other Italian regions, and 54 were not detected in the consulted European ethnobotanical literature. Of these taxa, 324 (3117 URs) were used as food, while 49 (178 URs) and 81 (416 URs) were used for liquor and seasoning, respectively. Of the 17 different food recipes, cooked vegetables constituted the largest group, followed by salads, omelets, snacks, and fillings. The chemical composition of the recorded food plants and the possible safety risks associated to their consumption, as well as their traditional medicinal use, are also shown. This review highlights the richness of ethnobotanical knowledge in Tuscany. Such biocultural heritage can be a “source of inspiration” for agriculture. As a reservoir of potential new crops, wild edible flora may contribute to the development of emerging horticultural sectors such as vertical farming and microgreens production. Moreover, the nutrient content and healthy properties of many wild food plants reported in this study has the ability to meet consumer demand for functional foods.

Phenolic Profiles and Biological Activities of Extracts from Edible Wild Fruits Ehretia tinifolia and Sideroxylon lanuginosum

Ehretia tinifolia Linnaeus (Boraginacea) and Sideroxylon lanuginosum Michaux (Sapotaceae) are wild fruits consumed in North America and are appreciated for their pleasant flavor and sweet taste. However, details regarding their composition and biological properties in the available literature are scarce. This study reports the phenolic composition, antioxidant, antiproliferative activities, and digestive enzymatic inhibition of amberlite-retained methanolic extracts from both fruits. Results revealed that these wild fruit extracts are rich in antioxidants. S. lanuginosum had lower phenolic but higher flavonoid contents (21.4 ± 1.5 mg GAE/100 g FW and 6.42 ± 0.9 mg CE/100 g FW) than E. tinifolia (64.7 ± 2.6 mg GAE/100 g FW and 5.1 ± 0.4 mg CE/100 g FW). HPLC-DAD-MS/MS analysis showed rosmarinic acid as a major polyphenol in E. tinifolia and quercetin glucoside in S. lanuginosum. Polyphenols content in E. tinifolia was related to a significant free radical scavenging ability: DPPH (EC50 = 0.32 ± 0.03 mg/mL), TEAC (4134 ± 9.7 μM TE/g dry extract), and hemolysis inhibition (IC50 = 58.55 ± 2.4 μg/mL). Both extracts were capable of inhibiting α-glucosidase, partially inhibiting α-amylase, and showed no inhibition against lipase, while showing antiproliferative activity against HeLa, HT-29 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines. Our study revealed that these wild fruit extracts are rich in health-beneficial phytochemicals and hold significant potential for elaborating functional foods.

State of Crop Landraces in Arcadia (Greece) and In-Situ Conservation Potential

Genetic erosion of landraces is increasing worldwide, however there are still regions rich in landrace biodiversity, such as islands and mountainous isolated areas. Defining the reasons of landrace abandonment in these areas, as well as collecting and preserving landraces, is of outmost importance. In this context, the Agricultural University of Athens organized missions in 53 villages of Arcadia, a prefecture rich in floral biodiversity and variable climatic conditions and topography. The aim was to collect samples of the on-farm (in-situ) conserved annual crop landraces and record the location of perennial crop local varieties. Since traditional knowledge and practices have been playing a vital role in the survival of landraces and local varieties, information was obtained through personal interviews with locals using semi-structured questionnaires. Even though the number of accessions collected from Arcadia has been reduced (141 samples) compared to previous collections and genetic erosion is advancing dramatically for cereals and pulses, a significant number of landraces is still cultivated by the locals. The reasons of landrace abandonment were other sources of occupation than agriculture, such as public service jobs, mechanization, and commercialization of agriculture. Gastronomic and agro-tourism along with European Union trademarks and policies can support locals in landrace/local varieties in-situ conservation.

Phytochemical characterization of raw and cooked traditionally consumed alimurgic plants

In the past, wild edible alimurgic plants became an important alternative food source when poverty, wars or drought made it difficult to access crops. These plants were considered rich in highly nutritional compounds and also frequently used as food-medicine given their health-promoting properties. With the aim of improving our knowledge on the content of beneficial or detrimental compounds in relation with past local dietary and curative traditions, 12 wild food plant species were collected from two study areas selected for their very different degree of industrialization, urbanization, and conservation of local past traditions among the population: the Bologna province (Northern Italy) and the Middle Agri Valley (Southern Italy). Protein, polyphenol flavonoid and biogenic amine (both free and conjugated) contents and antioxidant activity of raw and boiled wild food plant extracts, and of cooking water were analyzed by means of spectrophotometric and high-performance liquid chromatography methods. The results demonstrated that most of the phenolic compounds were released in the cooking water which also showed the highest antioxidant activity. Seventeen different phenolic compounds were identified, of which the health-related luteolin, luteolin-7-glucoside and rutin were the most abundant (e.g., S. pratensis L. and C. intybus L.). On the other hand, biogenic amines were absent or present at very low levels in cooking water of those very same species (e.g., S. pratensis L., T. officinalis Weber, C. vesicaria subsp. taraxacifolia and C. intybus L.) of which traditionally a decoction is used for therapeutic purposes. Free and conjugated spermidine and spermine were generally the most abundant biogenic amines, while none of the known detrimental monoamines (e.g., histamine) was detected. In conclusion, the present results seem to support past local popular traditions which indicated beneficial medical properties of some wild edible plant, as well as of their cooking water.

Wild edible plants traditionally collected and used in southern Yemen

BACKGROUND

The local wild edible plants (WEPs) are still used traditionally in the rural communities in Yemen, but this traditional knowledge is still undocumented and has been never reported before. Therefore, this study is the first ethnobotanical survey on WEPs conducted in Yemen.

METHODS

The study is based on two field surveys made in two periods 1988-1992 and 2014-2016 to document the wild plants used as edible by local indigenous peoples in 23 districts belonged to five governorates, in southern Yemen. Information data were collected by oral face-to-face interviews from 250 informants. Citations numbers were calculated for each species.

RESULTS

A total of 58 plant species belonged to 37 genera and 21 families are reported as wild edible plants consumed in southern Yemen. Apocynaceae was the dominant plant family with 18 species followed by Asteraceae (6) and Malvaceae (5). The most widely used edible parts are stem, leaf and fruit with more than 17 species for each. Herbs were reported as the most important sources (31 species), followed by shrubs (16) and trees (9). Most of reported wild edibles (48 species parts) are consumed in raw form; only 12 of them are cooked. Seven wild edible plants were collected in dry season, 16 species throughout the year and 38 in rainy season. In this study, 58 wild plants were reported for the first time as food in Yemen. Comparing the southern Yemeni findings to those from other world countries, 12 of them are new WEPs eaten only in southern Yemen, while 46 species are shared in the use in different world countries practically in East Africa and Arab countries.

CONCLUSIONS

The results data reflect the strong relationship between the local peoples and the local WEPs as potential sources insure food security. The traditional use of these WEPs is attributed to food shortage, nutritional values and local cultural tradition. The study is of great importance in preserving the traditional and knowledge heritage from being lost due to the risks of time, war and immigration.

Design a Database of Italian Vascular Alimurgic Flora (AlimurgITA): Preliminary Results

Despite the large number of data published in Italy on WEPs, there is no database providing a complete knowledge framework. Hence the need to design a database of the Italian alimurgic flora: AlimurgITA. Only strictly alimurgic taxa were chosen, excluding casual alien and cultivated ones. The collected data come from an archive of 358 texts (books and scientific articles) from 1918 to date, chosen with appropriate criteria. For each taxon, the part of the plant used, the method of use, the chorotype, the biological form and the regional distribution in Italy were considered. The 1103 taxa of edible flora already entered in the database equal 13.09% of Italian flora. The most widespread family is that of the Asteraceae (20.22%); the most widely used taxa are Cichorium intybus and Borago officinalis. The not homogeneous regional distribution of WEPs (maximum in the south and minimum in the north) has been interpreted. Texts published reached its peak during the 2001–2010 decade. A database for Italian WEPs is important to have a synthesis and to represent the richness and complexity of this knowledge, also in light of its potential for cultural enhancement, as well as its applications for the agri-food system.

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-Based Classification of 12 Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller) Varieties Based on Their Aroma Profiles and Estragole Levels as Analyzed Using Chemometric Tools

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller) is a popular aromatic plant native to the Mediterranean basin and cultivated worldwide that is valued for the nutritional and health benefits of its fruits. Headspace solid-phase microextraction of 12 fennel accessions of cultivated (F. vulgare subsp. vulgare) and wild forms (F. vulgare subsp. piperitum) of different origins was carried out for assessing their volatile distribution. Fifty-four volatiles were identified, with ethers amounting for the major class at ca. 52-99% attributed to the abundance of (E)-anethole and estragole. Several subsp. vulgare accessions proved to be excellent sources of the chief aroma (E)-anethole (95.9-98.4%), whereas high levels of estragole at ca. 72% were observed in subsp. piperitum from Minia and Khartoum and must be considered in the safety assessment of fennel. Other volatile classes were detected including ketones, esters, aldehydes, alcohols, and hydrocarbons (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes). Fenchone exceeded 15% of the total volatiles in some fennel specimens, linked to a conspicuous bitter aftertaste. The members of subsp. piperitum were more enriched in monoterpene hydrocarbons with sabinene found exclusively in these, while subsp. vulgare comprised a higher content of ethers. Principle component analysis determined isoterpinolene as a special component in subsp. piperitum. In all specimens from the same group, estragole was the most distinguished volatile compound according to the findings from orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis. The highest estimated estragole levels were detected in subsp. piperitum from Minia at 89.8 mg/g. This comparative study provides the first comprehensive insight into volatile profiling of 12 fennel fruit varieties.

Muscari comosum L. Bulb Extracts Modulate Oxidative Stress and Redox Signaling in HepG2 Cells

Muscari comosum L. bulbs are commonly used as food in South Italy and also in folk medicine. By evaluating in vitro antioxidant activity and biological activities of their aqueous and methanol extracts, we shed light on the potential role, including both the nutraceutical and health benefits, of this plant. Total polyphenol content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) were evaluated by the Folin-Ciocalteu method and by the aluminum chloride method, respectively. Antioxidant activity was investigated by three in vitro assays and relative antioxidant capacity index (RACI) was calculated to compare results obtained by different tests. The extracts were tested to evaluate their possible involvement in redox homeostasis, using the human hepatoma (HepG2) cell line used as model. The extracts exhibited concentration/solvent dependent radical scavenging activity, as well as dysregulation of some genes involved in redox pathways by promoting Nrf2, SOD-2, GPX1, ABCC6 and ABCG2 expression. NMR metabolomics analysis suggests that HepG2 cells treated with Muscari comosum extracts experience changes in some metabolites involved in various metabolic pathways.

Local knowledge as a tool for prospecting wild food plants: experiences in northeastern Brazil

This study aims to provide a simple framework to identify wild food plants with potential for popularization based on local knowledge and perception. To this end, we also characterized the distribution of this knowledge in the socio-ecological system. We developed the study in the rural settlement Dom Hélder Câmara in northeastern Brazil. The species with the greatest potential for popularization considering the attributes accessed from local knowledge and perception were Psidium guineense Sw., Genipa americana L., Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott and Dioscorea trifida L.f. However, the high variation in local knowledge on wild food plants suggests that species that are not frequently cited can also be promising. The absence of age or gender-related knowledge patterns indicates that studies for prospecting wild food plants in similar socioecological contexts need to reach the population as a whole, rather than focusing on a specific group.

The Beneficial Health Effects of Vegetables and Wild Edible Greens: The Case of the Mediterranean Diet and Its Sustainability

The Mediterranean diet (MD) concept as currently known describes the dietary patterns that were followed in specific regions of the area in the 1950s and 1960s. The broad recognition of its positive effects on the longevity of Mediterranean populations also led to the adoption of this diet in other regions of the world, and scientific interest focused on revealing its health effects. MD is not only linked with eating specific nutritional food products but also with social, religious, environmental, and cultural aspects, thus representing a healthy lifestyle in general. However, modern lifestyles adhere to less healthy diets, alienating people from their heritage. Therefore, considering the increasing evidence of the beneficial health effects of adherence to the MD and the ongoing transitions in consumers’ behavior, the present review focuses on updating the scientific knowledge regarding this diet and its relevance to agrobiodiversity. In addition, it also considers a sustainable approach for new marketing opportunities and consumer trends of the MD.

Born to Eat Wild: An Integrated Conservation Approach to Secure Wild Food Plants for Food Security and Nutrition

Overlooked in national reports and in conservation programs, wild food plants (WFPs) have been a vital component of food and nutrition security for centuries. Recently, several countries have reported on the widespread and regular consumption of WFPs, particularly by rural and indigenous communities but also in urban contexts. They are reported as critical for livelihood resilience and for providing essential micronutrients to people enduring food shortages or other emergency situations. However, threats derived from changes in land use and climate, overexploitation and urbanization are reducing the availability of these biological resources in the wild and contributing to the loss of traditional knowledge associated with their use. Meanwhile, few policy measures are in place explicitly targeting their conservation and sustainable use. This can be partially attributed to a lack of scientific evidence and awareness among policymakers and relevant stakeholders of the untapped potential of WFPs, accompanied by market and non-market barriers limiting their use. This paper reviews recent efforts being undertaken in several countries to build evidence of the importance of WFPs, while providing examples of cross-sectoral cooperation and multi-stakeholder approaches that are contributing to advance their conservation and sustainable use. An integrated conservation approach is proposed contributing to secure their availability for future generations.

How Many Wild Edible Plants Do We Eat—Their Diversity, Use, and Implications for Sustainable Food System: An Exploratory Analysis in India

Wild edible plants are still eaten by a large section of the global population and ensure both affordable food and nutritional security. We tested this in an Indian context, where an enormous diversity of such plants constitutes a significant part of the rural diet and their acceptance has been high. In this study, we assessed the diversity of wild edible plant resource and the importance of species based on the use and its pattern. We have also shortlisted a set of plants to make an informed decision on prioritization. We found a great variety of plants (1,403 species) from 184 families were consumed across India, although the first 44 families (24%) contributed largely to the (75%) diversity. Leguminosae followed by Compositae, Poaceae, Malvaceae, and Rosaceae, were the families with the highest number of species. We note that a few species from the large pool were extensively used throughout the country while another few were valued for their multiple edible plant parts. Leafy shoots (722 species) followed by fruits (652 species) were the two most-eaten plant parts. Our results strengthen the fact that: (a) wild edibles have been an integral part of the diet; (b) their widespread assimilation into local food culture suggests an untapped potential to ensure easy availability and access to micronutrients for sustainable food systems, and thus in social welfare; and (c) they should be incorporated into the national food policy for formal cultivation and promotion.

Balkans' Asteraceae Species as a Source of Biologically Active Compounds for the Pharmaceutical and Food Industry

Herbal drugs are a useful source of different bioactive compounds. Asteraceae species, as the most widespread vascular plants, can be used both as food and as medicine due to the great diversity of recorded chemical components - different phenolic compounds, terpenes, carotenoids, vitamins, alkaloids, etc. The Balkan Peninsula is characterized by great diversity of plants from Asteraceae family, including presence of rare and endemic species. In this review, results of the survey of chemical composition and biological activity, mainly focusing on antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer effects of selected Balkans' Asteraceae species were provided. In addition, information on edible plants from Asteraceae family is presented, due to growing interest for the so-called 'healthy diet' and possible application of Balkans' Asteraceae species as food of high nutritional value or as a source of functional food ingredients.

Shared but Threatened: The Heritage of Wild Food Plant Gathering among Different Linguistic and Religious Groups in the Ishkoman and Yasin Valleys, North Pakistan

A wild food ethnobotanical field study was conducted in the Ishkoman and Yasin valleys, located in the Hindukush Mountain Range of Gilgit-Baltistan, northern Pakistan. These valleys are inhabited by diverse, often marginalized, linguistic and religious groups. The field survey was conducted via one hundred and eighty semistructured interviews to record data in nine villages. Forty gathered wild food botanical and mycological taxa were recorded and identified. Comparative analysis among the different linguistic and religious groups revealed that the gathered wild food plants were homogenously used. This may be attributed to the sociocultural context of the study area, where most of the population professes the Ismaili Shia Islamic faith, and to the historical stratifications of different populations along the centuries, which may have determined complex adaptation processes and exchange of possibly distinct pre-existing food customs. A few wild plants had very rarely or never been previously reported as food resources in Pakistan, including Artemisia annua, Hedysarum falconeri, Iris hookeriana, Lepidium didymium and Saussurea lappa. Additionally, the recorded local knowledge is under threat and we analyzed possible factors that have caused this change. The recorded biocultural heritage could, however, represent a crucial driver, if properly revitalized, for assuring the food security of the local communities and also for further developing ecotourism and associated sustainable gastronomic initiatives in the area.

Devil Is in the Details: Use of Wild Food Plants in Historical Võromaa and Setomaa, Present-Day Estonia

Biodiversity needs to be preserved to ensure food security. Border zones create high but vulnerable biocultural diversity. Through reviewing scattered historical data and documenting the current use of wild food plants among people currently living in historical Setomaa and Võromaa parishes, we aimed to identify cross-cultural differences and diachronic changes as well as the role borders have played on the local use of wild plants. The Seto have still preserved their distinctive features either by consciously opposing others or by maintaining more historical plant uses. People historically living in Setomaa and Võromaa parishes have already associated the eating of wild plants with famine food in the early 20th century, yet it was stressed more now by the Seto than by Estonians. Loss of Pechory as the center of attraction in the region when the border was closed in the early 1990s brought about a decline in the exchange of knowledge as well as commercial activities around wild food plants. National support for businesses in the area today and the popularity of a healthy lifestyle have introduced new wild food plant applications and are helping to preserve local plant-specific uses in the area.

An Updated Checklist of the Sicilian Native Edible Plants: Preserving the Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Century-Old Agro-Pastoral Landscapes

The traditional use of native wild food plants (NWFP) may represent a valuable supplementary food source for the present and future generations. In Sicily, the use of wild plants in the human diet dates back to very ancient times and still plays an important role in some rural communities. Moreover, in this regard, the natural and cultural inheritance of this island is wealthy and diversified for several reasons. First, Sicily hosts a rich vascular flora, with 3,000 native and 350 endemic plants. Second, due to its central position in the Mediterranean, the island has acted as a veritable melting pot for the ethnobotanical knowledge of the rural communities of the entire basin. We reviewed all the available literature and, starting from such omnicomprehensive checklist, partially improved thanks to the data issuing from recent field investigations, we critically revised the whole species list, basing our review on field data issuing from interviews and on our expert knowledge. As a result, we provide a substantially updated list of 292 NWFP growing on the island. Further 34 species, reported as NWFP on previous papers were discarded because they are not native to Sicily, while 45 species were listed separately because their identity, occurrence and local use as food is doubtful and needs to be further investigated. Moreover, we tried to shed light on the ecology (growth form and preferential habitat) of the Sicilian NWFP, with special focus on crop wild relatives (CWR). Our preliminary ecological analyses point out that a high percentage of these plants are linked with the so-called 'cultural' landscapes, patchy semi-natural environments rich in ecotones, leading to the conclusion that the maintenance of century-old agro-pastoral practices may represent an effective way to preserve the local heritage of edible plants. Our study allowed to identify as much as 102 taxa of agronomic interest which could be tested as novel crops in order to face ongoing global changes and to comply with sustainable agriculture policies. Among them, 39 taxa show promising traits in terms of tolerance to one or more environmental stress factors, while 55 more are considered CWR and/or can be easily cultivated and/or show high productivity/yield potential.

Identification and frequency of consumption of wild edible plants over a year in central Tunisia: a mixed-methods approach

OBJECTIVE

To identify wild plants used as food and assess their frequency of consumption over a year in a region of Tunisia where agriculture is undergoing a major transformation from smallholder farming to an intensive high-input agricultural system.

DESIGN

Qualitative ethnobotanical study followed by a survey of women's frequency of consumption of wild plants conducted using FFQ at quarterly intervals.

SETTING

Sidi Bouzid governorate of central Tunisia.

PARTICIPANTS

Mixed-gender group of key informants (n 14) and focus group participants (n 43). Survey sample of women aged 20-49 years, representative at governorate level (n 584).

RESULTS

Ethnobotanical study: thirty folk species of wild edible plants corresponding to thirty-five taxa were identified by key informants, while twenty folk species (twenty-five taxa) were described by focus groups as commonly eaten. Population-based survey: 98 % of women had consumed a wild plant over the year, with a median frequency of 2 d/month. Wild and semi-domesticated fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill. and Anethum graveolens) was the most frequently consumed folk species. Women in the upper tertile of wild plant consumption frequency were more likely to be in their 30s, to live in an urban area, to have non-monetary access to foods from their extended family and to belong to wealthier households.

CONCLUSIONS

In this population, wild edible plants, predominantly leafy vegetables, are appreciated but consumed infrequently. Their favourable perception, however, offers an opportunity for promoting their consumption which could play a role in providing healthy diets and mitigating the obesity epidemic that is affecting the Tunisian population.

Wild edible plants collected by Hani from terraced rice paddy agroecosystem in Honghe Prefecture, Yunnan, China

BACKGROUND

The Hani people in the Honghe Prefecture of Southeastern Yunnan, China, have practiced terraced rice paddy farming for more than 1300 years. These rice fields, combined with the surrounding forests and water systems, form a special agroecosystem that has attracted both tourists and scientists. For centuries, the local people have traditionally collected wild edible plants (WEP) from the agroecosystem, but this unique traditional practice in this area has never been reported.

METHODS

Ethnobotanical fieldwork was conducted in four counties (Yuanyang, Honghe, Jinping, and Lüchun) between 2014 and 2019. Local self-identified Hani people (186) were interviewed, and information concerning local WEP species was obtained, documented, and analyzed. Plant samples and voucher specimens were collected for taxonomic identification.

RESULTS

A total of 224 WEP species, belonging to 90 families and 170 genera, were recorded as used by the Hani people in Honghe. The most common WEP parts used include fruits, stems, and leaves, and the most common preparation methods include eating as a potherb (wild vegetable) and eating fresh. Some WEPs, like Phyllanthus emblica and Dioscorea subcalva, have unique preparation methods. The use-value (UV) and frequency of utilization index (FUI) of WEP species were analyzed. The 20 WEP species with the highest UV were noted as particularly important to the Hani people's daily life in Honghe.

CONCLUSION

A large majority of these WEP species possess tremendous economic potential for future development. However, the diversity of WEP species, the associated traditional knowledge, and the broader agroecosystem are facing challenges such as biodiversity loss and pollution from chemical pesticides and fertilizers. This study may help local people to recognize the value of local WEP species and associated traditional knowledge, as well as provide ethnobotanical information for the future development of this tourism region.

Wild edible plants collected by Hani from terraced rice paddy agroecosystem in Honghe Prefecture, Yunnan, China

BACKGROUND

The Hani people in the Honghe Prefecture of Southeastern Yunnan, China, have practiced terraced rice paddy farming for more than 1300 years. These rice fields, combined with the surrounding forests and water systems, form a special agroecosystem that has attracted both tourists and scientists. For centuries, the local people have traditionally collected wild edible plants (WEP) from the agroecosystem, but this unique traditional practice in this area has never been reported.

METHODS

Ethnobotanical fieldwork was conducted in four counties (Yuanyang, Honghe, Jinping, and Lüchun) between 2014 and 2019. Local self-identified Hani people (186) were interviewed, and information concerning local WEP species was obtained, documented, and analyzed. Plant samples and voucher specimens were collected for taxonomic identification.

RESULTS

A total of 224 WEP species, belonging to 90 families and 170 genera, were recorded as used by the Hani people in Honghe. The most common WEP parts used include fruits, stems, and leaves, and the most common preparation methods include eating as a potherb (wild vegetable) and eating fresh. Some WEPs, like Phyllanthus emblica and Dioscorea subcalva, have unique preparation methods. The use-value (UV) and frequency of utilization index (FUI) of WEP species were analyzed. The 20 WEP species with the highest UV were noted as particularly important to the Hani people's daily life in Honghe.

CONCLUSION

A large majority of these WEP species possess tremendous economic potential for future development. However, the diversity of WEP species, the associated traditional knowledge, and the broader agroecosystem are facing challenges such as biodiversity loss and pollution from chemical pesticides and fertilizers. This study may help local people to recognize the value of local WEP species and associated traditional knowledge, as well as provide ethnobotanical information for the future development of this tourism region.

Analysis of native vegetation for detailed characterization of a soil contaminated by tannery waste

The risks for human health and the ecosystem due to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) were investigated in a farmland classified as potentially contaminated by Cr and Zn by analysing native vegetation and relative rhizo-soils. Rhizo-soils of different plant species were found to be enriched by Cr and Zn as well as by elements omitted from official environmental characterization, namely Cd, As and Pb. The ecological risk index (ERI) had a mean value of 510, indicating high to "very high" risk in different habitats. ERI above the very high risk threshold characterized the rhizo-soils of Lolium perenne, Erigeron sumatrensis, Oloptum thomasii and Amaranthus retroflexus. Two of these plant species (E. sumatrensis and A. retroflexus) are exotic in Italy and accumulated Cd in the shoots above the EU threshold for forage, suggesting a potential risk of Cd transfer to the food chain. Hence, this element was found to contribute most to the ERI. Cynodon dactylon was recognized as the most suitable plant species for the phytostabilization of the contaminated site, as it showed the highest bioavailable Cd accumulation in roots coupled with the highest frequency and soil-cover capacity during spring-summer, when the risk of soil resuspension is generally more intense.

Consumers' Perceptions and Preferences for Bitterness in Vegetable Foods: The Case of Extra-Virgin Olive Oil and Brassicaceae-A Narrative Review

The presence of some healthy phytochemicals in food can be paired with high bitterness, and consumers have a widespread avoidance toward bitter-tasting food. This causes a gap between preferences and healthy needs of consumers. Therefore, this review collected insights from literature belonging to different discipline domains in order to have a broad view of the current state-of-the-art about biochemical aspects and consumers’ perceptions and preferences toward foods with an enhanced bitter taste. In detail, we focused on two core products of the Mediterranean diet: Extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) and Brassicaceae, both characterized by specific phytochemicals having strong healthy properties and bitter-pungent taste. Results suggested that, although bitter taste is a general driver of dislike, some exceptions can be represented by: niches of consumers (e.g., innovators and organic buyers), foods consumed with specific purposes (e.g., coffee, chocolate, and alcoholic beverages). The level of bitterness perceived by the consumers can be modulated through exposure, information on benefits, and elements within the environment (e.g., music). Thus, these insights can be used to develop specific campaigns aimed at promoting bitter (healthy) food, considering also the key role that could be played by food pairings.

The ethnobotany and biogeography of wild vegetables in the Adriatic islands

BACKGROUND

Archipelagos of islands have played an important role in shaping some of the paradigms of biology, including the theory of the evolution of species. Later, their importance in biology was further emphasised by the theory of island biogeography, which contributed to a better understanding of the shaping of species richness not only on real islands, but on isolated habitat islands as well. Although ethnobotany is a well-established discipline, patterns of knowledge about plant uses in archipelagos have never been quantitatively analysed, and the whole concept has been only briefly mentioned in the ethnobiological context. The aim of our study was to record which taxa of wild vegetables have been consumed in the Adriatic islands and to establish if such variables as island size, population size, flora or its isolation are correlated with the number of wild vegetables used.

METHODS

We interviewed 225 people (15 from each island).

RESULTS

Altogether, the use of 89 species of wild vegetables has been recorded. The largest number of wild vegetables is eaten on the islands of Korčula, Vis and Šolta, and the lowest on Ugljan, Cres and Dugi Otok. The studied independent variables had a small and statistically not significant effect on the wild vegetable list length. The most visible effect was an increasing trend from north-west to south-east, overrunning the typical biogeographical island patterns. Moreover, one of the large and well-populated islands, Korčula, showed an 'unusually' high level of wild vegetable use. We hypothesise that the current use of so many species on this island has been maintained by the inhabitants' awareness that they are the holders of relic knowledge, an awareness reiterated by ethnographic and popular publications, as well as a strong history of famine. The most interesting edible species used in the Adriatic islands are Bunium alpinum, Cytinus hypocystis (both mainly on Pašman), Lotus edulis (on Vis) and Posidonia oceanica (on Vis and Korčula).

CONCLUSIONS

The recorded relationships between the demographic and geographical features of the islands were statistically not significant. We assume that cultural and historical factors diversifying the use of plants in particular islands are stronger than the above-mentioned measurable variables.