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Nakano T, Takahashi K, Arai M, Okano H, Kato H, Ayada M, Okamoto H, Mishiro S. Identification of European-type hepatitis E virus subtype 3e isolates in Japanese wild boars: Molecular tracing of HEV from swine to wild boars. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2013; 18:287-98. [PMID: 23770142 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2013.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2013] [Revised: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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52
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Rabbit and human hepatitis E virus strains belong to a single serotype. Virus Res 2013; 176:101-6. [PMID: 23742853 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Revised: 05/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a zoonotic pathogen and all four established genotypes of HEV belong to a single serotype. The recently identified rabbit HEV is antigenically and genetically related to human HEV. It is unclear whether rabbit HEV belongs to the same serotype as human HEV. The purpose of this study was to determine the serotypic relationship between rabbit and human HEVs. HEV ORF2 recombinant capsid protein p166 (amino acids 452-617) of four known HEV genotypes and rabbit HEV were used to induce immune serum, which were evaluated for their ability to neutralize human HEV genotype 1, 4, and rabbit HEV strains by an in vitro PCR-based HEV neutralization assay. Immune sera of five kinds of p166 proteins were all found to neutralize or cross-neutralize the three different HEV strains, suggesting a common neutralization epitope(s) existing between human and rabbit HEV. Rabbit models of a second-passage rabbit HEV strain, JS204-2, and a genotype 4 human HEV strain, NJ703, were established as evidenced by fecal virus shedding, viremia and anti-HEV IgG seroconversion. Six rabbits, recovered from JS204 infection, were challenged with NJ703, and another six recovered from NJ703 infection were challenged with JS204-2. After challenge, viremia was not detected, shorter fecal virus shedding durations and obvious early stage declines in anti-HEV IgG values were observed. The results from this study indicate that rabbit HEV belongs to the same serotype as human HEV.
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53
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Li W, Guan D, Su J, Takeda N, Wakita T, Li TC, Ke CW. High prevalence of rat hepatitis E virus in wild rats in China. Vet Microbiol 2013; 165:275-80. [PMID: 23623690 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2012] [Revised: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Serum samples from a total of 713 wild rats captured in Zhanjiang city in China from December 2011 to September 2012 were investigated for the prevalence of rat hepatitis E virus (HEV) by exploring rat HEV-specific antibodies and RNA. By an ELISA based on recombinant rat HEV-like particles (HEV-LPs), 23.3% (166/713) of the rats were positive for anti-HEV IgG, and 8.3% (59/713) were positive for anti-HEV IgM. The IgG-positive rates in Rattus norvegicus, Bandicota indica, Rattus flavipectus, Rattus rattoides losea, and Rattus rattus hainanus, were 27.8% (64/230), 23.0% (40/174), 19.9% (34/171), 21.5% (26/121), and 11.8% (2/17), while the IgM-positive rates were 8.3% (19/230), 6.9% (12/174), 8.2% (14/171), 10.7% (13/121), and 5.9% (1/17), respectively. The IgG-positive rate of the rats captured in rural areas, 24.1% (84/348), was higher than that in the central area of Zhanjiang city, 15.1% (32/212). The highest IgG-positive rates, as high as 45.3% (39/86), were detected in wild rats trapped in the garbage dump. Twelve of the 59 IgM-positive serum samples were positive for HEV RNA, which was detected in all of the wild rat species except R. rattus hainanus. A phylogenetic analysis of the partial genome of rat HEV ORF1 indicated that all of the 12 HEV strains belong to rat HEV, and no other genotype HEV were detected. The rat HEV from Zhangjiang city could be classified into three separated clusters, suggesting that the infection due to rat HEV with a variety of genome entities occurs extensively among wild rats in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Institute of Microbiology, Center for Diseases Control and Prevention of Guangdong Province, 160 Qunxian Road, Dashi street, Panyu District, Guangzhou 511430, China
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54
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Abstract
The lack of an efficient cell culture system for hepatitis E virus (HEV) has greatly hampered detailed analyses of this virus. The first efficient cell culture systems for HEV that were developed were capable of secreting infectious HEV progenies in high titers into culture media, using PLC/PRF/5 cells derived from human hepatocellular carcinoma and A549 cells derived from human lung cancer as host cells. The success achieved with the original genotype 3 JE03-1760F strain has now been extended to various HEV strains in fecal and serum samples obtained from hepatitis E patients and to HEV strains in fecal and serum samples and liver tissues obtained from pigs and wild boar across species barriers. In addition, infectious HEV cDNA clones of the wild-type JE03-1760F strain and its variants have been engineered. Cell culture-generated HEV particles and those in circulating blood were found to be associated with lipids and open reading frame 3 (ORF3) protein, thereby likely contributing to the assembly and release of HEV from infected cells both in vivo and in vitro. The ORF3 protein interacts with the tumor susceptibility gene 101, a critical cellular protein required for the budding of enveloped viruses, through the Pro, Ser, Ala, and Pro (PSAP) motif in infected cells; ORF3 is co-localized with multivesicular bodies (MVBs) in the cytoplasm of infected cells, thus suggesting that HEV requires the MVB pathway for the egress of virus particles. This article reviews the development of efficient cell culture systems for a wide variety of infectious HEV strains obtained from humans, pigs, and wild boar, and also provides details of a new model for virion egress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Okamoto
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, 3311-1 Yakushiji, Shimotsuke Tochigi, 329-0498 Japan
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55
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Wang S, Dong C, Dai X, Cheng X, Liang J, Dong M, Purdy MA, Meng J. Hepatitis E virus isolated from rabbits is genetically heterogeneous but with very similar antigenicity to human HEV. J Med Virol 2013; 85:627-35. [PMID: 23364756 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.23504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Rabbit hepatitis E virus (HEV) in China may represent a novel HEV genotype, although no consensus has been reached. It is unclear whether the ORF2 capsid protein containing the immunodominant epitopes from rabbit HEV differs from those of human HEV. In this study, 661 bile samples collected from domestic rabbits in Jiangsu province, eastern China were amplified by RT-nPCR using a set of HEV universal ORF2 primers. All 42 (6.4%) positive PCR products were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis using the ORF2 sequences of 557 bp in length showed the Jiangsu isolates were separate from HEV genotypes 1, 2, 3, 4, avian HEV and rat HEV, and clustered together with rabbit HEV sequences. These 42 isolates were divided into five branches including two newly identified in the present study. Comparison with rabbit HEV sequences from China available in GenBank, using a 298 bp ORF2 segment, showed these sequences clustered together into a unique rabbit HEV clade, and were divided into eight sub-branches with high genetic heterogeneity. In addition, 267 serum samples collected from domestic rabbits, serial serum samples from two rhesus monkeys experimentally infected with HEV genotype 1 or 4, and serial serum samples from two New-Zealand rabbits infected experimentally with rabbit HEV were tested simultaneously by EIA using recombinant truncated ORF2 capsid proteins derived from rabbit and human HEV. The virtually identical results obtained suggest that rabbit and human HEV ORF2 antigens contain very similar immunodominant epitopes. All these data are helpful to identify the biological characteristics of the newly identified rabbit HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Wang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Affiliated Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
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56
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Kaba M, Moal V, Gérolami R, Colson P. Epidemiology of mammalian hepatitis E virus infection. Intervirology 2013; 56:67-83. [PMID: 23343760 DOI: 10.1159/000342301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2011] [Accepted: 07/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian hepatitis E virus (HEV), the etiological agent of hepatitis E in humans, is a recently discovered infectious agent. It was identified for the first time in 1983 using electron microscopy on a faecal specimen of a person infected with non-A, non-B enterically-transmitted hepatitis. Based on retrospective and prospective studies, HEV was long described as one of the leading causes of acute viral hepatitis in tropical and subtropical countries, whereas in developed countries hepatitis E was considered an imported disease from HEV hyperendemic countries. Data from studies conducted during the past decade have greatly shifted our knowledge on the epidemiology and clinical spectrum of HEV. Recently, it has been shown that contrary to previous beliefs, hepatitis E is also an endemic disease in several developed countries, particularly in Japan and in Europe, as evidenced by reports of high anti-HEV immunoglobulin G prevalence in healthy individuals and an increasing number of non-travel-related acute hepatitis E cases. Moreover, a porcine reservoir and growing evidence of zoonotic transmission have been reported in these countries. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the epidemiology and prevention of transmission of mammalian HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamadou Kaba
- Aix-Marseille Université, URMITE UM63 CNRS 7278 IRD 198 INSERM U1095, IHU Méditerranée Infection, Facultés de Médecine et de Pharmacie, Marseille, France
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57
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Li TC, Yoshizaki S, Ami Y, Suzaki Y, Yasuda SP, Yoshimatsu K, Arikawa J, Takeda N, Wakita T. Susceptibility of laboratory rats against genotypes 1, 3, 4, and rat hepatitis E viruses. Vet Microbiol 2012; 163:54-61. [PMID: 23317806 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2012] [Revised: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
To determine whether or not rats are susceptible to hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection, each of group containing three laboratory rats (Wistar) were experimentally inoculated with genotypes 1, 3, 4 and rat HEV by intravenous injection. Serum and stool samples were collected and used to detect HEV RNA and anti-HEV antibodies by RT-PCR and ELISA, respectively. The virus infection was monitored up to 3 months after inoculation. None of the serum or stool samples collected from the rats inoculated with G1, G3, or G4 HEV indicated positive sign for virus replication. Although no alteration was observed in ALT level, rat HEV RNA was detected in stools from both of the rats inoculated with rat HEV, and both rats were positive for anti-rat HEV IgG and IgM from 3 weeks after inoculation. These results demonstrated that rats are susceptible to rat HEV but not to G1, G3, and G4 HEV. We also confirm that the nude rats were useful for obtaining a large amount of rat HEV and that the rat HEV was transmitted by the fecal-oral route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Cheng Li
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen 4-7-1, Musashi-murayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan.
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58
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Geng Y, Zhang H, Li J, Huang W, Harrison TJ, Zhao C, Zhou Y, Lian H, Wang Y. Comparison of hepatitis E virus genotypes from rabbits and pigs in the same geographic area: no evidence of natural cross-species transmission between the two animals. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2012. [PMID: 23183309 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Domesticated pigs have been shown to be a reservoir of genotypes 3 and 4 hepatitis E virus (HEV). Farmed rabbits were recently recognized as the host of a novel virus, rabbit HEV. In order to determine whether HEV is transmitted naturally between rabbits and pigs, a survey on HEV infections was conducted in rabbits and pigs aged 2-4 months from rabbit and pig farms located near to each other in nine villages in three counties of Hebei Province, China. The overall anti-HEV antibody positivity rates in serum samples of swine and rabbits were 61.7% (58/94) and 23.2% (67/289), and the positive rates for HEV RNA were 23.4% (22/94) and 10% (29/289), respectively. In addition, 37 of 125 swine fecal samples (29.6%) were HEV RNA positive. The nucleotide sequences of a 304 bp region within HEV ORF2 have identity ranging from 84.5% to 100% among the rabbit isolates and from 82.3% to 100% among the swine isolates. In contrast, the nucleotide identity between the two species groups was only 72-76.6%. Consequently, the two groups were clearly separated in the phylogenetic tree that showed all of the rabbit isolates are closely related to the rabbit HEV reported recently and the swine isolates belong to genotype 4, including subgenotypes 4a, 4c and 4d. The results showed that HEV is highly prevalent in farmed rabbits and pigs in these areas. However, genotype 4 HEV and rabbit HEV are circulating separately in pigs and rabbits in the same area. In conclusion, there was no evidence of cross-species transmission of HEV between pigs and rabbits. The frequency of HEV transmission events between these two animal species is likely low in commercial farms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yansheng Geng
- Health Science Center, Hebei University, No. 342 Yuhuadonglu, Baoding 071000, China
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59
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Jirintai S, Jinshan, Tanggis, Manglai D, Mulyanto, Takahashi M, Nagashima S, Kobayashi T, Nishizawa T, Okamoto H. Molecular analysis of hepatitis E virus from farm rabbits in Inner Mongolia, China and its successful propagation in A549 and PLC/PRF/5 cells. Virus Res 2012; 170:126-37. [PMID: 23041252 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2012] [Revised: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Rabbit hepatitis E virus (HEV) strains have recently been isolated in several areas of China and in the US and France. However, the host range, distribution and zoonotic potential of these HEV strains remain unknown and their propagation in cultured cells has not yet been reported. A total of 211 4-month-old rabbits raised on a farm in Inner Mongolia were tested for the presence of anti-HEV antibodies and HEV RNA. Overall, 121 rabbits (57.3%) tested positive for anti-HEV antibodies, and 151 (71.6%) had detectable HEV RNA. The 174 HEV strains recovered from these viremic rabbits, including two distinct strains each from 23 rabbits, differed from each other by up to 13.6% in a 412-nucleotide (nt) sequence within ORF2, and were 89.3-95.9% identical to the reported rabbit HEV strains in other provinces of China. Three representative Inner Mongolian strains, one each from three phylogenetic clusters, whose entire genomic sequences were determined, shared 79.6-96.7% identities with reported rabbit HEV strains within the entire or 242- to 1349-nt partial genomic sequence. Rabbit HEV strains recovered from liver tissues of rabbits with a high HEV load propagated efficiently in human cell lines (A549 and PLC/PRF/5 cells), suggesting the potential zoonotic risk of rabbit HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suljid Jirintai
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, 3311-1 Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-Shi, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
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60
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Sanford BJ, Emerson SU, Purcell RH, Engle RE, Dryman BA, Cecere TE, Buechner-Maxwell V, Sponenberg DP, Meng XJ. Serological evidence for a hepatitis e virus-related agent in goats in the United States. Transbound Emerg Dis 2012; 60:538-45. [PMID: 22909079 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes an important public health disease in many developing countries and is also endemic in some industrialized countries. In addition to humans, strains of HEV have been genetically identified from pig, chicken, rat, mongoose, deer, rabbit and fish. While the genotypes 1 and 2 HEV are restricted to humans, the genotypes 3 and 4 HEV are zoonotic and infect humans and other animal species. As a part of our ongoing efforts to search for potential animal reservoirs for HEV, we tested goats from Virginia for evidence of HEV infection and showed that 16% (13/80) of goat sera from Virginia herds were positive for IgG anti-HEV. Importantly, we demonstrated that neutralizing antibodies to HEV were present in selected IgG anti-HEV positive goat sera. Subsequently, in an attempt to genetically identify the HEV-related agent from goats, we conducted a prospective study in a closed goat herd with known anti-HEV seropositivity and monitored a total of 11 kids from the time of birth until 14 weeks of age for evidence of HEV infection. Seroconversion to IgG anti-HEV was detected in seven of the 11 kids, although repeated attempts to detect HEV RNA by a broad-spectrum nested RT-PCR from the faecal and serum samples of the goats that had seroconverted were unsuccessful. In addition, we also attempted to experimentally infect laboratory goats with three well-characterized mammalian strains of HEV but with no success. The results indicate that a HEV-related agent is circulating and maintained in the goat population in Virginia and that the goat HEV is likely genetically very divergent from the known HEV strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- B J Sanford
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, USA
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61
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Cao D, Meng XJ. Molecular biology and replication of hepatitis E virus. Emerg Microbes Infect 2012; 1:e17. [PMID: 26038426 PMCID: PMC3630916 DOI: 10.1038/emi.2012.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2011] [Revised: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/08/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus, is responsible for acute hepatitis E epidemics in many developing countries, and the virus is also endemic in some industrialized countries. Hepatitis E is a recognized zoonotic disease, and several animal species, including pigs, are potential reservoirs for HEV. The genome of HEV contains three open reading frames (ORFs). ORF1 encodes the nonstructural proteins, ORF2 encodes the capsid protein, and ORF3 encodes a small multifunctional protein. The ORF2 and ORF3 proteins are translated from a single, bicistronic mRNA. The coding sequences for these two ORFs overlap each other, but neither overlaps with ORF1. Whereas the mechanisms underlying HEV replication are poorly understood, the construction of infectious viral clones, the identification of cell lines that support HEV replication, and the development of small animal models have allowed for more detailed study of the virus. As result of these advances, recently, our understanding of viral entry, genomic replication and viral egress has improved. Furthermore, the determination of the T=1 and T=3 structure of HEV virus-like particles has furthered our understanding of the replication of HEV. This article reviews the latest developments in the molecular biology of HEV with an emphasis on the genomic organization, the expression and function of genes, and the structure and replication of HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianjun Cao
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) , Blacksburg, VA 24061-0913, USA
| | - Xiang-Jin Meng
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) , Blacksburg, VA 24061-0913, USA
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62
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Detection and molecular characterization of hepatitis E virus in clinical, environmental and putative animal sources. Arch Virol 2012; 157:2363-8. [PMID: 22847755 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-012-1422-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Putative animal reservoirs and environmental samples were studied to investigate potential routes of transmission for indigenous hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in Hokkaido, Japan. A total of 468 liver samples and 954 environmental samples were collected from 2003 to 2011 for this study. Four swine livers (1 %) were positive for HEV RNA; two strains belonged to genotype 3 and the other two strains were genotype 4. Genotype 3 HEV was detected in a sewage sample and a seawater sample. HEV strains derived from swine liver, seawater and raw sewage samples shared 93-100 % sequence similarity with human HEV strains.
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63
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Córdoba L, Feagins AR, Opriessnig T, Cossaboom CM, Dryman BA, Huang YW, Meng XJ. Rescue of a genotype 4 human hepatitis E virus from cloned cDNA and characterization of intergenotypic chimeric viruses in cultured human liver cells and in pigs. J Gen Virol 2012; 93:2183-2194. [PMID: 22837416 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.043711-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important but extremely understudied human pathogen. Genotypes 1 and 2 are restricted to humans, whereas genotypes 3 and 4 are zoonotic, infecting both humans and pigs. This report describes, for the first time, the successful rescue of infectious HEV in vitro and in vivo from cloned cDNA of a genotype 4 human HEV (strain TW6196E). The complete genomic sequence of the TW6196E virus was determined and a full-length cDNA clone (pHEV-4TW) was assembled. Capped RNA transcripts from the pHEV-4TW clone were replication competent in Huh7 cells and infectious in HepG2/C3A cells. Pigs inoculated intrahepatically with capped RNA transcripts from pHEV-4TW developed an active infection, as evidenced by faecal virus shedding and seroconversion, indicating the successful rescue of infectious genotype 4 HEV and cross-species infection of pigs by a genotype 4 human HEV. To demonstrate the utility of the genotype 4 HEV infectious clone and to evaluate the potential viral determinant(s) for species tropism, four intergenotypic chimeric clones were constructed by swapping various genomic regions between genotypes 1 and 4, and genotypes 1 and 3. All four chimeric clones were replication competent in Huh7 cells, but only the two chimeras with sequences swapped between genotypes 1 and 4 human HEVs produced viruses capable of infecting HepG2/C3A cells. None of the four chimeras was able to establish a robust infection in pigs. The availability of a genotype 4 HEV infectious clone affords an opportunity to delineate the molecular mechanisms of HEV cross-species infection in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Córdoba
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Alicia R Feagins
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Tanja Opriessnig
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Caitlin M Cossaboom
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Barbara A Dryman
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Yao-Wei Huang
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Xiang-Jin Meng
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA, USA
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64
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Nidaira M, Takahashi K, Ogura G, Taira K, Okano S, Kudaka J, Itokazu K, Mishiro S, Nakamura M. Detection and phylogenetic analysis of hepatitis E viruses from mongooses in Okinawa, Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2012; 74:1665-8. [PMID: 22850461 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.11-0520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection has previously been reported in wild mongooses on Okinawa Island; to date however, only one HEV RNA sequence has been identified in a mongoose. Hence, this study was performed to detect HEV RNA in 209 wild mongooses on Okinawa Island. Six (2.9%) samples tested positive for HEV RNA. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that 6 HEV RNAs belonged to genotype 3 and were classified into groups A and B. In group B, mongoose-derived HEV sequences were very similar to mongoose HEV previously detected on Okinawa Island, as well as to those of a pig. This investigation emphasized the possibility that the mongoose is a reservoir animal for HEV on Okinawa Island.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minoru Nidaira
- Department of Biological Sciences, Okinawa Prefectural Institute of Health and Environment, 2085 Ozato, Nanjo, Okinawa 901-1202, Japan
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65
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Bats worldwide carry hepatitis E virus-related viruses that form a putative novel genus within the family Hepeviridae. J Virol 2012; 86:9134-47. [PMID: 22696648 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00800-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is one of the most common causes of acute hepatitis in tropical and temperate climates. Tropical genotypes 1 and 2 are associated with food-borne and waterborne transmission. Zoonotic reservoirs (mainly pigs, wild boar, and deer) are considered for genotypes 3 and 4, which exist in temperate climates. In view of the association of several zoonotic viruses with bats, we analyzed 3,869 bat specimens from 85 different species and from five continents for hepevirus RNA. HEVs were detected in African, Central American, and European bats, forming a novel phylogenetic clade in the family Hepeviridae. Bat hepeviruses were highly diversified and comparable to human HEV in sequence variation. No evidence for the transmission of bat hepeviruses to humans was found in over 90,000 human blood donations and individual patient sera. Full-genome analysis of one representative virus confirmed formal classification within the family Hepeviridae. Sequence- and distance-based taxonomic evaluations suggested that bat hepeviruses constitute a distinct genus within the family Hepeviridae and that at least three other genera comprising human, rodent, and avian hepeviruses can be designated. This may imply that hepeviruses invaded mammalian hosts nonrecently and underwent speciation according to their host restrictions. Human HEV-related viruses in farmed and peridomestic animals might represent secondary acquisitions of human viruses, rather than animal precursors causally involved in the evolution of human HEV.
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66
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de Souza AJS, Gomes-Gouvêa MS, Soares MDCP, Pinho JRR, Malheiros AP, Carneiro LA, dos Santos DRL, Pereira WLA. HEV infection in swine from Eastern Brazilian Amazon: evidence of co-infection by different subtypes. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2012; 35:477-85. [PMID: 22579295 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2012.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2012] [Revised: 04/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a fecal-orally transmitted member of the genus Hepevirus that causes acute hepatitis in humans and is widely distributed throughout the world. Pigs have been reported as the main source of genotypes 3 and 4 infection to humans in non-endemic areas. To investigate HEV infection in pigs from different regions of Pará state (Eastern Brazilian Amazon), we performed serological and molecular analyses of serum, fecal and liver samples from 151 adult pigs slaughtered between April and October 2010 in slaughterhouses in the metropolitan region of Belém, Pará. Among the animals tested, 8.6% (13/151) were positive for anti-HEV IgG but not for anti-HEV IgM. HEV RNA was detected in 4.8% (22/453) of the samples analyzed and 9.9% (15/151) of the animals had at least one positive sample. Phylogenetic analysis showed that all sequences belonged to genotype 3 that were related to human isolates from other non-endemic regions, suggesting that the isolates had zoonotic potential. Subtypes 3c and 3f were simultaneously detected in some pigs, suggesting co-infection by more than one strain and/or the presence of a recombinant virus. These results constitute the first molecular and serologic evidence of swine HEV circulation in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Junior Souza de Souza
- Seção de Hepatologia, Instituto Evandro Chagas, Av. Almirante Barroso, 492, 66093-020 Belém, PA, Brazil.
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67
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Bouquet J, Tessé S, Lunazzi A, Eloit M, Rose N, Nicand E, Pavio N. Close similarity between sequences of hepatitis E virus recovered from humans and swine, France, 2008-2009. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 17:2018-25. [PMID: 22099089 PMCID: PMC3311115 DOI: 10.3201/eid1711.110616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Bouquet
- Anses, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Maisons-Alfort, France
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68
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Cossaboom CM, Córdoba L, Sanford BJ, Piñeyro P, Kenney SP, Dryman BA, Wang Y, Meng XJ. Cross-species infection of pigs with a novel rabbit, but not rat, strain of hepatitis E virus isolated in the United States. J Gen Virol 2012; 93:1687-1695. [PMID: 22535776 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.041509-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important human pathogen. In addition to humans, HEV has also been identified in pig, chicken, mongoose, deer, rat, rabbit and fish. There are four recognized and two putative genotypes of mammalian HEV. Genotypes 1 and 2 are restricted to humans, while genotypes 3 and 4 are zoonotic. The recently identified rabbit HEV is a distant member of genotype 3. Here, we first expressed and purified the recombinant capsid protein of rabbit HEV and showed that the capsid protein of rabbit HEV cross-reacted with antibodies raised against avian, rat, swine and human HEV. Conversely, we showed that antibodies against rabbit HEV cross-reacted with capsid proteins derived from chicken, rat, swine and human HEV. Since pigs are the natural host of genotype 3 HEV, we then determined if rabbit HEV infects pigs. Twenty pigs were divided into five groups of four each and intravenously inoculated with PBS, US rabbit HEV, Chinese rabbit HEV, US rat HEV and swine HEV, respectively. Results showed that only half of the pigs inoculated with rabbit HEV had low levels of viraemia and faecal virus shedding, indicative of active but not robust HEV infection. Infection of pigs by rabbit HEV was further verified by transmission of the virus recovered from pig faeces to naïve rabbits. Pigs inoculated with rat HEV showed no evidence of infection. Preliminary results suggest that rabbit HEV is antigenically related to other HEV strains and infects pigs and that rat HEV failed to infect pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin M Cossaboom
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Laura Córdoba
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Brenton J Sanford
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Pablo Piñeyro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Scott P Kenney
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Barbara A Dryman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Youchun Wang
- Department of Cell Biology, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing, PR China
| | - Xiang-Jin Meng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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69
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Kanai Y, Miyasaka S, Uyama S, Kawami S, Kato-Mori Y, Tsujikawa M, Yunoki M, Nishiyama S, Ikuta K, Hagiwara K. Hepatitis E virus in Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) captured around a pig farm. BMC Res Notes 2012; 5:4. [PMID: 22217009 PMCID: PMC3284388 DOI: 10.1186/1756-0500-5-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2011] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hepatitis E virus (HEV) transmitted via the oral route through the consumption of contaminated water or uncooked or undercooked contaminated meat has been implicated in major outbreaks. Rats may play a critical role in HEV outbreaks, considering their negative effects on environmental hygiene and food sanitation. Although the serological evidence of HEV infection in wild rodents has been reported worldwide, the infectivity and propagation of HEV in wild rats remain unknown. To investigate if rats are a possible carrier of HEV, we studied wild Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) that were caught near a pig farm, where HEV was prevalent among the pigs. Methods We examined 56 Norway rats for HEV. RNA from internal organs was examined for RT-PCR and positive samples were sequenced. Positive tissue samples were incubated with A549 cell line to isolate HEV. Anti-HEV antibodies were detected by ELISA. Results Sixteen rats were seropositive, and the HEV RNA was detected in 10 of the 56 rats. Sequencing of the partial ORF1 gene from 7 samples resulted in partially sequenced HEV, belonging to genotype 3, which was genetically identical to the HEV prevalent in the swine from the source farm. The infectious HEVs were isolated from the Norway rats by using the human A549 cell line. Conclusions There was a relatively high prevalence (17.9%) of the HEV genome in wild Norway rats. The virus was mainly detected in the liver and spleen. The results indicate that these animals might be possible carrier of swine HEV in endemic regions. The HEV contamination risk due to rats needs to be examined in human habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Kanai
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido 069-8501, Japan.
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70
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Rodríguez-Lázaro D, Cook N, Ruggeri FM, Sellwood J, Nasser A, Nascimento MSJ, D'Agostino M, Santos R, Saiz JC, Rzeżutka A, Bosch A, Gironés R, Carducci A, Muscillo M, Kovač K, Diez-Valcarce M, Vantarakis A, von Bonsdorff CH, de Roda Husman AM, Hernández M, van der Poel WHM. Virus hazards from food, water and other contaminated environments. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2011; 36:786-814. [PMID: 22091646 PMCID: PMC7114518 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00306.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous viruses of human or animal origin can spread in the environment and infect people via water and food, mostly through ingestion and occasionally through skin contact. These viruses are released into the environment by various routes including water run‐offs and aerosols. Furthermore, zoonotic viruses may infect humans exposed to contaminated surface waters. Foodstuffs of animal origin can be contaminated, and their consumption may cause human infection if the viruses are not inactivated during food processing. Molecular epidemiology and surveillance of environmental samples are necessary to elucidate the public health hazards associated with exposure to environmental viruses. Whereas monitoring of viral nucleic acids by PCR methods is relatively straightforward and well documented, detection of infectious virus particles is technically more demanding and not always possible (e.g. human norovirus or hepatitis E virus). The human pathogenic viruses that are most relevant in this context are nonenveloped and belong to the families of the Caliciviridae, Adenoviridae, Hepeviridae, Picornaviridae and Reoviridae. Sampling methods and strategies, first‐choice detection methods and evaluation criteria are reviewed. Virus hazards from food, water and the environment, their reservoirs and routes of transmission; Sampling methods and sampling strategies thereof, including the first choice test methods, and criteria for data evaluation are described.
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71
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Restricted enzooticity of hepatitis E virus genotypes 1 to 4 in the United States. J Clin Microbiol 2011; 49:4164-72. [PMID: 21998412 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.05481-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E is recognized as a zoonosis, and swine are known reservoirs, but how broadly enzootic its causative agent, hepatitis E virus (HEV), is remains controversial. To determine the prevalence of HEV infection in animals, a serological assay with capability to detect anti-HEV-antibody across a wide variety of animal species was devised. Recombinant antigens comprising truncated capsid proteins generated from HEV-subgenomic constructs that represent all four viral genotypes were used to capture anti-HEV in the test sample and as an analyte reporter. To facilitate development and validation of the assay, serum samples were assembled from blood donors (n = 372), acute hepatitis E patients (n = 94), five laboratory animals (rhesus monkey, pig, New Zealand rabbit, Wistar rat, and BALB/c mouse) immunized with HEV antigens, and four pigs experimentally infected with HEV. The assay was then applied to 4,936 sera collected from 35 genera of animals that were wild, feral, domesticated, or otherwise held captive in the United States. Test positivity was determined in 457 samples (9.3%). These originated from: bison (3/65, 4.6%), cattle (174/1,156, 15%), dogs (2/212, 0.9%), Norway rats (2/318, 0.6%), farmed swine (267/648, 41.2%), and feral swine (9/306, 2.9%). Only the porcine samples yielded the highest reactivities. HEV RNA was amplified from one farmed pig and two feral pigs and characterized by nucleotide sequencing to belong to genotype 3. HEV infected farmed swine primarily, and the role of other animals as reservoirs of its zoonotic spread appears to be limited.
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72
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Geng J, Wang L, Wang X, Fu H, Bu Q, Liu P, Zhu Y, Wang M, Sui Y, Zhuang H. Potential risk of zoonotic transmission from young swine to human: seroepidemiological and genetic characterization of hepatitis E virus in human and various animals in Beijing, China. J Viral Hepat 2011; 18:e583-90. [PMID: 21914080 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2893.2011.01472.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to further investigate the prevalence of infection and genotype of hepatitis E virus (HEV) among different species of animals, people whose works are related to pigs and the general population in the suburb of Beijing, China. Serum and faecal samples were collected from 10 animal species and humans. Anti-HEV was detected by enzyme immunoassays (EIA); HEV RNA was amplified by reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction (RT-nPCR) method. PCR products were cloned and sequenced. The isolated swine HEV sequences were analysed phylogenetically. The positive rates of serum anti-HEV in swine, cattle, milk cow, horse, sheep, donkey, dog, duck, chicken, pig farm workers and slaughterhouse workers, and general population were 81.17% (802/988), 25.29% (66/261), 14.87% (40/269), 14.29% (40/280), 9.30% (53/514), 0 (0/25), 0 (0/20), 2.53% (8/316), 3.03% (7/231), 58.73% (37/63), 35.87% (66/184) and 20.06% (538/2682), respectively. The anti-HEV prevalence in adult swine (≥ 6 months) and younger swine (≤ 3 months) was 91.49% (591/646) and 61.7% (211/342), respectively. The positive rate of HEV RNA in young swine faeces was 47.94% (93/194). All 93 isolates from the younger swine shared 87.8-100% nucleotide homology with each other and had identities of 75.6-78.9%, 73.9-76.1%, 76.4-80.6% and 83.1-95.0% with the corresponding regions of genotypes 1-4 HEV, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed that all HEV isolates belong to genotype 4, subgenotype 4d. These results suggest a potential risk of zoonotic transmission of HEV from younger swine to farmers who rear pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Geng
- Department of Microbiology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
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73
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Geng J, Wang L, Wang X, Fu H, Bu Q, Zhu Y, Zhuang H. Study on prevalence and genotype of hepatitis E virus isolated from Rex Rabbits in Beijing, China. J Viral Hepat 2011; 18:661-7. [PMID: 20609076 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2893.2010.01341.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED A novel genotype of hepatitis E virus (HEV) isolated from rabbits is reported. The aim of this study was to confirm and further investigate the prevalence of the novel HEV genotype in rabbits in China. Sera and faecal samples were collected from farmed rex rabbits in Beijing, China. All serum samples were tested for anti-HEV antibody by EIA. Both the serum and the faecal samples were evaluated for detection of HEV RNA using a nested RT-PCR assay. The nucleotide sequences of rabbit HEV were then analysed, and sequence homology of rabbit HEV compared against human HEV genotypes 1-4, and avian HEV. RESULTS The prevalence of positive serum anti-HEV from rex rabbits was 54.62% (65/119). The detection rate of HEV RNA using ORF2 primers was 6.96% (8/115) amongst rabbit faecal samples. All eight amplicons shared 98.3-100% nucleotide homology with each other and had identities of 75.8-78.6%, 73.9-75.0%, 77.5-81.0%, 74.2-78.6% and 54.8-57.6% with the corresponding regions of genotypes 1-4 and avian HEV, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the eight sequences formed one individual branch and were on the same branch with GDC9 and GDC46, both of which were reported to be a novel genotype of HEV isolated from rabbits. The conclusion is that this study provides further information about HEV infecting rabbits, which may be a new animal host of HEV, as well as genetical evidence of a new mammalian genotype of HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Geng
- Department of Microbiology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
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74
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Zhang H, Mohn U, Prickett JR, Schalk S, Motz M, Halbur PG, Feagins AR, Meng XJ, Opriessnig T. Differences in capabilities of different enzyme immunoassays to detect anti-hepatitis E virus immunoglobulin G in pigs infected experimentally with hepatitis E virus genotype 3 or 4 and in pigs with unknown exposure. J Virol Methods 2011; 175:156-62. [PMID: 21596064 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2011.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Revised: 04/25/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a major cause of acute viral hepatitis in humans in many developing countries, is highly prevalent in the pig population worldwide. The objective of this study was to assess the capability of three porcine prototypes of a human enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), an in-house ELISA and a line-immunoassay (LIA) to detect anti-HEV antibodies in pigs infected experimentally with HEV (n = 57), known to be negative for HEV infection (n = 27), or with unknown exposure to HEV infection (field samples, n = 90). All 27 samples from non-infected pigs were negative with all five assays. The earliest detection of anti-HEV antibodies occurred at 14 days post-inoculation (dpi) with four of five assays. From 42 dpi, all samples from infected pigs were detected correctly as anti-HEV positive. Kappa analysis demonstrated substantial agreement among tests (0.62-1.00) at 14 dpi and complete agreement (1.00) at 56 dpi. The overall area under the curve for all quantitative tests as determined by receiver operator characteristic analysis ranged from 0.794 to 0.831 indicating moderate accuracy. The results showed that all five assays can detect anti-HEV IgG antibodies accurately in pigs infected experimentally with HEV. In field samples, a higher prevalence of anti-HEV IgG was found in breeding herds than in growing pigs (100% versus 66.7-93.9%). These serological assays should be very useful in veterinary diagnostic labs for HEV diagnosis in swine.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Zhang
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-1250, USA
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75
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Sanford BJ, Dryman BA, Huang YW, Feagins AR, Leroith T, Meng XJ. Prior infection of pigs with a genotype 3 swine hepatitis E virus (HEV) protects against subsequent challenges with homologous and heterologous genotypes 3 and 4 human HEV. Virus Res 2011; 159:17-22. [PMID: 21536085 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2011.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2011] [Revised: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 04/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important human pathogen. At least four recognized and two putative genotypes of mammalian HEV have been reported: genotypes 1 and 2 are restricted to humans whereas genotypes 3 and 4 are zoonotic. The current experimental vaccines are all based on a single strain of HEV, even though multiple genotypes of HEV are co-circulating in some countries and thus an individual may be exposed to more than one genotype. Genotypes 3 and 4 swine HEV is widespread in pigs and known to infect humans. Therefore, it is important to know if prior infection with a genotype 3 swine HEV will confer protective immunity against subsequent exposure to genotypes 3 and 4 human and swine HEV. In this study, specific-pathogen-free pigs were divided into 4 groups of 6 each. Pigs in the three treatment groups were each inoculated with a genotype 3 swine HEV, and 12 weeks later, challenged with the same genotype 3 swine HEV, a genotype 3 human HEV, and a genotype 4 human HEV, respectively. The control group was inoculated and challenged with PBS buffer. Weekly sera from all pigs were tested for HEV RNA and IgG anti-HEV, and weekly fecal samples were also tested for HEV RNA. The pigs inoculated with swine HEV became infected as evidenced by fecal virus shedding and viremia, and the majority of pigs also developed IgG anti-HEV prior to challenge at 12 weeks post-inoculation. After challenge, viremia was not detected and only two pigs challenged with swine HEV had 1-week fecal virus shedding, suggesting that prior infection with a genotype 3 swine HEV prevented pigs from developing viremia and fecal virus shedding after challenges with homologous and heterologous genotypes 3 and 4 HEV. The results from this study have important implications for future development of an effective HEV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenton J Sanford
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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76
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Sato Y, Sato H, Naka K, Furuya S, Tsukiji H, Kitagawa K, Sonoda Y, Usui T, Sakamoto H, Yoshino S, Shimizu Y, Takahashi M, Nagashima S, Jirintai, Nishizawa T, Okamoto H. A nationwide survey of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in wild boars in Japan: identification of boar HEV strains of genotypes 3 and 4 and unrecognized genotypes. Arch Virol 2011; 156:1345-58. [PMID: 21475985 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-011-0988-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2011] [Accepted: 03/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the nationwide prevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection and to characterize HEV genomes among Japanese wild boars (Sus scrofa leucomystax), 578 boars captured in 25 prefectures from 2003 to 2010 were studied. Anti-HEV IgG was detected in 8.1%, and HEV RNA in 3.3% of boars. Among the 19 boar HEV isolates obtained from infected boars, 14 isolates (74%) were classified as genotype 3, 4 isolates (21%) as genotype 4, and the remaining isolate (wbJOY_06) was distantly related to all known HEV isolates of genotypes 1-4, differing by 18.4-25.0% and 18.0-24.3% within the 412-nucleotide sequence of ORF1 and ORF2, respectively. A genotype 4 boar HEV isolate (wbJGF_08-1) obtained herein shared 98.6% identity over the entire genome with a human HEV isolate obtained from a patient who developed acute hepatitis after consuming undercooked wild boar meat, suggesting that wild boars are also reservoirs for genotype 4 HEV in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukihiro Sato
- Kamiichi General Hospital, Kamiichi, Toyama, 930-0391, Japan
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77
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Meng XJ. From barnyard to food table: the omnipresence of hepatitis E virus and risk for zoonotic infection and food safety. Virus Res 2011; 161:23-30. [PMID: 21316404 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2011.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2010] [Revised: 01/27/2011] [Accepted: 01/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important but extremely understudied pathogen. The mechanisms of HEV replication and pathogenesis are poorly understood, and a vaccine against HEV is not yet available. HEV is classified in the family Hepeviridae consisting of at least four recognized major genotypes. Genotypes 1 and 2 HEV are restricted to humans and associated with epidemics in developing countries, whereas genotypes 3 and 4 HEV are zoonotic and responsible for sporadic cases worldwide. The identification and characterization of a number of animal strains of HEV from pigs, chickens, rabbits, rats, mongoose, deer, and possibly cattle and sheep have significantly broadened the host range and diversity of HEV. The demonstrated ability of cross-species infection by some animal strains of HEV raises public health concerns for zoonotic HEV infection. Pigs are a recognized reservoir for HEV, and pig handlers are at increased risk of zoonotic HEV infection. Sporadic cases of hepatitis E have been definitively linked to the consumption of raw or undercooked animal meats such as pig livers, sausages, and deer meats. In addition, since large amounts of viruses excreted in feces, animal manure land application and runoffs can contaminate irrigation and drinking water with concomitant contamination of produce or shellfish. HEV RNA of swine origin has been detected in swine manure, sewage water and oysters, and consumption of contaminated shellfish has also been implicated in sporadic cases of hepatitis E. Therefore, the animal strains of HEV pose not only a zoonotic risk but also food and environmental safety concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang-Jin Meng
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0913, USA.
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78
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Takahashi M, Nishizawa T, Sato H, Sato Y, Nagashima S, Okamoto H. Analysis of the full-length genome of a hepatitis E virus isolate obtained from a wild boar in Japan that is classifiable into a novel genotype. J Gen Virol 2011; 92:902-8. [PMID: 21228128 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.029470-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
While performing a nationwide survey of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection among 450 wild boars (Sus scrofa leucomystax) that had been captured in Japan between November 2005 and March 2010, we found 16 boars (3.6%) with ongoing HEV infection: 11 had genotype 3 HEV, four had genotype 4 HEV and the remaining boar was infected with HEV of an unrecognized genotype (designated wbJOY_06). The entire wbJOY_06 genome was sequenced and was found to comprise 7246 nt excluding the poly(A) tail. The wbJOY_06 isolate was highly divergent from known genotype 1-4 HEV isolates derived from humans, swine, wild boars, deer, mongoose and rabbits (n=145) by 22.6-27.7%, rat HEV isolates (n=2) by 46.0-46.2%, and avian HEV isolates (n=5) by 52.5-53.1% over the entire genome. A Simplot analysis revealed no significant recombination between the existing HEV strains of genotypes 1-4. Therefore, we propose that the wbJOY_06 isolate is the first member of a previously unidentified genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaharu Takahashi
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Shimotsuke-Shi, Tochigi-Ken 329-0498, Japan
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79
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Abstract
Hepatitis E was suspected for the first time in 1980 during a waterborne epidemic of acute hepatitis in Kashmir, India. In the 30 years since then, a small virus with single-stranded RNA genome has been identified as the cause of this disease and named as hepatitis E virus (HEV). The virus has four genotypes; of these, genotypes 1 and 2 are known to infect only humans, whereas genotypes 3 and 4 primarily infect other mammals, particularly pigs, but occasionally cause human disease. In highly-endemic areas, the disease occurs in epidemic and sporadic forms, caused mainly by infection with genotype 1 or 2 virus, acquired through the fecal-oral route, usually through contaminated water supplies. The disease is characterized by particularly severe course and high mortality among pregnant women. In persons with pre-existing chronic liver disease, HEV superinfection can present as acute-on-chronic liver disease. In low-endemic regions, sporadic cases of locally-acquired HEV infection are reported; these are caused mainly by genotype 3 or 4 HEV acquired possibly through zoonotic transmission from pigs, wild boars or deer. In these areas, chronic infection with genotype 3 HEV, which may progress to liver cirrhosis, has been reported among immunosuppressed persons. Two subunit vaccines containing recombinant truncated capsid proteins of HEV have been shown to be highly effective in preventing the disease; however, these are not yet commercially available. These vaccines should be of particular use in groups that are at high risk of HEV infection and/or of poor outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakesh Aggarwal
- Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India.
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80
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Xia H, Wahlberg N, Belák S, Meng XJ, Liu L. The emergence of genotypes 3 and 4 hepatitis E virus in swine and humans: a phylogenetic perspective. Arch Virol 2010; 156:121-4. [PMID: 20927637 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-010-0818-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2010] [Accepted: 09/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
To investigate whether there is any phylogenetic evidence to support the hypothesis that swine is the natural host of HEV genotypes 3 and 4, Bayesian analysis of 80 full-length genomic sequences of HEV was performed. The results showed that the strains of genotypes 3 and 4 from swine are paraphyletic with regard to strains of human origin, which are thus phylogenetically nested among the swine strains. Recognition of HEV genotypes 3 and 4 as viruses from swine or swine HEV can provide an evolutionary explanation to the observation of cross-species infection by genotypes 3 and 4 HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Xia
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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81
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Fu H, Li L, Zhu Y, Wang L, Geng J, Chang Y, Xue C, Du G, Li Y, Zhuang H. Hepatitis E virus infection among animals and humans in Xinjiang, China: possibility of swine to human transmission of sporadic hepatitis E in an endemic area. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2010; 82:961-6. [PMID: 20439982 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E is a worldwide public health problem, especially in areas with poor sanitation. This study examines the potential hepatitis E virus (HEV) animal reservoirs and the current status of HEV infection among animals and humans in an endemic area of Xinjiang, China. One thousand five hundred twenty-one serum samples from 12 different animal species and 296 sera from humans were detected for anti-HEV with an in-house enzyme immunoassay, and partial HEV RNA was amplified with a reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction (RT-nPCR). All these distinct animal species, except jerboa and hoptoad, were positive for anti-HEV. However, HEV RNA was only amplified from pigs and a sporadic hepatitis E case in humans. The human HEV strain (CHN-XJ-HE29) shared 100% nucleotide identity with the swine HEV strain (CHN-XJ-SW50), both of which were collected from the same district; this indicates the possibility of HEV transmission from swine to humans in an endemic area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Fu
- Department of Microbiology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
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82
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Seroprevalence and molecular detection of hepatitis E virus in wild boar and red deer in The Netherlands. J Virol Methods 2010; 168:197-206. [PMID: 20510298 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2010.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2009] [Revised: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 05/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
To date, sources of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in the Netherlands, including swine and wild boar, have been identified, but no direct attribution to Dutch hepatitis E cases have been demonstrated. Other animal sources may exist. To identify these species, HEV RNA detection by RT-PCR is required, but complicated. A preselection based on serology may be useful. Therefore, wildlife species were studied by serology and molecular methods. Using a species-independent double-antigen sandwich ELISA, HEV-specific antibodies were detected in sera from 12% of 1029 wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa), in 5% of 38 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and in none of 8 studied roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Differences in background signals were observed between species and accounted for by fitting finite mixture distributions. HEV RNA was detected in 8% of 106 wild boars, in 15% of 39 red deer and in none of 8 roe deer. In conclusion, HEV was shown to be present in European red deer for the first time. This preselection based on species-independent serological assays may be beneficial to identify new potential animal reservoirs of HEV. The consumption of Dutch undercooked wild boar and red deer meat may lead to human exposure to HEV.
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83
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Pavio N, Meng XJ, Renou C. Zoonotic hepatitis E: animal reservoirs and emerging risks. Vet Res 2010; 41:46. [PMID: 20359452 PMCID: PMC2865210 DOI: 10.1051/vetres/2010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2009] [Accepted: 04/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is responsible for enterically-transmitted acute hepatitis in humans with two distinct epidemiological patterns. In endemic regions, large waterborne epidemics with thousands of people affected have been observed, and, in contrast, in non-endemic regions, sporadic cases have been described. Although contaminated water has been well documented as the source of infection in endemic regions, the modes of transmission in non-endemic regions are much less known. HEV is a single-strand, positive-sense RNA virus which is classified in the Hepeviridae family with at least four known main genotypes (1–4) of mammalian HEV and one avian HEV. HEV is unique among the known hepatitis viruses, in which it has an animal reservoir. In contrast to humans, swine and other mammalian animal species infected by HEV generally remain asymptomatic, whereas chickens infected by avian HEV may develop a disease known as Hepatitis-Splenomegaly syndrome. HEV genotypes 1 and 2 are found exclusively in humans while genotypes 3 and 4 are found both in humans and other mammals. Several lines of evidence indicate that, in some cases involving HEV genotypes 3 and 4, animal to human transmissions occur. Furthermore, individuals with direct contact with animals are at higher risk of HEV infection. Cross-species infections with HEV genotypes 3 and 4 have been demonstrated experimentally. However, not all sources of human infections have been identified thus far and in many cases, the origin of HEV infection in humans remains unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Pavio
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, 94704 Maisons-Alfort, France.
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84
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Teo CG. Much meat, much malady: changing perceptions of the epidemiology of hepatitis E. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010; 16:24-32. [PMID: 20002688 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.03111.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E, which is caused by hepatitis E virus (HEV), may now be considered a zoonosis as well as an anthroponosis. Pigs, boars and deer have been identified as reservoirs, and their flesh and entrails--as meat and offal--as vehicles of HEV transmission. Shellfish also act as vehicles. Dietary, gastronomic and culinary preferences influence how extensively HEV conveyed by these vehicles can be inactivated before their ingestion by the host. Another route of infection is paved by HEV that is enterically shed by humans and by live animals into the environment. Although anthroponotic transmission of HEV is primarily environmental, zoonotic transmission may proceed along both foodborne and environmental routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G Teo
- Division of Viral Hepatitis, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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85
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Takahashi M, Tamura K, Hoshino Y, Nagashima S, Yazaki Y, Mizuo H, Iwamoto S, Okayama M, Nakamura Y, Kajii E, Okamoto H. A nationwide survey of hepatitis E virus infection in the general population of Japan. J Med Virol 2010; 82:271-81. [PMID: 20029817 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
To investigate nationwide the prevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in the general population of Japan, serum samples were collected from 22,027 individuals (9,686 males and 12,341 females; age, mean +/- standard deviation: 56.8 +/- 16.7 years; range: 20-108 years) who lived in 30 prefectures located in Hokkaido, mainland Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu of Japan and underwent health check-ups during 2002-2007, and were tested for the presence of IgG, IgM, and IgA classes of antibodies to HEV (anti-HEV) by in-house ELISA and HEV RNA by nested RT-PCR. Overall, 1,167 individuals (5.3%) were positive for anti-HEV IgG, including 753 males (7.8%) and 414 females (3.4%), the difference being statistically significant (P < 0.0001). The prevalence of anti-HEV IgG generally increased with age and was significantly higher among individuals aged >or=50 years than among those aged <50 years (6.6% vs. 2.7%, P < 0.0001). Although 13 individuals with anti-HEV IgG also had anti-HEV IgM and/or anti-HEV IgA, none of them had detectable HEV RNA. The presence of HEV RNA was further tested in 50 or 49-sample minipools of sera from the remaining 22,014 individuals, and three individuals without anti-HEV antibodies tested positive for HEV RNA. The HEV isolates obtained from the three viremic individuals segregated into genotype 3 and were closest to Japan-indigenous HEV strains. When stratified by geographic region, the prevalence of anti-HEV IgG as well as the prevalence of HEV RNA or anti-HEV IgM and/or anti-HEV IgA was significantly higher in northern Japan than in southern Japan (6.7% vs. 3.2%, P < 0.0001; 0.11% vs. 0.01%, P = 0.0056; respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaharu Takahashi
- Division of Virology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi-Ken, Japan
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Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV), the causative agent of hepatitis E, belongs to the family Hepeviridae. At least four major genotypes of HEV have been recognized: genotypes 1 and 2 are restricted to humans and associated with epidemics in developing countries, whereas genotypes 3 and 4 are zoonotic and infect humans and several other animals in both developing and industrialized countries. Besides humans, strains of HEV have been genetically identified from swine, chickens, sika deer, mongeese, and rabbits. The genome of HEV consists of three open reading frames (ORFs): ORF1 codes for nonstructural proteins, ORF2 codes for capsid protein, and ORF3 codes for a small multifunctional protein. The ORF2 and ORF3 proteins are translated from a single bicistronic mRNA and overlap each other but neither overlaps ORF1. The recent determination of the 3D crystal structure of the HEV capsid protein should facilitate the development of vaccines and antivirals. The identification and characterization of animal strains of HEV from pigs and chickens and the demonstrated ability of cross-species infection by swine HEV raise public health concerns for zoonosis. Accumulating evidence indicated that hepatitis E is a zoonotic disease and pigs and more likely other animal species are reservoirs for HEV. This article provides an overview of the recent advances in hepatitis E and its causative agent, including nomenclature and genomic organization, gene expression and functions, 3D structure of the virions, changing perspectives on higher mortality during pregnancy and chronic hepatitis E, animal reservoirs, zoonotic risk, food safety, and novel animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- X J Meng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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87
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Experimental infection of rabbits with rabbit and genotypes 1 and 4 hepatitis E viruses. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9160. [PMID: 20161794 PMCID: PMC2820092 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2009] [Accepted: 01/19/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A recent study provided evidence that farmed rabbits in China harbor a novel hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype. Although the rabbit HEV isolate had 77-79% nucleotide identity to the mammalian HEV genotypes 1 to 4, their genomic organization is very similar. Since rabbits are used widely experimentally, including as models of infection, we investigated whether they constitute an appropriate animal model for human HEV infection. METHODS Forty-two SPF rabbits were divided randomly into eleven groups and inoculated with six different isolates of rabbit HEV, two different doses of a second-passage rabbit HEV, and with genotype 1 and 4 HEV. Sera and feces were collected weekly after inoculation. HEV antigen, RNA, antibody and alanine aminotransferase in sera and HEV RNA in feces were detected. The liver samples were collected during necropsy subject to histopathological examination. FINDINGS Rabbits inoculated with rabbit HEV became infected with HEV, with viremia, fecal virus shedding and high serum levels of viral antigens, and developed hepatitis, with elevation of the liver enzyme, ALT. The severity of disease corresponded to the infectious dose (genome equivalents), with the most severe hepatic disease caused by strain GDC54-18. However, only two of nine rabbits infected with HEV genotype 4, and none infected with genotype 1, developed hepatitis although six of nine rabbits inoculated with the genotype 1 HEV and in all rabbits inoculated with the genotype 4 HEV seroconverted to be positive for anti-HEV IgG antibody by 14 weeks post-inoculation. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that rabbits are an appropriate model for rabbit HEV infection but are not likely to be useful for the study of human HEV. The rabbit HEV infection of rabbits may provide an appropriate parallel animal model to study HEV pathogenesis.
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88
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Li HF, Zhao H. Analysis of clinical assessment data for a hepatitis E virus antibody test kit. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2009; 17:3550-3552. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v17.i34.3550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To evaluate the quality and possible uses of a hepatitis E virus (HEV) antibody test kit.
METHODS: The kit evaluated (HEV antibody test kit; Dia.Pro Diagnostic Bioprobes Srl, Italy), reference kit (HEV antibody test kit; Wantai Biological Pharmacy, Beijing, China) and a third-party kit were used to detect 450 serum samples taken from individuals undergoing routine physical examination and those potentially infected with HEV. Statistical analysis was then performed to evaluate the test data obtained.
RESULTS: The coincidence rates of positive and negative results and the total coincidence rate between the evaluated kit and the reference kit were 98.35%, 99.70% and 99.33%, respectively. A sample that showed inconsistent results between the evaluated kit and the reference kit was subjected to confirmation test using the third-party kit. The results demonstrated that the evaluated kit had a sensitivity of 99.17% and a specificity of 100%.
CONCLUSION: Combined detection of HEV antibody (IgG+IgM) in the serum of patients can improve the detection rate of HEV.
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89
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Li W, Sun Q, She R, Wang D, Duan X, Yin J, Ding Y. Experimental infection of Mongolian gerbils by a genotype 4 strain of swine hepatitis E virus. J Med Virol 2009; 81:1591-6. [PMID: 19623666 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
An ideal animal model for hepatitis E virus (HEV) research is still unavailable. To assess the possibility of using Mongolian gerbils as animal model, 28 gerbils were randomly assigned into two groups, 14 for each group. Gerbils in Group 1 were inoculated with a genotype 4 HEV recovered from swine via the intraperitoneal route. Group 2 was used as a negative control and inoculated with normal suspension of swine liver. Sera and feces samples were collected once a week for 7 weeks. Two gerbils from both groups were necropsied weekly, pathological changes were recorded and tissue samples collected for further investigation. Distribution of the virus antigens was determined by immunohistochemical staining. Nested RT-PCR and a commercial ELISA kit were used to confirm the infection. Research results demonstrated that Mongolian gerbils in Group 1 were successfully infected with HEV. Viremia and fecal virus shedding lasted nearly 4 weeks, while the virus could be detected constantly in the liver, and occasionally in the kidneys and spleen as well as the small intestine. Histopathological changes in the liver were present with slight, multifocal, lymphohistiocytic infiltrates in the portal tracts or distributed irregularly throughout the liver. HEV antigens could be detected in the liver and intestine, and were mainly distributed in the nuclei. The results indicate that Mongolian gerbils could be used as an ideal animal model for the study of HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wengui Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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90
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Li L, Zhu Y, Fu H, Wei X, Wang L, Liang J, Ji Y, Tang R, Zhuang H. Full-genome nucleotide sequence and analysis of a Chinese swine hepatitis E virus isolate of genotype 4 identified in the Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region: evidence of zoonotic risk from swine to human in South China. Liver Int 2009; 29:1230-40. [PMID: 19490423 DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-3231.2009.02012.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is one of the leading causes of the enteric-transmitted acute hepatitis. Many studies have found high identities between human and animal HEV isolates using partial sequence comparison analysis. AIMS To determine and phylogenetically analyse the complete genome of the swGX40 isolate from the Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region. METHODS The overlapping fragments of HEV isolate swGX40 were amplified with reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the 5' and 3' ends of viral genome were amplified with rapid amplification of cDNA ends. The PCR products were cloned and sequenced. The sequence and phylogenetic analysis of swGX40 were performed. RESULTS The full genome of the swGX40 strain consisted of 7233 nucleotides, excluding the poly (A) tail of 36 residues. There are three open reading frames (ORFs), encoding 1705, 674 and 114 amino acids (aa) respectively. The full-genomic sequencing showed that the swGX40 strain shared similarity with all known HEV genotype 1, 2 and 3 isolates by 73.4-76.5% and with an identity of 83.1-91.2% among genotype 4 HEV isolates. The partial ORF2 sequencing (249 nt) showed that swGX40 shared a high nucleotide identity of 94 and 97% with the Chinese human strain LZ-105 and the Vietnamese human strain HE-JVN-1 respectively. CONCLUSIONS The swine isolate swGX40 was closely related to the human isolate LZ-105, both of which were collected from Liuzhou, the same district in the Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region. This molecular biological evidence strongly supported the zoonosis hypothesis of hepatitis E.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingjun Li
- Department of Microbiology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
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91
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Inoue J, Ueno Y, Nagasaki F, Akahane T, Fukushima K, Kogure T, Kondo Y, Kakazu E, Tamai K, Kido O, Nakagome Y, Ninomiya M, Obara N, Wakui Y, Takahashi M, Okamoto H, Shimosegawa T. Sporadic acute hepatitis E occurred constantly during the last decade in northeast Japan. J Gastroenterol 2009; 44:329-37. [PMID: 19271116 DOI: 10.1007/s00535-009-0012-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2008] [Accepted: 10/14/2008] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent studies have shown that indigenous hepatitis E virus (HEV) strains cause hepatitis E in industrialized countries. We aimed to clarify the characteristics of HEV infection in sporadic hepatitis patients during the last decade in Miyagi, northeast Japan. METHODS We analyzed 94 serum samples obtained from acute or fulminant hepatitis patients of non-A, non-B, and non-C etiology between 1999 and 2008. Antibody to HEV (anti-HEV) was assayed, and patients who were positive for IgM- and/or IgA-class anti-HEV were diagnosed with hepatitis E. HEV RNA was tested in these patients, and phylogenetic analysis was performed. The occurrence of hepatitis E was compared with that of hepatitis A. RESULTS Eight acute hepatitis patients (8.5%) were diagnosed with hepatitis E, and HEV RNA was detectable in seven patients. Five isolates of HEV were segregated into genotype 3 and the remaining two isolates into genotype 4. The year of the occurrence of hepatitis E was distributed almost equally from 1999 to 2008, whereas the cases of acute hepatitis A (n = 16) have decreased markedly in the last several years. In 2004-2008, the occurrence of hepatitis E was greater than that of hepatitis A (five cases vs. one case). As for seasonality, hepatitis E occurred more frequently from September to December than hepatitis A (five cases vs. four cases), although less frequently from January to April (one case vs. seven cases). CONCLUSION The occurrence of hepatitis E has not decreased during the last decade in northeast Japan, in contrast to hepatitis A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Inoue
- Division of Gastroenterology, Tohoku University Hospital, 1-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8574, Japan
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92
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Zaki MES, Foud MF, Mohamed AF. Value of hepatitis E virus detection by cell culture compared with nested PCR and serological studies by IgM and IgG. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 56:73-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2009.00552.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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93
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Peralta B, Casas M, de Deus N, Martín M, Ortuño A, Pérez-Martín E, Pina S, Mateu E. Anti-HEV antibodies in domestic animal species and rodents from Spain using a genotype 3-based ELISA. Vet Microbiol 2009; 137:66-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2008] [Revised: 12/23/2008] [Accepted: 01/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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94
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Li TC, Suzaki Y, Ami Y, Tsunemitsu H, Miyamura T, Takeda N. Mice are not susceptible to hepatitis E virus infection. J Vet Med Sci 2009; 70:1359-62. [PMID: 19122406 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.70.1359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine whether or not mice are susceptible to hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection, C57BL/6 mice were experimentally infected with genotypes 1, 3 and 4 HEV by intravenous injection. Serum and stool samples were collected and used to detect HEV RNA and anti-HEV antibodies by RT-PCR and ELISA. The virus infection was monitored up to two months after inoculation; however, none of the serum or stool samples was positive for virus replication, demonstrating that C57BL/6 mice were not susceptible to HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Cheng Li
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan.
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95
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Sakano C, Morita Y, Shiono M, Yokota Y, Mokudai T, Sato-Motoi Y, Noda A, Nobusawa T, Sakaniwa H, Nagai A, Kabeya H, Maruyama S, Yamamoto S, Sato H, Kimura H. Prevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in wild boars (Sus scrofa leucomystax) and pigs in Gunma Prefecture, Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2009; 71:21-5. [PMID: 19194072 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.71.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in wild boars and pigs in Gunma Prefecture, Japan, was serologically and genetically examined. The positive detection rates of anti-HEV IgG and HEV RNA in the wild boars were 4.5% (4/89) and 1.1% (1/89), whereas those in the pigs were 74.6% (126/169) and 1.8% (3/169), respectively. The positive rates of anti-HEV IgG and HEV RNA on the 17 pig farms in the present study ranged from 20% to 100%, respectively. One male wild boar approximately 5 years of age was positive for HEV RNA but was negative for anti-HEV IgG. Three pigs from 2 farms were positive for HEV RNA; 2 of these pigs were negative for HEV IgG, and the other was positive. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that all of the HEV ORF1 genes detected in the present study belonged to genotype III. In Gunma Prefecture, HEV is highly prevalent and widespread, and uncooked wild boar and pig meat may have the potential to transmit HEV to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chieko Sakano
- Gunma Prefectural Meat Inspection Laboratory, 305-7 Higoshi, Tamamura, Sawa, Gunma, Japan
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96
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Meng XJ. Hepatitis E virus: animal reservoirs and zoonotic risk. Vet Microbiol 2009; 140:256-65. [PMID: 19361937 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 316] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2008] [Revised: 02/18/2009] [Accepted: 03/06/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a small, non-enveloped, single-strand, positive-sense RNA virus of approximately 7.2kb in size. HEV is classified in the family Hepeviridae consisting of four recognized major genotypes that infect humans and other animals. Genotypes 1 and 2 HEV are restricted to humans and often associated with large outbreaks and epidemics in developing countries with poor sanitation conditions, whereas genotypes 3 and 4 HEV infect humans, pigs and other animal species and are responsible for sporadic cases of hepatitis E in both developing and industrialized countries. The avian HEV associated with Hepatitis-Splenomegaly syndrome in chickens is genetically and antigenically related to mammalian HEV, and likely represents a new genus in the family. There exist three open reading frames in HEV genome: ORF1 encodes non-structural proteins, ORF2 encodes the capsid protein, and the ORF3 encodes a small phosphoprotein. ORF2 and ORF3 are translated from a single bicistronic mRNA, and overlap each other but neither overlaps ORF1. Due to the lack of an efficient cell culture system and a practical animal model for HEV, the mechanisms of HEV replication and pathogenesis are poorly understood. The recent identification and characterization of animal strains of HEV from pigs and chickens and the demonstrated ability of cross-species infection by these animal strains raise potential public health concerns for zoonotic HEV transmission. It has been shown that the genotypes 3 and 4 HEV strains from pigs can infect humans, and vice versa. Accumulating evidence indicated that hepatitis E is a zoonotic disease, and swine and perhaps other animal species are reservoirs for HEV. A vaccine against HEV is not yet available.
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Affiliation(s)
- X J Meng
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg VA, USA.
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97
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Abstract
Hepatitis E is endemic in many developing countries where it causes substantial morbidity. In industrialised countries, it is considered rare, and largely confined to travellers returning from endemic areas. However, there is now a growing body of evidence that challenges this notion. Autochthonous hepatitis E in developed countries is far more common than previously recognised, and might be more common than hepatitis A. Hepatitis E has a predilection for older men in whom it causes substantial morbidity and mortality. The disease has a poor prognosis in the context of pre-existing chronic liver disease, and is frequently misdiagnosed as drug-induced liver injury. The source and route of infection remain uncertain, but it might be a porcine zoonosis. Patients with unexplained hepatitis should be tested for hepatitis E, whatever their age or travel history.
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98
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Caron M, Kazanji M. Hepatitis E virus is highly prevalent among pregnant women in Gabon, central Africa, with different patterns between rural and urban areas. Virol J 2008; 5:158. [PMID: 19102767 PMCID: PMC2628354 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-5-158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2008] [Accepted: 12/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is highly endemic in several African countries with high mortality rate among pregnant women. Nothing is known about the circulation of this virus in central Africa. We evaluated therefore the prevalence of anti-HEV IgG in samples collected from pregnant women living in the five main cities of Gabon, central Africa. We found that 14.1% (119/840) of pregnant women had anti-HEV IgG. The prevalence differed between regions and between age groups. In 391 newly collected samples from the region where the highest prevalence was found, a significant difference (p < 0.05) in seroprevalence was found between rural (6.4%) and urban (13.5%) areas. These data provide evidence of a high prevalence of HEV in Gabon, providing indirect evidence of past contact with this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Caron
- Departement de Virologie, Centre International de Recherches Médicales (CIRMF), BP 769, Franceville, Gabon.
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Genetic characterization of the complete coding regions of genotype 3 hepatitis E virus isolated from Spanish swine herds. Virus Res 2008; 139:111-6. [PMID: 18977254 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2008.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Revised: 09/17/2008] [Accepted: 09/19/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The complete coding regions of five hepatitis E virus isolates of swine origin from two different pig farms and the complete genome sequence of two of these strains were obtained and compared to other full length or partial HEV sequences. Based on the nucleotide sequence, the examined Spanish isolates were 87.1-99.7% similar among them being the closest known strain a Mongolian porcine strain (swMN06-C1056) which shares 84.5-86.1% of the nucleotide sequence, and are also close to other HEV porcine strains from Japan. Two isolates from the same farm presented an 87 nucleotide insertion in the poly-proline hinge unique among all HEV isolates known so far. Comparison with partial HEV sequenced strains indicates that the isolates described in this study form a cluster containing human and porcine HEV strains from Europe, being the only representatives of the subtype 3f that were completely sequenced. Evolutive pressure analysis indicates that microevolution of HEV seems to be driven by negative selection. Further studies should be carried out in order to clarify the HEV origin and evolution.
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100
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Pelosi E, Clarke I. Hepatitis E: a complex and global disease. EMERGING HEALTH THREATS JOURNAL 2008; 1:e8. [PMID: 22460217 PMCID: PMC3167588 DOI: 10.3134/ehtj.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2007] [Revised: 03/12/2008] [Accepted: 04/10/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Thirty years after its discovery, the hepatitis E virus (HEV) continues to represent a major public health problem in developing countries. In developed countries, it has emerged as a significant cause of non-travel-associated acute hepatitis. HEV infects a wide range of mammalian species and a key reservoir worldwide appears to be swine. Genomic sequence similarity between some human HEV genotypes and swine HEV strains has been identified and we know that humans can acquire HEV infection from animals. Although for the most part the clinical course of HEV infection is asymptomatic or mild, significant risk of serious disease exists in pregnant women and those with chronic liver disease. In addition, there are data on the threat of chronic infections in immunocompromised patients. Beyond management of exposure by public health measures, recent data support that active immunisation can prevent hepatitis E, highlighting the need for vaccination programmes. Here we review the current knowledge on HEV, its epidemiology, and the management and prevention of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Pelosi
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, Health Protection Agency, Southeast Regional Laboratory, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK
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