Strategies for improving biological hydrogen production

Cloning and heterologous expression of chlorophyll a synthase in Rhodobacter sphaeroides

Rhodobacter sphaeroides is a purple non-sulfur bacterium which photoheterotrophically produces hydrogen from organic acids under anaerobic conditions. A gene coding for putative chlorophyll a synthase (chlG) from cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus marinus was amplified by nested polymerase chain reaction and cloned into an inducible-expression plasmid which was subsequently transferred to R. sphaeroides for heterologous expression. Induced expression of chlG in R. sphaeroides led to changes in light absorption spectrum within 400-700 nm. The hydrogen production capacity of the mutant strain was evaluated on hydrogen production medium with 15 mM malate and 2 mM glutamate. Hydrogen yield and productivity were increased by 13.6 and 22.6%, respectively, compared to the wild type strain. The results demonstrated the feasibility of genetic engineering to combine chlorophyll and bacteriochlorophyll biosynthetic pathways which utilize common intermediates. Heterologous expression of key enzymes from biosynthetic pathways of various pigments is proposed here as a general strategy to improve absorption spectra and yield of photosynthesis and hydrogen gas production in bacteria.

Characterization of [FeFe] Hydrogenase O2 Sensitivity Using a New, Physiological Approach

[FeFe] hydrogenases catalyze rapid H₂ production but are highly O₂-sensitive. Developing O₂-tolerant enzymes is needed for sustainable H₂ production technologies, but the lack of a quantitative and predictive assay for O₂ tolerance has impeded progress. We describe a new approach to provide quantitative assessment of O₂ sensitivity by using an assay employing ferredoxin NADP⁺ reductase (FNR) to transfer electrons from NADPH to hydrogenase via ferredoxins (Fd). Hydrogenase inactivation is measured during H₂ production in an O₂-containing environment. An alternative assay uses dithionite (DTH) to provide reduced Fd. This second assay measures the remaining hydrogenase activity in periodic samples taken from the NADPH-driven reaction solutions. The second assay validates the more convenient NADPH-driven assay, which better mimics physiological conditions. During development of the NADPH-driven assay and while characterizing the Clostridium pasteurianum (Cp) [FeFe] hydrogenase, CpI, we detected significant rates of direct electron loss from reduced Fd to O₂ However, this loss does not interfere with measurement of first order hydrogenase inactivation, providing rate constants insensitive to initial hydrogenase concentration. We show increased activity and O₂ tolerance for a protein fusion between Cp ferredoxin (CpFd) and CpI mediated by a 15-amino acid linker but not for a longer linker. We suggest that this precise, solution phase assay for [FeFe] hydrogenase O₂ sensitivity and the insights we provide constitute an important advance toward the discovery of the O₂-tolerant [FeFe] hydrogenases required for photosynthetic, biological H₂ production.

The acquisition of Clostridium tyrobutyricum mutants with improved bioproduction under acidic conditions after two rounds of heavy-ion beam irradiation

End-product inhibition is a key factor limiting the production of organic acid during fermentation. Two rounds of heavy-ion beam irradiation may be an inexpensive, indispensable and reliable approach to increase the production of butyric acid during industrial fermentation processes. However, studies of the application of heavy ion radiation for butyric acid fermentation engineering are lacking. In this study, a second ¹²C⁶⁺ heavy-ion irradiation-response curve is used to describe the effect of exposure to a given dose of heavy ions on mutant strains of Clostridium tyrobutyricum. Versatile statistical elements are introduced to characterize the mechanism and factors contributing to improved butyric acid production and enhanced acid tolerance in adapted mutant strains harvested from the fermentations. We characterized the physiological properties of the strains over a large pH value gradient, which revealed that the mutant strains obtained after a second round of radiation exposure were most resistant to harsh external pH values and were better able to tolerate external pH values between 4.5 and 5.0. A customized second round of heavy-ion beam irradiation may be invaluable in process engineering.

Co-production of hydrogen and ethanol by pfkA-deficient Escherichia coli with activated pentose-phosphate pathway: reduction of pyruvate accumulation

BACKGROUND

Fermentative hydrogen (H2) production suffers from low carbon-to-H2 yield, to which problem, co-production of ethanol and H2 has been proposed as a solution. For improved co-production of H2 and ethanol, we developed Escherichia coli BW25113 ΔhycA ΔhyaAB ΔhybBC ΔldhA ΔfrdAB Δpta-ackA ΔpfkA (SH8*) and overexpressed Zwf and Gnd, the key enzymes in the pentose-phosphate (PP) pathway (SH8*_ZG). However, the amount of accumulated pyruvate, which was significant (typically 0.20 mol mol(-1) glucose), reduced the co-production yield.

RESULTS

In this study, as a means of reducing pyruvate accumulation and improving co-production of H2 and ethanol, we developed and studied E. coli SH9*_ZG with functional acetate production pathway for conversion of acetyl-CoA to acetate (pta-ackA (+)). Our results indicated that the presence of the acetate pathway completely eliminated pyruvate accumulation and substantially improved the co-production of H2 and ethanol, enabling yields of 1.88 and 1.40 mol, respectively, from 1 mol glucose. These yields, significantly, are close to the theoretical maximums of 1.67 mol H2 and 1.67 mol ethanol. To better understand the glycolytic flux distribution, glycolytic flux prediction and RT-PCR analyses were performed.

CONCLUSION

The presence of the acetate pathway along with activation of the PP pathway eliminated pyruvate accumulation, thereby significantly improving co-production of H2 and ethanol. Our strategy is applicable to anaerobic production of biofuels and biochemicals, both of which processes demand high NAD(P)H.

Adaptive engineering of a hyperthermophilic archaeon on CO and discovering the underlying mechanism by multi-omics analysis

The hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus onnurineus NA1 can grow and produce H₂ on carbon monoxide (CO) and its H₂ production rates have been improved through metabolic engineering. In this study, we applied adaptive evolution to enhance H₂ productivity. After over 150 serial transfers onto CO medium, cell density, CO consumption rate and H₂ production rate increased. The underlying mechanism for those physiological changes could be explained by using multi-omics approaches including genomic, transcriptomic and epigenomic analyses. A putative transcriptional regulator was newly identified to regulate the expression levels of genes related to CO oxidation. Transcriptome analysis revealed significant changes in the transcript levels of genes belonging to the categories of transcription, translation and energy metabolism. Our study presents the first genome-scale methylation pattern of hyperthermophilic archaea. Adaptive evolution led to highly enhanced H₂ productivity at high CO flow rates using synthesis gas produced from coal gasification.

Surpassing the current limitations of biohydrogen production systems: The case for a novel hybrid approach

The steadily increase of global energy requirements has brought about a general agreement on the need for novel renewable and environmentally friendly energy sources and carriers. Among the alternatives to a fossil fuel-based economy, hydrogen gas is considered a game-changer. Certain methods of hydrogen production can utilize various low-priced industrial and agricultural wastes as substrate, thus coupling organic waste treatment with renewable energy generation. Among these approaches, different biological strategies have been investigated and successfully implemented in laboratory-scale systems. Although promising, several key aspects need further investigation in order to push these technologies towards large-scale industrial implementation. Some of the major scientific and technical bottlenecks will be discussed, along with possible solutions, including a thorough exploration of novel research combining microbial dark fermentation and algal photoheterotrophic degradation systems, integrated with wastewater treatment and metabolic by-products usage.

Insights into the global regulation of anaerobic metabolism for improved biohydrogen production

To improve the biohydrogen yield in bacterial dark fermentation, a new approach of global anaerobic regulation was introduced. Two cellular global regulators FNR and NarP were overexpressed in two model organisms: facultatively anaerobic Enterobacter aerogenes (Ea) and strictly anaerobic Clostridium paraputrificum (Cp). The overexpression of FNR and NarP greatly altered anaerobic metabolism and increased the hydrogen yield by 40%. Metabolic analysis showed that the global regulation caused more reducing environment inside the cell. To get a thorough understanding of the global metabolic regulation, more genes (fdhF, fhlA, ppk, Cb-fdh1, and Sc-fdh1) were overexpressed in different Ea and Cp mutants. For the first time, it demonstrated that there were approximately linear relationships between the relative change of hydrogen yield and the relative change of NADH yield or ATP yield. It implied that cellular reducing power and energy level played vital roles in the biohydrogen production.

An unexpected negative influence of light intensity on hydrogen production by dark fermentative bacteria Clostridium beijerinckii

The role of light intensity on biohydrogen production from glucose by Clostridium beijerinckii, Clostridium acetobutylicum, and Rhodobacter sphaeroides was studied to evaluate the performance and possible application in co-culture fermentation system. The applied source of light had spectrum similar to the solar radiation. The influence of light intensity on hydrogen production in dark process by C. acetobutylicum was negligible. In contrast, dark fermentation by C. beijerinckii bacteria showed a significant decrease (83%) in produced hydrogen at light intensity of 540W/m(2). Here, the redirection of metabolism from acetic and butyric acid formation towards lactic acid was observed. This not yet reported effect was probably caused by irradiation of these bacteria by light within UVA range, which is an important component of the solar radiation. The excessive illumination with light of intensity higher than 200W/m(2) resulted in decrease in hydrogen production with photofermentative bacteria as well.

Disruption of lactate dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase for increased hydrogen production and its effect on metabolic flux in Enterobacter aerogenes

Hydrogen production by Enterobacter aerogenes from glucose was enhanced by deleting the targeted ldhA and adh genes responsible for two NADH-consuming pathways which consume most NADH generated from glycolysis. Compared with the wild-type, the hydrogen yield of IAM1183-ΔldhA increased 1.5 fold. Metabolic flux analysis showed both IAM1183-ΔldhA and IAM1183-Δadh exhibited significant changes in flux, including enhanced flux towards the hydrogen generation. The lactate production of IAM1183-ΔldhA significantly decreased by 91.42%, while the alcohol yield of IAM1183-Δadh decreased to 30%. The mutant IAM1183-ΔldhA with better hydrogen-producing performance was selected for further investigation in a 5-L fermentor. The hydrogen production of IAM1183-ΔldhA was 2.3 times higher than the wild-type. Further results from the fermentation process showed that the pH decreased to 5.39 levels, then gradually increased to 5.96, indicating that some acidic metabolites might be degraded or uptaken by cells.

Novel properties of photofermentative biohydrogen production by purple bacteria Rhodobacter sphaeroides: effects of protonophores and inhibitors of responsible enzymes

Background

Biohydrogen (H₂) production by purple bacteria during photofermentation is a very promising way among biological H₂ production methods. The effects of protonophores, carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP), and inhibitors of enzymes, involved in H₂ metabolism, metronidazole (Met), diphenyleneiodonium (DPI), and dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) on H₂ production by Rhodobacter sphaeroides MDC6522 isolated from Jermuk mineral springs in Armenia have been investigated in both nitrogen-limited and nitrogen-excess conditions.

Results

With the increase of inhibitors concentrations H₂ yield gradually decreased. The complete inhibition of H₂ production was observed in the presence of DPI and CCCP. DPI’s solvent—DMSO in low concentration did not significantly affect H₂ yield. N,N′-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD)-inhibited the F_OF₁-ATPase activity of bacterial membrane vesicles was analyzed in the presence of inhibitors. Low concentrations of DPI and DMSO did not affect ATPase activity, whereas Met and CCCP stimulated enzyme activity. The effect of DNP was similar to CCCP.

Conclusions and significance

The results have shown the low concentration or concentration dependent effects of protonophores and nitrogenase and hydrogenase inhibitors on photofermentative H₂ production by Rh. sphaeroides in nitrogen-limited and nitrogen-excess conditions. They would be significant to understand novel properties in relationship between nitrogenase, hydrogenase and the F_OF₁-ATPase in Rh. sphaeroides, and regulatory pathways of photofermentation. The inhibitors of nitrogenase and hydrogenase can be used in biotechnology for regulation of H₂ production in different technology conditions and development of scale-up applications, for biomass and energy production using purple bacterial cells.

Effects of pre-treatment technologies on dark fermentative biohydrogen production: A review

Biohydrogen production from dark fermentation of lignocellulosic materials represents a huge potential in terms of renewable energy exploitation. However, the low hydrogen yield is currently hindering its development on industrial scale. This study reviewed various technologies that have been investigated for enhancing dark fermentative biohydrogen production. The pre-treatment technologies can be classified based on their applications as inoculum or substrates pre-treatment or they can be categorised into physical, chemical, physicochemical and biological based on the techniques used. From the different technologies reviewed, heat and acid pre-treatments are the most commonly studied technologies for both substrates and inoculum pre-treatment. Nevertheless, these two technologies need not necessarily be the most suitable since across different studies, a wide array of other emerging techniques as well as combined technologies have yielded positive findings. To date, there exists no perfect technology for either inoculum or substrate pre-treatment. Although the aim of inoculum pre-treatment is to suppress H2-consumers and enrich H2-producers, many sporulating H2-consumers survive the pre-treatment while some non-spore H2-producers are inhibited. Besides, several inoculum pre-treatment techniques are not effective in the long run and repeated pre-treatment may be required for continuous suppression of H2-consumers and sustained biohydrogen production. Furthermore, many technologies employed for substrates pre-treatment may yield inhibitory compounds that can eventually decrease biohydrogen production. Consequently, much research needs to be done to find out the best technology for both substrates and inoculum pre-treatment while also taking into consideration the energetic, economic and technical feasibility of implementing such a process on an industrial scale.

Single-Stage Operation of Hybrid Dark-Photo Fermentation to Enhance Biohydrogen Production through Regulation of System Redox Condition: Evaluation with Real-Field Wastewater

Harnessing hydrogen competently through wastewater treatment using a particular class of biocatalyst is indeed a challenging issue. Therefore, biohydrogen potential of real-field wastewater was evaluated by hybrid fermentative process in a single-stage process. The cumulative hydrogen production (CHP) was observed to be higher with distillery wastewater (271 mL) than with dairy wastewater (248 mL). Besides H₂ production, the hybrid process was found to be effective in wastewater treatment. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency was found higher in distillery wastewater (56%) than in dairy wastewater (45%). Co-culturing photo-bacterial flora assisted in removal of volatile fatty acids (VFA) wherein 63% in distillery wastewater and 68% in case of dairy wastewater. Voltammograms illustrated dominant reduction current and low cathodic Tafel slopes supported H₂ production. Overall, the augmented dark-photo fermentation system (ADPFS) showed better performance than the control dark fermentation system (DFS). This kind of holistic approach is explicitly viable for practical scale-up operation.

Dark fermentation of complex waste biomass for biohydrogen production by pretreated thermophilic anaerobic digestate

The Biohydrogen Potential (BHP) of six different types of waste biomass typical for the Campania Region (Italy) was investigated. Anaerobic sludge pre-treated with the specific methanogenic inhibitor sodium 2-bromoethanesulfonic acid (BESA) was used as seed inoculum. The BESA pre-treatment yielded the highest BHP in BHP tests carried out with pre-treated anaerobic sludge using potato and pumpkin waste as the substrates, in comparison with aeration or heat shock pre-treatment. The BHP tests carried out with different complex waste biomass showed average BHP values in a decreasing order from potato and pumpkin wastes (171.1 ± 7.3 ml H2/g VS) to buffalo manure (135.6 ± 4.1 ml H2/g VS), dried blood (slaughter house waste, 87.6 ± 4.1 ml H2/g VS), fennel waste (58.1 ± 29.8 ml H2/g VS), olive pomace (54.9 ± 5.4 ml H2/g VS) and olive mill wastewater (46.0 ± 15.6 ml H2/g VS). The digestate was analyzed for major soluble metabolites to elucidate the different biochemical pathways in the BHP tests. These showed the H2 was produced via mixed type fermentation pathways.

How close we are to achieving commercially viable large-scale photobiological hydrogen production by cyanobacteria: a review of the biological aspects

Photobiological production of H₂ by cyanobacteria is considered to be an ideal source of renewable energy because the inputs, water and sunlight, are abundant. The products of photobiological systems are H₂ and O₂; the H₂ can be used as the energy source of fuel cells, etc., which generate electricity at high efficiencies and minimal pollution, as the waste product is H₂O. Overall, production of commercially viable algal fuels in any form, including biomass and biodiesel, is challenging, and the very few systems that are operational have yet to be evaluated. In this paper we will: briefly review some of the necessary conditions for economical production, summarize the reports of photobiological H₂ production by cyanobacteria, present our schemes for future production, and discuss the necessity for further progress in the research needed to achieve commercially viable large-scale H₂ production.

Effect of the accuracy of pH control on hydrogen fermentation

pH, known as the most important parameter in H2 fermentation, cannot be precisely controlled in a scaled-up fermenter as in a lab fermenter. In the preset work, to assess the effect of pH control accuracy on H2 fermentation, the pH was controlled at 6.0±0.1, 6.0±0.3, 6.0±0.5, 6.0±0.7, and 6.0±0.9 during batch fermentation of food waste. Up to deviation of ±0.3, a high H2 yield of 1.67-1.73 mol H2/mol hexose(added) was attained with producing butyrate as a major metabolite (>70% of total organic acids produced). A huge drop of H2 production, however, was observed at deviation >±0.5 with lowered substrate utilization and increased production of lactate. Next generation sequencing results showed that Clostridium was found to be the dominant genus (76.4% of total number of sequences) at deviation of ±0.1, whereas the dominant genus was changed to lactic acid bacteria such as Streptococcus and Lactobacillus with increase of deviation value.

Sustainable hydrogen photoproduction by phosphorus-deprived marine green microalgae Chlorella sp

Previously it has been shown that green microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is capable of prolonged H2 photoproduction when deprived of sulfur. In addition to sulfur deprivation (-S), sustained H2 photoproduction in C. reinhardtii cultures can be achieved under phosphorus-deprived (-P) conditions. Similar to sulfur deprivation, phosphorus deprivation limits O2 evolving activity in algal cells and causes other metabolic changes that are favorable for H2 photoproduction. Although significant advances in H2 photoproduction have recently been realized in fresh water microalgae, relatively few studies have focused on H2 production in marine green microalgae. In the present study phosphorus deprivation was applied for hydrogen production in marine green microalgae Chlorella sp., where sulfur deprivation is impossible due to a high concentration of sulfates in the sea water. Since resources of fresh water on earth are limited, the possibility of hydrogen production in seawater is more attractive. In order to achieve H2 photoproduction in P-deprived marine green microalgae Chlorella sp., the dilution approach was applied. Cultures diluted to about 0.5-1.8 mg Chl·L-1 in the beginning of P-deprivation were able to establish anaerobiosis, after the initial growth period, where cells utilize intracellular phosphorus, with subsequent transition to H2 photoproduction stage. It appears that marine microalgae during P-deprivation passed the same stages of adaptation as fresh water microalgae. The presence of inorganic carbon was essential for starch accumulation and subsequent hydrogen production by microalgae. The H2 accumulation was up to 40 mL H2 gas per 1iter of the culture, which is comparable to that obtained in P-deprived C. reinhardtii culture.

Biological reformation of ethanol to hydrogen by Rhodopseudomonas palustris CGA009

A future hydrogen economy requires the sustainable production of renewable hydrogen. One method to produce hydrogen from stored renewable energy could be through reformation of bioethanol. However, chemically catalyzed reformation processes, although well studied, still present a number of significant technical challenges. Here, bioreformation of ethanol to hydrogen by photofermentation with the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodopseudomonas palustris is described. Cultures were shown to tolerate up to 2% ethanol. An RSM (response surface methodology) was carried out in which three key factors, light intensity, and ethanol and glutamate concentrations were varied. The results showed that nearly 2mol of H2 could be obtained from one mole of ethanol, 33% of that theoretically possible.

Simultaneous production and separation of biohydrogen in mixed culture systems by continuous dark fermentation

Hydrogen production by dark fermentation is one promising technology. However, there are challenges in improving the performance and efficiency of the process. The important factors that must be considered to obtain a suitable process are the source of the inoculum and its pre-treatment, types of substrates, the reactor configurations and the hydrogen partial pressure. Furthermore, to obtain high-quality hydrogen, it is necessary to integrate an effective separation procedure that is compatible with the intrinsic characteristics of a biological process. Recent studies have suggested that a stable and robust process could be established if there was an effective selection of a mixed microbial consortium with metabolic pathways directly targeted to high hydrogen yields. Additionally, the integration of membrane technology for the extraction and separation of the hydrogen produced has advantages for the upgrading step, because this technology could play an important role in reducing the negative effect of the hydrogen partial pressure. Using this technology, it has been possible to implement a production-purification system, the 'hydrogen-extractive membrane bioreactor'. This configuration has great potential for direct applications, such as fuel cells, but studies of new membrane materials, module designs and reactor configurations are required to achieve higher separation efficiencies.

Introducing capnophilic lactic fermentation in a combined dark-photo fermentation process: a route to unparalleled H2 yields

Two-stage process based on photofermentation of dark fermentation effluents is widely recognized as the most effective method for biological production of hydrogen from organic substrates. Recently, it was described an alternative mechanism, named capnophilic lactic fermentation, for sugar fermentation by the hyperthermophilic bacterium Thermotoga neapolitana in CO2-rich atmosphere. Here, we report the first application of this novel process to two-stage biological production of hydrogen. The microbial system based on T. neapolitana DSM 4359(T) and Rhodopseudomonas palustris 42OL gave 9.4 mol of hydrogen per mole of glucose consumed during the anaerobic process, which is the best production yield so far reported for conventional two-stage batch cultivations. The improvement of hydrogen yield correlates with the increase in lactic production during capnophilic lactic fermentation and takes also advantage of the introduction of original conditions for culturing both microorganisms in minimal media based on diluted sea water. The use of CO2 during the first step of the combined process establishes a novel strategy for biohydrogen technology. Moreover, this study opens the way to cost reduction and use of salt-rich waste as feedstock.

Multifunctional Pd/Ni-Co catalyst for hydrogen production by chemical looping coupled with steam reforming of acetic acid

High yield of high-purity H2 from acetic acid, a model compound of bio-oil obtained from the fast pyrolysis of biomass, was produced by sorption-enhanced steam reforming (SESR). An oxygen carrier was introduced into a chemical loop (CL) coupled to the cyclical SESR process to supply heat in situ for the endothermic sorbent regeneration to increase the energy efficiency of the process. A new multifunctional 1 %Pd/20 %Ni-20 %Co catalyst was developed for use both as oxygen carrier in the CL and as reforming catalyst in the SESR whereas a CaO-based material was used as CO2 sorbent. In the sorbent-air regeneration step, the Ni-Co atoms in the catalyst undergo strong exothermic oxidation reactions that provide heat for the CaO decarbonation. The addition of Pd to the Ni-Co catalyst makes the catalyst active throughout the whole SESR-CL cycle. Pd significantly promotes the reduction of Ni-Co oxides to metallic Ni-Co during the reforming stage, which avoids the need for a reduction step after regeneration. H2 yield above 90 % and H2 purity above 99.2 vol % were obtained.

Back propagation neural network modelling of biodegradation and fermentative biohydrogen production using distillery wastewater in a hybrid upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor

In a hybrid upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (HUASB) reactor, biodegradation in association with biohydrogen production was studied using distillery wastewater as substrate. The experiments were carried out at ambient temperature (34±1°C) and acidophilic pH of 6.5 with constant hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 24h at various organic loading rates (OLRs) (1-10.2kgCODm(-3)d(-1)) in continuous mode. A maximum hydrogen production rate of 1300mLd(-1) was achieved. A back propagation neural network (BPNN) model with network topology of 4-20-1 using Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm was developed and validated. A total of 231 data points were studied to examine the performance of the HUASB reactor in acclimatisation and operation phase. The statistical qualities of BPNN models were significant due to the high correlation coefficient, R(2), and lower mean absolute error (MAE) between experimental and simulated data. From the results, it was concluded that BPNN modelling could be applied in HUASB reactor for predicting the biodegradation and biohydrogen production using distillery wastewater.

Systematic approach to assess biohydrogen potential of anaerobic sludge and soil rhizobia as biocatalysts: Influence of crucial factors affecting acidogenic fermentation

A systematic protocol was designed to enumerate the variation in biohydrogen production with two different biocatalysts (sludge and soil) under different pH and organic loads. Both the biocatalysts showed cumulatively higher H2 production under acidogenic condition (pH 6) than at neutral pH condition. The cumulative hydrogen production was non-linearly fitted with modified Gompertz model and statistically validated. Pretreated soil biocatalyst showed relatively higher H2 production (OLR II, 142±5ml) than pretreated sludge (OLR I, 123±5ml); which was evidenced by substrate linked dehydrogenase activity and bio-electrochemical analysis. Experimental results revealed agricultural soil as a better biocatalyst than anaerobic sludge for all the operated process conditions. The voltammogram profiles and Tafel slopes revealed dominance of reductive catalytic activity of the pretreated inoculums substantiating dark-fermentation. Soil consortia showed low polarization resistance (2.24kΩ) and high reductive electron transfer efficiency (1.17 Vdec(-1)) at a high organic load; thus, rebating high H2 production.

Advances in the biotechnology of hydrogen production with the microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Biological hydrogen production is being evaluated for use as a fuel, since it is a promising substitute for carbonaceous fuels owing to its high conversion efficiency and high specific energy content. The basic advantages of biological hydrogen production over other "green" energy sources are that it does not compete for agricultural land use, and it does not pollute, as water is the only by-product of the combustion. These characteristics make hydrogen a suitable fuel for the future. Among several biotechnological approaches, photobiological hydrogen production carried out by green microalgae has been intensively investigated in recent years. A select group of photosynthetic organisms has evolved the ability to harness light energy to drive hydrogen gas production from water. Of these, the microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is considered one of the most promising eukaryotic H2 producers. In this model microorganism, light energy, H2O and H2 are linked by two excellent catalysts, the photosystem 2 (PSII) and the [FeFe]-hydrogenase, in a pathway usually referred to as direct biophotolysis. This review summarizes the main advances made over the past decade as an outcome of the discovery of the sulfur-deprivation process. Both the scientific and technical barriers that need to be overcome before H2 photoproduction can be scaled up to an industrial level are examined. Actual and theoretical limits of the efficiency of the process are also discussed. Particular emphasis is placed on algal biohydrogen production outdoors, and guidelines for an optimal photobioreactor design are suggested.

Photo-biological hydrogen production by an acid tolerant mutant of Rhodovulum sulfidophilum P5 generated by transposon mutagenesis

Most of the photosynthetic bacterial strains exhibit optimum hydrogen production at neutral initial pH, and lower initial pH resulted in a sharp decrease in hydrogen yield. Thus, screening of acid-tolerant hydrogen-producing photosynthetic bacteria is very important. To obtain acid tolerant mutants, a Tn7-based transposon was randomly inserted into the genomic DNA of Rhodovulum sulfidophilum P5. An acid tolerant mutant strain TH-102 exhibited increased hydrogen production in acidic environment (pH 4.5-6.5) and at higher temperatures (35 and 37°C) than the wild-type strain. At pH 5.5 and 35°C, the mutant strain TH-102 continuously produced hydrogen. The hydrogen yield and average rate were 2.16 ± 0.10 mol/mol acetate and 10.06 ± 0.47 mL/Lh, which was about 17.32 and 15.37-fold higher than that of the wild-type strain, respectively. This acid- and temperature-tolerant mutant strain TH-102 could be used in a cost-effective hydrogen production process employing both dark fermentative and photosynthetic bacteria.

Elucidating acetogenic H2 consumption in dark fermentation using flux balance analysis

In this study, a flux balance analysis (FBA) was adopted to estimate the activity of acetogenic H2-consuming reaction. Experimental data at different substrate concentrations of 10, 20, and 30 g COD/L showing the lowest, medium, and highest H2 yields, respectively, were used in the FBA to calculate the fluxes. It was interesting to note that the hydrogenase activity based on R12 (2Fd(+)+2H(+)→2Fd(2+)+H2, ferredoxin (Fd)) flux was most active at 10 g COD/L. The flux of R17 (4H2+2CO2→CH3COOH), a mechanism for reutilizing produced H2, increased in steps of 0.030, 0.119, and 0.467 as the substrate concentration decreased. Contradictory to our general understanding, acetate production found to have a negligible or even negative effect on the final H2 yield in dark fermentation.

Increasing the metabolic capacity of Escherichia coli for hydrogen production through heterologous expression of the Ralstonia eutropha SH operon

BACKGROUND

Fermentative hydrogen production is an attractive means for the sustainable production of this future energy carrier but is hampered by low yields. One possible solution is to create, using metabolic engineering, strains which can bypass the normal metabolic limits to substrate conversion to hydrogen. Escherichia coli can degrade a variety of sugars to hydrogen but can only convert electrons available at the pyruvate node to hydrogen, and is unable to use the electrons available in NADH generated during glycolysis.

RESULTS

Here, the heterologous expression of the soluble [NiFe] hydrogenase from Ralstonia eutropha H16 (the SH hydrogenase) was used to demonstrate the introduction of a pathway capable of deriving substantial hydrogen from the NADH generated by fermentation. Successful expression was demonstrated by in vitro assay of enzyme activity. Moreover, expression of SH restored anaerobic growth on glucose to adhE strains, normally blocked for growth due to the inability to re-oxidize NADH. Measurement of in vivo hydrogen production showed that several metabolically engineered strains were capable of using the SH hydrogenase to derive 2 mol H2 per mol of glucose consumed, close to the theoretical maximum.

CONCLUSION

Previous introduction of heterologous [NiFe] hydrogenase in E. coli led to NAD(P)H dependent activity, but hydrogen production levels were very low. Here we have shown for the first time substantial in vivo hydrogen production by a heterologously expressed [NiFe] hydrogenase, the soluble NAD-dependent H2ase of R. eutropha (SH hydrogenase). This hydrogenase was able to couple metabolically generated NADH to hydrogen production, thus rescuing an alcohol dehydrogenase (adhE) mutant. This enlarges the range of metabolism available for hydrogen production, thus potentially opening the door to the creation of greatly improved hydrogen production. Strategies for further increasing yields should revolve around making additional NADH available.

Thermophilic biohydrogen production: how far are we?

Apart from being applied as an energy carrier, hydrogen is in increasing demand as a commodity. Currently, the majority of hydrogen (H₂) is produced from fossil fuels, but from an environmental perspective, sustainable H₂ production should be considered. One of the possible ways of hydrogen production is through fermentation, in particular, at elevated temperature, i.e. thermophilic biohydrogen production. This short review recapitulates the current status in thermophilic biohydrogen production through fermentation of commercially viable substrates produced from readily available renewable resources, such as agricultural residues. The route to commercially viable biohydrogen production is a multidisciplinary enterprise. Microbiological studies have pointed out certain desirable physiological characteristics in H₂-producing microorganisms. More process-oriented research has identified best applicable reactor types and cultivation conditions. Techno-economic and life cycle analyses have identified key process bottlenecks with respect to economic feasibility and its environmental impact. The review has further identified current limitations and gaps in the knowledge, and also deliberates directions for future research and development of thermophilic biohydrogen production.

Enhancement effect of silver nanoparticles on fermentative biohydrogen production using mixed bacteria

Silver nanoparticles were added into anaerobic batch reactors to enhance acidogenesis and fermentative hydrogen production simultaneously. The effects of silver nanoparticles concentration (0-200 nmol L(-1)) and inorganic nitrogen concentration (0-4.125 g L(-1)) on cell growth and hydrogen production were investigated using glucose-fed mixed bacteria dominated by Clostridium butyricum. The tests with silver nanoparticles exhibited much higher H2 yields than the blank, and the maximum hydrogen yield (2.48 mol/mol glucose) was obtained at the silver concentration of 20 nmol L(-1). Presence of silver nanoparticles reduced the yield of ethanol, but increased the yield of acetic acid. The high silver nanoparticles had higher cell biomass production rate. Further study using the alkaline pretreated culture as inoculum was carried out to verify the positive effect of silver nanoparticles on H2 production. Results demonstrated that silver nanoparticles could not only increase the hydrogen yield, but reduce the lag phase for hydrogen production simultaneously.

Trends in biohydrogen production: major challenges and state-of-the-art developments

Hydrogen has shown enormous potential to be an alternative fuel of the future. Hydrogen production technology has gained much attention in the last few decades due to advantages such as its high conversion efficiency, recyclability and non-polluting nature. Over the last few decades, biological hydrogen production has shown great promise for generating large scale sustainable energy to meet ever increasing global energy demands. Various microorganisms, namely bacteria, cyanobacteria, and algae which are capable of producing hydrogen from water, solar energy, and a variety of organic substrates, are explored and studied in detail. Current biohydrogen production technologies, however, face two major challenges such as low-yield and high production cost. Advances have been made in recent years in biohydrogen research to improve the hydrogen yield through process modifications, physiological manipulations, through metabolic and genetic engineering. Recently, cell immobilization such as microbes trapping with nanoparticles within the bioreactor has shown an increase in hydrogen production. This review critically evaluated various biological hydrogen production technologies, key challenges, and recent advancements in biohydrogen research and development.

Dephenolization of stored olive-mill wastewater, using four different adsorbing matrices to attain a low-cost feedstock for hydrogen photo-production

This investigation deals with the conversion of olive-mill wastewater (OMW) into several feedstocks suitable for hydrogen photo-production. The goal was reached by means of two sequential steps: (i) a pre-treatment process of stored-OMW for the removal of polyphenols, which made it possible to obtain several effluents, and (ii) a photo-fermentative process for hydrogen production by means of Rhodopseudomonas palustris sp. Four different adsorbent matrices (Azolla, granular active carbon, resin, and zeolite) were used to dephenolize stored-OMW. The four liquid fractions attained by using the above process created the same number of effluents, and these were diluted with water and then used for hydrogen photo-production. The maximum hydrogen production rate (14.31 mL/L/h) was attained with the photo-fermenter containing 25% of the effluent, which came from the pre-treatment of stored-OMW using granular active carbon. Using the carbon effluent as feedstock, the greatest light conversion efficiency of 2.29% was achieved.

Photofermentation of crude glycerol from biodiesel using Rhodopseudomonas palustris: comparison with organic acids and the identification of inhibitory compounds

The growth of the biodiesel industry, and its concurrent production of glycerol, has lowered the price of glycerol 20-fold. While many options for using this glycerol have been proposed, the size of the waste stream means that generation of fuels is likely to be the only viable route. One such fuel is hydrogen, production of which can be achieved biologically. The photofermentation of glycerol to hydrogen using Rhodopseudomonas palustris was investigated by exploring the growth rate, hydrogen production rate and hydrogen yield. R. palustris grows on glycerol at a rate of 0.074h(-1), and photoferments glycerol into 97mol% hydrogen at a conversion efficiency nearing 90% of the 7mol H(2) theoretical maximum at a rate of 34mlH(2)/g(dw)/h. Some inhibition of growth by crude glycerol was seen. This was determined to be caused by saponified fatty acids, removal of which yielded a treated crude glycerol which showed no inhibition.

Development of microorganisms for cellulose-biofuel consolidated bioprocessings: metabolic engineers' tricks

Cellulose waste biomass is the most abundant and attractive substrate for "biorefinery strategies" that are aimed to produce high-value products (e.g. solvents, fuels, building blocks) by economically and environmentally sustainable fermentation processes. However, cellulose is highly recalcitrant to biodegradation and its conversion by biotechnological strategies currently requires economically inefficient multistep industrial processes. The need for dedicated cellulase production continues to be a major constraint to cost-effective processing of cellulosic biomass. Research efforts have been aimed at developing recombinant microorganisms with suitable characteristics for single step biomass fermentation (consolidated bioprocessing, CBP). Two paradigms have been applied for such, so far unsuccessful, attempts: a) "native cellulolytic strategies", aimed at conferring high-value product properties to natural cellulolytic microorganisms; b) "recombinant cellulolytic strategies", aimed to confer cellulolytic ability to microorganisms exhibiting high product yields and titers. By starting from the description of natural enzyme systems for plant biomass degradation and natural metabolic pathways for some of the most valuable product (i.e. butanol, ethanol, and hydrogen) biosynthesis, this review describes state-of-the-art bottlenecks and solutions for the development of recombinant microbial strains for cellulosic biofuel CBP by metabolic engineering. Complexed cellulases (i.e. cellulosomes) benefit from stronger proximity effects and show enhanced synergy on insoluble substrates (i.e. crystalline cellulose) with respect to free enzymes. For this reason, special attention was held on strategies involving cellulosome/designer cellulosome-bearing recombinant microorganisms.

Methane production from glycolate excreting algae as a new concept in the production of biofuels

It is the aim of the present work to introduce a new concept for methane production by the interaction of a glycolate-excreting alga (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii) and methanogenic microbes operating in separate compartments within one photobioreactor. This approach requires a minimum number of metabolic steps to convert light energy to methane thereby reducing the energetic and financial costs of biomass formation, harvest and refinement. In this feasibility study it is shown that the physiological limitations for sustained glycolate production can be circumvented by the use of C. reinhardtii mutants whose carbon concentrating mechanisms or glycolate dehydrogenase are suppressed. The results also demonstrate that methanogenic microbes are able to thrive on glycolate as single carbon source for a long time period, delivering biogas composed of CO(2)/methane with only very minor contamination.

Design of new strategy for green algal photo-hydrogen production: spectral-selective photosystem I activation and photosystem II deactivation

A new strategy in photosynthetic hydrogen (photo-H(2)) production from green algae was developed based on theory and successfully demonstrated. The new strategy applied a spectral-selective photosystem I (PSI) activating/photosystem II (PSII) deactivating radiation (or PSI light) that would drive a steady flow of electrons in the electron transport chain for delivery to hydrogenase for photo-H(2) production, but would reduce oxygen production through water photolysis below the respiratory oxygen consumption so that an anoxic condition would be maintained as required by hydrogenase. Implementing the strategy by using a PSI light (692 nm peak, 680-700 nm) on Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells resulted in relatively sustained photo-H(2) production (total of 0.108 mL H(2)mg(-1)Chl, exceeding 0.066 mL H(2)mg(-1)Chl under white light). The strategy also proved successful and convenient in allowing cells to alternately switch between photo-H(2) production and a recovery period by simply turning on or off the PSI light.

Integrative biological hydrogen production: an overview

Biological hydrogen (H2) production by dark and photo-fermentative organisms is a promising area of research for generating bioenergy. A large number of organisms have been widely studied for producing H2 from diverse feeds, both as pure and as mixed cultures. However, their H2 producing efficiencies have been found to vary (from 3 to 8 mol/mol hexose) with physiological conditions, type of organisms and composition of feed (starchy waste from sweet potato, wheat, cassava and algal biomass). The present review deals with the possibilities of enhancing H2 production by integrating metabolic pathways of different organisms-dark fermentative bacteria (from cattle dung, activated sludge, Caldicellulosiruptor, Clostridium, Enterobacter, Lactobacillus, and Vibrio) and photo-fermentative bacteria (such as Rhodobacter, Rhodobium and Rhodopseudomonas). The emphasis has been laid on systems which are driven by undefined dark-fermentative cultures in combination with pure photo-fermentative bacterial cultures using biowaste as feed. Such an integrative approach may prove suitable for commercial applications on a large scale.

Fermentative hydrogen production from glucose and starch using pure strains and artificial co-cultures ofClostridium spp

BACKGROUND

Pure bacterial strains give better yields when producing H2 than mixed, natural communities. However the main drawback with the pure cultures is the need to perform the fermentations under sterile conditions. Therefore, H2 production using artificial co-cultures, composed of well characterized strains, is one of the directions currently undertaken in the field of biohydrogen research.

RESULTS

Four pure Clostridium cultures, including C. butyricum CWBI1009, C. pasteurianum DSM525, C. beijerinckii DSM1820 and C. felsineum DSM749, and three different co-cultures composed of (1) C. pasteurianum and C. felsineum, (2) C. butyricum and C. felsineum, (3) C. butyricum and C. pasteurianum, were grown in 20 L batch bioreactors. In the first part of the study a strategy composed of three-culture sequences was developed to determine the optimal pH for H2 production (sequence 1); and the H2-producing potential of each pure strain and co-culture, during glucose (sequence 2) and starch (sequence 3) fermentations at the optimal pH. The best H2 yields were obtained for starch fermentations, and the highest yield of 2.91 mol H2/ mol hexose was reported for C. butyricum. By contrast, the biogas production rates were higher for glucose fermentations and the highest value of 1.5 L biogas/ h was observed for the co-culture (1). In general co-cultures produced H2 at higher rates than the pure Clostridium cultures, without negatively affecting the H2 yields. Interestingly, all the Clostridium strains and co-cultures were shown to utilize lactate (present in a starch-containing medium), and C. beijerinckii was able to re-consume formate producing additional H2. In the second part of the study the co-culture (3) was used to produce H2 during 13 days of glucose fermentation in a sequencing batch reactor (SBR). In addition, the species dynamics, as monitored by qPCR (quantitative real-time PCR), showed a stable coexistence of C. pasteurianum and C. butyricum during this fermentation.

CONCLUSIONS

The four pure Clostridium strains and the artificial co-cultures tested in this study were shown to efficiently produce H2 using glucose and starch as carbon sources. The artificial co-cultures produced H2 at higher rates than the pure strains, while the H2 yields were only slightly affected.