The endocannabinoid system in targeting inflammatory neurodegenerative diseases

From Phytocannabinoids to Cannabinoid Receptors and Endocannabinoids: Pleiotropic Physiological and Pathological Roles Through Complex Pharmacology

Apart from having been used and misused for at least four millennia for, among others, recreational and medicinal purposes, the cannabis plant and its most peculiar chemical components, the plant cannabinoids (phytocannabinoids), have the merit to have led humanity to discover one of the most intriguing and pleiotropic endogenous signaling systems, the endocannabinoid system (ECS). This review article aims to describe and critically discuss, in the most comprehensive possible manner, the multifaceted aspects of 1) the pharmacology and potential impact on mammalian physiology of all major phytocannabinoids, and not only of the most famous one Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, and 2) the adaptive pro-homeostatic physiological, or maladaptive pathological, roles of the ECS in mammalian cells, tissues, and organs. In doing so, we have respected the chronological order of the milestones of the millennial route from medicinal/recreational cannabis to the ECS and beyond, as it is now clear that some of the early steps in this long path, which were originally neglected, are becoming important again. The emerging picture is rather complex, but still supports the belief that more important discoveries on human physiology, and new therapies, might come in the future from new knowledge in this field.

URB597 inhibits oxidative stress induced by alcohol binging in the prefrontal cortex of adolescent rats

Heavy episodic drinking (binging), which is highly prevalent among teenagers, results in oxidative damage. Because the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is not completely mature in adolescents, this brain region may be more vulnerable to the effects of alcohol during adolescence. As endocannabinoids may protect the immature PFC from the harmful effects of high doses of alcohol, this study investigated the effect of the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor URB597 on oxidative stress induced by acute or chronic binge alcohol intake in adolescent rats. At 40min after intraperitoneal pre-treatment with URB597 (0.3mg/kg) or vehicle (Veh), ethanol (EtOH; 3 or 6g/kg, intragastrically) or distilled water (DW) was administered in 3 consecutive sessions (acute binging) or 3 consecutive sessions over 4 weeks (chronic binging). Oxidative stress in PFC slices in situ was measured by dihydroethidium fluorescence staining. At the higher EtOH dose (6g/kg), pre-treatment with URB597 significantly reduced (p<0.01) the production of superoxide anions in the PFC after acute (42.8% decrease) and chronic binge EtOH consumption (44.9% decrease) compared with pre-treatment with Veh. As URB597 decreases anandamide metabolism, this evidence shows an antioxidant effect of endocannabinoids to suppress acute and chronic binge alcohol intake-induced oxidative stress in the PFC of adolescent rats.

Blocking of fatty acid amide hydrolase activity with PF-04457845 in human brain: a positron emission tomography study with the novel radioligand [(11)C]CURB

Positron emission tomography with [(11)C]CURB was recently developed to quantify fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), the enzyme responsible for hydrolyzing the endocannabinoid anandamide. This study investigated the test-retest reliability of [(11)C]CURB as well as its in vivo specificity and the validity of the kinetic model by using the highly specific FAAH inhibitor, PF-04457845. Five healthy volunteers completed test-retest [(11)C]CURB scans 1 to 2 months apart and six subjects completed baseline and blocking scans on the same day after PF-04457845 (p.o.) administration (1, 4, or 20 mg; n=2 each). The composite parameter λk3 (an index of FAAH activity, λ=K1/k2) was estimated using an irreversible two-tissue compartment model with plasma input function. There were no clinically observable responses to oral PF-04457845 or [(11)C]CURB injection. Oral administration of PF-04457845 reduced [(11)C]CURB binding to a homogeneous level at all three doses, with λk3 values decreased by ⩾91%. Excellent reproducibility and good reliability (test-retest variability=9%; intraclass correlation coefficient=0.79) were observed across all regions of interest investigated. Our findings suggest that λk3/[(11)C]CURB is a reliable, highly sensitive, and selective tool to measure FAAH activity in human brain in vivo. Moreover, PF-04457845 is a highly potent FAAH inhibitor (>95% inhibition at 1 mg) in living human brain.

Endocannabinoids drive the acquisition of an alternative phenotype in microglia

The ability of microglia to acquire diverse states of activation, or phenotypes, reflects different features that are determinant for their contribution to homeostasis in the adult CNS, and their activity in neuroinflammation, repair or immunomodulation. Despite the widely reported immunomodulatory effects of cannabinoids in both the peripheral immune system and the CNS, less is known about how the endocannabinoid signaling system (eCBSS) influence the microglial phenotype. The general aim of the present study was to investigate the role of endocannabinoids in microglia polarization by using microglia cell cultures. We show that alternative microglia (M2a) and acquired deactivated microglia (M2c) exhibit changes in the eCB machinery that favor the selective synthesis of 2-AG and AEA, respectively. Once released, these eCBs might be able to act through CB1 and/or CB2 receptors in order to influence the acquisition of an M2 phenotype. We present three lines of evidence that the eCBSS is critical for the acquisition of the M2 phenotype: (i) M2 polarization occurs on exposure to the two main endocannabinoids 2-AG and AEA in microglia cultures; (ii) cannabinoid receptor antagonists block M2 polarization; and (iii) M2 polarization is dampened in microglia from CB2 receptor knockout mice. Taken together, these results indicate the interest of eCBSS for the regulation of microglial activation in normal and pathological conditions.

Lipopolysaccharides upregulate hepcidin in neuron via microglia and the IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway

Neuroinflammation is closely related to brain iron homeostasis. Our previous study demonstrated that lipopolysaccharides (LPS) can regulate expression of iron-regulatory peptide hepcidin; however, the mechanism is undefined. Here, we demonstrated that intracerebroventricular injection of LPS in rat brain upregulated hepcidin and downregulated ferroportin 1 in the cortex and substantia nigra. LPS increased hepcidin expression in neurons only when they were co-cultured with BV-2 microglia, and the upregulation was suppressed by IL-6 neutralizing antibody in vitro. In addition, IL-6 but not IL-1α, IL-1β, or tumor necrosis factor-alpha increased hepcidin expression and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) phosphorylation in cortical neurons and MES23.5 dopaminergic neurons. These effects were blocked by the STAT3 inhibitor, stattic. Our results show that neurons are the major source of increased hepcidin expression in response to LPS challenge but microglia play a key mediator role by releasing IL-6 and recruiting the STAT3 pathway. We conclude that LPS upregulates hepcidin expression in neurons via microglia and the IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway.

WIN 55,212-2, agonist of cannabinoid receptors, prevents amyloid β1-42 effects on astrocytes in primary culture

Alzheimer´s disease (AD), a neurodegenerative illness involving synaptic dysfunction with extracellular accumulation of Aβ_1-42 toxic peptide, glial activation, inflammatory response and oxidative stress, can lead to neuronal death. Endogenous cannabinoid system is implicated in physiological and physiopathological events in central nervous system (CNS), and changes in this system are related to many human diseases, including AD. However, studies on the effects of cannabinoids on astrocytes functions are scarce. In primary cultured astrocytes we studied cellular viability using MTT assay. Inflammatory and oxidative stress mediators were determined by ELISA and Western-blot techniques both in the presence and absence of Aβ_1-42 peptide. Effects of WIN 55,212-2 (a synthetic cannabinoid) on cell viability, inflammatory mediators and oxidative stress were also determined. Aβ_1-42 diminished astrocytes viability, increased TNF-α and IL-1β levels and p-65, COX-2 and iNOS protein expression while decreased PPAR-γ and antioxidant enzyme Cu/Zn SOD. WIN 55,212-2 pretreatment prevents all effects elicited by Aβ_1-42. Furthermore, cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2 also increased cell viability and PPAR-γ expression in control astrocytes. In conclusion cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2 increases cell viability and anti-inflammatory response in cultured astrocytes. Moreover, WIN 55,212-2 increases expression of anti-oxidant Cu/Zn SOD and is able to prevent inflammation induced by Aβ_1-42 in cultured astrocytes. Further studies would be needed to assess the possible beneficial effects of cannabinoids in Alzheimer's disease patients.

Promising cannabinoid-based therapies for Parkinson's disease: motor symptoms to neuroprotection

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a slow insidious neurological disorder characterized by a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain. Although several recent preclinical advances have proposed to treat PD, there is hardly any clinically proved new therapeutic for its cure. Increasing evidence suggests a prominent modulatory function of the cannabinoid signaling system in the basal ganglia. Hence, use of cannabinoids as a new therapeutic target has been recommended as a promising therapy for PD. The elements of the endocannabinoid system are highly expressed in the neural circuit of basal ganglia wherein they bidirectionally interact with dopaminergic, glutamatergic, and GABAergic signaling systems. As the cannabinoid signaling system undergoes a biphasic pattern of change during progression of PD, it explains the motor inhibition typically observed in patients with PD. Cannabinoid agonists such as WIN-55,212-2 have been demonstrated experimentally as neuroprotective agents in PD, with respect to their ability to suppress excitotoxicity, glial activation, and oxidative injury that causes degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. Additional benefits provided by cannabinoid related compounds including CE-178253, oleoylethanolamide, nabilone and HU-210 have been reported to possess efficacy against bradykinesia and levodopa-induced dyskinesia in PD. Despite promising preclinical studies for PD, use of cannabinoids has not been studied extensively at the clinical level. In this review, we reassess the existing evidence suggesting involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the cause, symptomatology, and treatment of PD. We will try to identify future threads of research that will help in the understanding of the potential therapeutic benefits of the cannabinoid system for treating PD.

Endocannabinoids in synaptic plasticity and neuroprotection

Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are endogenous lipid mediators involved in a variety of physiological, pharmacological, and pathological processes. While activation of the eCB system primarily induces inhibitory effects on both GABAergic and glutamatergic synaptic transmission and plasticity through acting on presynaptically expressed CB1 receptors in the brain, accumulated information suggests that eCB signaling is also capable of facilitating or potentiating excitatory synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. Recent studies show that a long-lasting potentiation of excitatory synaptic transmission at Schaffer collateral (SC)-CA1 synapses is induced by spatiotemporally primed inputs, accompanying with a long-term depression of inhibitory synaptic transmission (I-LTD) in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. This input timing-dependent long-lasting synaptic potentiation at SC-CA1 synapses is mediated by 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) signaling triggered by activation of postsynaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), and a concurrent rise in intracellular Ca(2+). Emerging evidence now also indicates that 2-AG is an important signaling mediator keeping brain homeostasis by exerting its anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in response to harmful insults through CB1/2 receptor-dependent and/or -independent mechanisms. Activation of the nuclear receptor protein peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ apparently is one of the important mechanisms in resolving neuroinflammation and protecting neurons produced by 2-AG signaling. Thus, the information summarized in this review suggests that the role of eCB signaling in maintaining integrity of brain function is greater than what we thought previously.

Endocannabinoid signalling and the deteriorating brain

Ageing is characterized by the progressive impairment of physiological functions and increased risk of developing debilitating disorders, including chronic inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. These disorders have common molecular mechanisms that can be targeted therapeutically. In the wake of the approval of the first cannabinoid-based drug for the symptomatic treatment of multiple sclerosis, we examine how endocannabinoid (eCB) signalling controls--and is affected by--normal ageing and neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative disorders. We propose a conceptual framework linking eCB signalling to the control of the cellular and molecular hallmarks of these processes, and categorize the key components of endocannabinoid signalling that may serve as targets for novel therapeutics.

Synaptic and cognitive improvements by inhibition of 2-AG metabolism are through upregulation of microRNA-188-3p in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Abnormal accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) is the major neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the mechanisms underlying aberrant Aβ formation in AD remain unclear. We showed previously that inhibition of monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), the primary enzyme that metabolizes the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) in the brain, robustly reduces Aβ by inhibiting β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), a key enzyme responsible for Aβ formation. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for suppression of BACE1 by inhibition of 2-AG metabolism are largely unknown. We demonstrate here that expression of the noncoding small RNA miR-188-3p that targets BACE1 was significantly downregulated both in the brains of AD humans and APP transgenic (TG) mice, a mouse model of AD. The downregulated miR-188-3p expression was restored by MAGL inhibition. Overexpression of miR-188-3p in the hippocampus reduced BACE1, Aβ, and neuroinflammation and prevented deteriorations in hippocampal basal synaptic transmission, long-term potentiation, spatial learning, and memory in TG mice. 2-AG-induced suppression of BACE1 was prevented by miR-188-3p loss of function. Moreover, miR-188-3p expression was upregulated by 2-AG or peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) agonists and suppressed by PPARγ antagonism or NF-κB activation. Reducing Aβ and neuroinflammation by MAGL inhibition was occluded by PPARγ antagonism. In addition, BACE1 suppression by 2-AG and PPARγ activation was eliminated by knockdown of NF-κB. Our study provides a novel molecular mechanism underlying improved synaptic and cognitive function in TG mice by 2-AG signaling, which upregulates miR-188-3p expression through PPARγ and NF-κB signaling pathway, resulting in suppressions of BACE1 expression and Aβ formation.

Ligand-based homology modelling of the human CB2 receptor SR144528 antagonist binding site: a computational approach to explore the 1,5-diaryl pyrazole scaffold

SR144528 docking mode into the LBHM of the human CB₂ receptor antagonist binding site.

Comorbid rat model of ischemia and β-amyloid toxicity: striatal and cortical degeneration

Levels of cerebral amyloid, presumably β-amyloid (Abeta), toxicity and the incidence of cortical and subcortical ischemia increases with age. However, little is known about the severe pathological condition and dementia that occur as a result of the comorbid occurrence of this vascular risk factor and Abeta toxicity. Clinical studies have indicated that small ischemic lesions in the striatum are particularly important in generating dementia in combination with minor amyloid lesions. These cognitive deficits are highly likely to be caused by changes in the cortex. In this study, we examined the viability and morphological changes in microglial and neuronal cells, gap junction proteins (connexin43) and neuritic/axonal retraction (Fer Kinase) in the striatum and cerebral cortex using a comorbid rat model of striatal injections of endothelin-1 (ET1) and Abeta toxicity. The results demonstrated ventricular enlargement, striatal atrophy, substantial increases in β-amyloid, ramified microglia and increases in neuritic retraction in the combined models of stroke and Abeta toxicity. Changes in connexin43 occurred equally in both groups of Abeta-treated rats, with and without focal ischemia. Although previous behavioral tests demonstrated impairment in memory and learning, the visual discrimination radial maze task did not show significant difference, suggesting the cognitive impairment in these models is not related to damage to the dorsolateral striatum. These results suggest an insight into the relationship between cortical/striatal atrophy, pathology and functional impairment.

Changes in CB(1) and CB(2) receptors in the post-mortem cerebellum of humans affected by spinocerebellar ataxias

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a family of chronic progressive neurodegenerative diseases, clinically and genetically heterogeneous, characterized by loss of balance and motor coordination due to degeneration of the cerebellum and its afferent and efferent connections. Unlike other motor disorders, the possible role of changes in the endocannabinoid system in the pathogenesis of SCAs has not been investigated.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The status of cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1 ) and cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2 ) receptors in the post-mortem cerebellum of SCA patients and controls was investigated using immunohistochemical procedures.

KEY RESULTS

Immunoreactivity for the CB1 receptor, and also for the CB2 receptor, was found in the granular layer, Purkinje cells, neurons of the dentate nucleus and areas of white matter in the cerebellum of SCA patients at levels notably higher than controls. Double-labelling procedures demonstrated co-localization of CB1 and, in particular, CB2 receptors with calbindin, supporting the presence of these receptors in Purkinje neurons. Both receptors also co-localized with Iba-1 and glial fibrillary acidic protein in the granular layer and white matter areas, indicating that they are present in microglia and astrocytes respectively.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results demonstrate that CB1 and CB2 receptor levels are significantly altered in the cerebellum of SCA patients. Their identification in Purkinje neurons, which are the main cells affected in SCAs, as well as the changes they experienced, suggest that alterations in endocannabinoid receptors may be related to the pathogenesis of SCAs. Therefore, the endocannabinoid system could provide potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of SCAs and its progression.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Cannabinoids 2013. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2014.171.issue-6.

Δ9-THC-caused synaptic and memory impairments are mediated through COX-2 signaling

Marijuana has been used for thousands of years as a treatment for medical conditions. However, untoward side effects limit its medical value. Here, we show that synaptic and cognitive impairments following repeated exposure to Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) are associated with the induction of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an inducible enzyme that converts arachidonic acid to prostanoids in the brain. COX-2 induction by Δ(9)-THC is mediated via CB1 receptor-coupled G protein βγ subunits. Pharmacological or genetic inhibition of COX-2 blocks downregulation and internalization of glutamate receptor subunits and alterations of the dendritic spine density of hippocampal neurons induced by repeated Δ(9)-THC exposures. Ablation of COX-2 also eliminates Δ(9)-THC-impaired hippocampal long-term synaptic plasticity, working, and fear memories. Importantly, the beneficial effects of decreasing β-amyloid plaques and neurodegeneration by Δ(9)-THC in Alzheimer's disease animals are retained in the presence of COX-2 inhibition. These results suggest that the applicability of medical marijuana would be broadened by concurrent inhibition of COX-2.

A potential target for organophosphate insecticides leading to spermatotoxicity

Organophosphate (OP) insecticides as an anticholinesterase also act on the diverse serine hydrolase targets, thereby revealing secondary or unexpected toxic effects including male reproductive toxicity. The present investigation detects a possible target molecule(s) for OP-induced spermatotoxicity (sperm deformity, underdevelopment, and reduced motility) from a chemical standpoint. The activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) approach with a phosphonofluoridate fluorescent probe pinpointed the molecular target for fenitrothion (FNT, a major OP insecticide) oxon (bioactive metabolite of FNT) in the mouse testicular membrane proteome, i.e., FNT oxon phosphorylates the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), which plays pivotal roles in spermatogenesis and sperm motility acquirement. Subsequently, mice were treated orally with vehicle or FNT for 10 days, and FAAH activity in testis or epididymis cauda was markedly reduced by the subacute exposure. ABPP analysis revealed that FAAH was selectively inhibited among the FNT-treated testicular membrane proteome. Accordingly, FAAH is a potential target for OP-elicited spermatotoxicity.

Substrate-selective COX-2 inhibition decreases anxiety via endocannabinoid activation

Augmentation of endogenous cannabinoid (eCB) signaling represents an emerging approach to the treatment of affective disorders. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) oxygenates arachidonic acid to form prostaglandins, but also inactivates eCBs in vitro. However, the viability of COX-2 as a therapeutic target for in vivo eCB augmentation has not been explored. Using medicinal chemistry and in vivo analytical and behavioral pharmacological approaches, we found that COX-2 is important for the regulation of eCB levels in vivo. We used a pharmacological strategy involving substrate-selective inhibition of COX-2 to augment eCB signaling without affecting related non-eCB lipids or prostaglandin synthesis. Behaviorally, substrate-selective inhibition of COX-2 reduced anxiety-like behaviors in mice via increased eCB signaling. Our data suggest a key role for COX-2 in the regulation of eCB signaling and indicate that substrate-selective pharmacology represents a viable approach for eCB augmentation with broad therapeutic potential.

Modulating the endocannabinoid system in human health and disease--successes and failures

The discovery of the endocannabinoid system, comprising the G-protein coupled cannabinoid 1 and 2 receptors (CB1/2), their endogenous lipid ligands or endocannabinoids, and synthetic and metabolizing enzymes, has triggered an avalanche of experimental studies implicating the endocannabinoid system in a growing number of physiological/pathological functions. These studies have also suggested that modulating the activity of the endocannabinoid system holds therapeutic promise for a broad range of diseases, including neurodegenerative, cardiovascular and inflammatory disorders; obesity/metabolic syndrome; cachexia; chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting; and tissue injury and pain, amongst others. However, clinical trials with globally acting CB1 antagonists in obesity/metabolic syndrome, and other studies with peripherally-restricted CB1/2 agonists and inhibitors of the endocannabinoid metabolizing enzyme in pain, have introduced unexpected complexities, suggesting that a better understanding of the pathophysiological role of the endocannabinoid system is required to devise clinically successful treatment strategies.

Monoacylglycerol lipase is a therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia among older people. There are no effective medications currently available to prevent and treat AD and halt disease progression. Monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is the primary enzyme metabolizing the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol in the brain. We show here that inactivation of MAGL robustly suppressed production and accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) associated with reduced expression of β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) in a mouse model of AD. MAGL inhibition also prevented neuroinflammation, decreased neurodegeneration, maintained integrity of hippocampal synaptic structure and function, and improved long-term synaptic plasticity, spatial learning, and memory in AD animals. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects produced by MAGL inhibition remain to be determined, our results suggest that MAGL, which regulates endocannabinoid and prostaglandin signaling, contributes to pathogenesis and neuropathology of AD, and thus is a promising therapeutic target for the prevention and treatment of AD.

Rat and human fatty acid amide hydrolases: overt similarities and hidden differences

Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is a membrane protein that plays a relevant role in the metabolism of fatty acid amides and esters. It degrades important neurotransmitters such as oleamide and anandamide, and it has been involved in a number of human pathological conditions, representing therefore a valuable target for biochemical and pharmacological research. In this study, we have investigated in vitro the structure-function relationship of rat and human FAAHs. In particular circular dichroism, fluorescence spectroscopy and light scattering measurements have been performed, in order to characterize the structural features of the two proteins, both in the presence and absence of the irreversible inhibitor methoxyarachidonyl-fluorophosphonate. The results demonstrate that the structural dynamics of the two FAAHs are different, despite their high sequence homology and overall similarity in temperature-dependence. Additionally, membrane binding and kinetic assays of both FAAHs indicate that also the functional properties of the two enzymes are different in their interaction with lipid bilayers and with exogenous inhibitors. These findings suggest that pre-clinical studies of FAAH-dependent human diseases based only on animal models should be interpreted with caution, and that the efficacy of new drugs targeted to FAAH should be tested in vitro, on both rat and human enzymes.

An amyloid β42-dependent deficit in anandamide mobilization is associated with cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease

The endocannabinoids and their attending cannabinoid (CB)(1) receptors have been implicated in the control of cognition, but their possible roles in dementias are still unclear. In the present study, we used liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry to conduct an endocannabinoid-targeted lipidomic analysis of postmortem brain samples from 38 Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients and 17 control subjects, matched for age and postmortem interval. The analysis revealed that midfrontal and temporal cortex tissue from AD patients contains, relative to control subjects, significantly lower levels of the endocannabinoid anandamide and its precursor 1-stearoyl, 2-docosahexaenoyl-sn-glycero-phosphoethanolamine-N-arachidonoyl (NArPE). No such difference was observed with the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol or 15 additional lipid species. In AD patients, but not in control subjects, statistically detectable positive correlations were found between (1) anandamide content in midfrontal cortex and scores of the Kendrick's Digit Copy test (p = 0.004, r = 0.81; n = 10), which measures speed of information processing; and (2) anandamide content in temporal cortex and scores of the Boston Naming test (p = 0.027, r = 0.52; n = 18), which assesses language facility. Furthermore, anandamide and NArPE levels in midfrontal cortex of the study subjects inversely correlated with levels of the neurotoxic amyloid peptide, amyloid β-protein (Aβ)(42), while showing no association with Aβ(40) levels, amyloid plaque load or tau protein phosphorylation. Finally, high endogenous levels of Aβ(42) in Swedish mutant form of amyloid precursor protein (APP(SWE))/Neuro-2a cells directly reduced anandamide and NArPE concentrations in cells lysates. The results suggest that an Aβ(42)-dependent impairment in brain anandamide mobilization contributes to cognitive dysfunction in AD.

Cannabinoids and monoamine neurotransmission with focus on monoamine oxidase

Progress in understanding the mechanisms of action of cannabinoids was made after discovery of cannabinoid receptors and finding their endogenous ligands. New findings are obtained using both endogenous cannabinoids and plant or synthetic cannabinoids. Activation of cannabinoid receptors on synaptic terminals results in regulation of ion channels, neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Neuromodulation of synapses by cannabinoids is proving to have a wide range of functional effects, making them potential targets as medical preparations in a variety of illnesses, including some neurodegenerative and mental disorders. Brain monoamines are involved in many of the same processes affected by neuropsychiatric disorders and by different psychotropic drugs, including cannabinoids. Basic information is summarized in the paper about mechanisms of action of cannabinoids on monoaminergic systems, with a view to inhibition of monoamine oxidase.

Design, synthesis, and pharmacological characterization of indol-3-ylacetamides, indol-3-yloxoacetamides, and indol-3-ylcarboxamides: potent and selective CB2 cannabinoid receptor inverse agonists

In our search for new cannabinoid receptor modulators, we describe herein the design and synthesis of three sets of indole-based ligands characterized by an acetamide, oxalylamide, or carboxamide chain, respectively. Most of the compounds showed affinity for CB2 receptors in the nanomolar range, with K(i) values spanning 3 orders of magnitude (377-0.37 nM), and moderate to good selectivity over CB1 receptors. Their in vitro functional activity as inverse agonists was confirmed in vivo in the formalin test of acute peripheral and inflammatory pain in mice, in which compounds 10a and 11e proved to be able to reverse the effect of the CB2 selective agonist COR167.

Impact of embedded endocannabinoids and their oxygenation by lipoxygenase on membrane properties

N-Arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol are the best characterized endocannabinoids. Their biological activity is subjected to metabolic control whereby a dynamic equilibrium among biosynthetic, catabolic, and oxidative pathways drives their intracellular concentrations. In particular, lipoxygenases can generate hydroperoxy derivatives of endocannabinoids, endowed with distinct activities within cells. The in vivo interaction between lipoxygenases and endocannabinoids is likely to occur within cell membranes; thus, we sought to ascertain whether a prototypical enzyme like soybean (Glycine max) 15-lipoxygenase-1 is able to oxygenate endocannabinoids embedded in synthetic vesicles and how these substances could affect the binding ability of the enzyme to different lipid bilayers. We show that (i) embedded endocannabinoids increase membrane fluidity; (ii) 15-lipoxygenase-1 preferentially binds to endocannabinoid-containing bilayers; and that (iii) 15-lipoxygenase-1 oxidizes embedded endocannabinoids and thus reduces fluidity and local hydration of membrane lipids. Together, the present findings reveal further complexity in the regulation of endocannabinoid signaling within the central nervous system, disclosing novel control by oxidative pathways.

Effects of palmitoylation of Cys(415) in helix 8 of the CB(1) cannabinoid receptor on membrane localization and signalling

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The CB(1) cannabinoid receptor is regulated by its association with membrane microdomains such as lipid rafts. Here, we investigated the role of palmitoylation of the CB(1) receptor by analysing the functional consequences of site-specific mutation of Cys(415) , the likely site of palmitoylation at the end of helix 8, in terms of membrane association, raft targeting and signalling.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The palmitoylation state of CB(1) receptors in rat forebrain was assessed by depalmitoylation/repalmitoylation experiments. Cys(415) was replaced with alanine by site-directed mutagenesis. Green fluorescence protein chimeras of both wild-type and mutant receptors were transiently expressed and functionally characterized in SH-SY5Y cells and HEK-293 cells by means of confocal microscopy, cytofluorimetry and competitive binding assays. Confocal fluorescence recovery after photobleaching was used to assess receptor membrane dynamics, whereas signalling activity was assessed by [(35) S]GTPγS, cAMP and co-immunoprecipitation assays.

KEY RESULTS

Endogenous CB(1) receptors in rat brain were palmitoylated. Mutation of Cys(415) prevented the palmitoylation of the receptor in transfected cells and reduced its recruitment to plasma membrane and lipid rafts; it also increased protein diffusional mobility. The same mutation markedly reduced the functional coupling of CB(1) receptors with G-proteins and adenylyl cyclase, whereas depalmitoylation abolished receptor association with a specific subset of G-proteins.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

CB(1) receptors were post-translationally modified by palmitoylation. Mutation of Cys(415) provides a receptor that is functionally impaired in terms of membrane targeting and signalling.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Cannabinoids in Biology and Medicine. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2012.165.issue-8. To view Part I of Cannabinoids in Biology and Medicine visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2011.163.issue-7.

The endocannabinoid system: an overview

Upon the identification of anandamide (AEA) in the porcine brain, numerous studies contributed to the current state of knowledge regarding all elements that form the “endocannabinoid system (ECS).”How this complex system of receptors, ligands, and enzymes is integrated in helping to regulate fundamental processes at level of central nervous and peripheral systems and how its regulation and dysregulation might counteract disturbances of such functions, is nowadays still under investigation. However, the most recent advances on the physiological distribution and functional role of ECS allowed the progress of various research tools aimed at the therapeutic exploitation of endocannabinoid (eCB) signaling, as well as the development of novel drugs with pharmacological advantages. Here, we shall briefly overview the metabolic and signal transduction pathways of the main eCBs representatives, AEA, and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), and we will discuss the therapeutic potential of new ECS-oriented drugs.

Substance Abuse, Hepatitis C, and Aging in HIV: Common Cofactors that Contribute to Neurobehavioral Disturbances

Although the prevalence of neurocognitive disturbances among individuals with HIV has decreased in recent years, rates of impairment still remain high. This review presents findings from comorbid conditions that may contribute to further neurocognitive impairments in this already vulnerable population. We will focus on three co-factors that have received substantial attention in the neuroAIDS literature: drug use, hepatitis C co-infection (HCV), and aging. All three conditions commonly co-occur with HIV and likely interact with HIV in complex ways. Collectively, the extant literature suggests that drug use, HCV, and aging serve to worsen the neurocognitive profile of HIV through several overlapping mechanisms. A better understanding of how specific comorbidities interact with HIV may reveal specific phenotypes of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder that may aid in the development of more targeted behavioral and pharmacological treatment efforts.

Cannabinoid receptor type 1 protects nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons against MPTP neurotoxicity by inhibiting microglial activation

This study examined whether the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB(1)) receptor contributes to the survival of nigrostriatal dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model of Parkinson's disease. MPTP induced significant loss of nigrostriatal DA neurons and microglial activation in the substantia nigra (SN), visualized with tyrosine hydroxylase or macrophage Ag complex-1 immunohistochemistry. Real-time PCR, ELISA, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry disclosed upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines, activation of microglial NADPH oxidase, and subsequent reactive oxygen species production and oxidative damage of DNA and proteins in MPTP-treated SN, resulting in degeneration of DA neurons. Conversely, treatment with nonselective cannabinoid receptor agonists (WIN55,212-2 and HU210) led to increased survival of DA neurons in the SN, their fibers and dopamine levels in the striatum, and improved motor function. This neuroprotection by cannabinoids was accompanied by suppression of NADPH oxidase reactive oxygen species production and reduced expression of proinflammatory cytokines from activated microglia. Interestingly, cannabinoids protected DA neurons against 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridinium neurotoxicity in cocultures of mesencephalic neurons and microglia, but not in neuron-enriched mesencephalic cultures devoid of microglia. The observed neuroprotection and inhibition of microglial activation were reversed upon treatment with CB(1) receptor selective antagonists AM251 and/or SR14,716A, confirming the involvement of the CB(1) receptor. The present in vivo and in vitro findings clearly indicate that the CB(1) receptor possesses anti-inflammatory properties and inhibits microglia-mediated oxidative stress. Our results collectively suggest that the cannabinoid system is beneficial for the treatment of Parkinson's disease and other disorders associated with neuroinflammation and microglia-derived oxidative damage.

Lysophosphatidylinositol causes neurite retraction via GPR55, G13 and RhoA in PC12 cells

GPR55 was recently identified as a putative receptor for certain cannabinoids, and lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI). Recently, the role of cannabinoids as GPR55 agonists has been disputed by a number of reports, in part, because studies investigating GPR55 often utilized overexpression systems, such as the GPR55-overexpressing HEK293 cells, which make it difficult to deduce the physiological role of endogenous GPR55. In the present study, we found that PC12 cells, a neural model cell line, express endogenous GPR55, and by using these cells, we were able to examine the role of endogenous GPR55. Although GPR55 mRNA and protein were expressed in PC12 cells, neither CB₁ nor CB₂ mRNA was expressed in these cells. GPR55 was predominantly localized on the plasma membrane in undifferentiated PC12 cells. However, GPR55 was also localized in the growth cones or the ruffled border in differentiated PC12 cells, suggesting a potential role for GPR55 in the regulation of neurite elongation. LPI increased intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration and RhoA activity, and induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation, whereas endogenous and synthetic cannabinoids did not, thereby suggesting that cannabinoids are not GPR55 agonists. LPI also caused neurite retraction in a time-dependent manner accompanied by the loss of neurofilament light chain and redistribution of actin in PC12 cells differentiated by NGF. This LPI-induced neurite retraction was found to be G_q-independent and G₁₃-dependent. Furthermore, inactivation of RhoA function via C3 toxin and GPR55 siRNA knockdown prevented LPI-induced neurite retraction. These results suggest that LPI, and not cannabinoids, causes neurite retraction in differentiated PC12 cells via a GPR55, G₁₃ and RhoA signaling pathway.

Inhibition of COX-2 expression by endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol is mediated via PPAR-γ

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Endocannabinoids have both anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties against harmful stimuli. We previously demonstrated that the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) protects hippocampal neurons by limiting the inflammatory response via a CB(1) receptor-dependent MAPK/NF-κB signalling pathway. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether PPARγ, an important nuclear receptor, mediates 2-AG-induced inhibition of NF-κB phosphorylation and COX-2 expression, and COX-2-enhanced miniature spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs).

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

By using a whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiological recording technique and immunoblot analysis, we determined mEPSCs, expression of COX-2 and PPARγ, and phosphorylation of NF-kB in mouse hippocampal neurons in culture.

KEY RESULTS

Exogenous and endogenous 2-AG-produced suppressions of NF-κB-p65 phosphorylation, COX-2 expression and excitatory synaptic transmission in response to pro-inflammatory interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and LPS were inhibited by GW9662, a selective PPARγ antagonist, in hippocampal neurons in culture. PPARγ agonists 15-deoxy-Δ(12,14) -prostaglandin J(2) (15d-PGJ(2)) and rosiglitazone mimicked the effects of 2-AG on NF-κB-p65 phosphorylation, COX-2 expression and mEPSCs, and these effects were eliminated by antagonism of PPARγ. Moreover, exogenous application of 2-AG or elevation of endogenous 2-AG by inhibiting its hydrolysis with URB602 or JZL184, selective inhibitors of monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), prevented the IL-1β- and LPS-induced reduction of PPARγ expression. The 2-AG restoration of the reduced PPARγ expression was blocked or attenuated by pharmacological or genetic inhibition of the CB(1) receptor.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results suggest that CB(1) receptor-dependent PPARγ expression is an important and novel signalling pathway in endocannabinoid 2-AG-produced resolution of neuroinflammation in response to pro-inflammatory insults.

Impact of HIV and a history of marijuana dependence on procedural learning among individuals with a history of substance dependence

Marijuana (MJ) use and HIV infection are both associated with neurocognitive deficits, yet there is little research to date examining their interactions, specifically how they pertain to procedural learning (PL). We examined a sample of 86 individuals with a history of dependence for multiple substances who underwent a comprehensive evaluation including measures of mental health, substance use history, and three measures of PL: the photoelectric Rotary Pursuit Task (RPT), the Star Mirror Tracing Task (SMT), and the Weather Prediction Task (WPT). We found that a positive HIV serostatus and a history of marijuana dependence were both independently associated with overall poorer performance on the SMT and RPT in this sample of individuals with a history of dependence for multiple substances. Rate of improvement across trial blocks did not differ as a function of HIV serostatus or history of marijuana dependence. Although we found no significant HIV × MJ interaction for any of the PL tasks, we did observe evidence of additive negative effects from HIV and a history of marijuana dependence on overall performance on the SMT and RPT, but not the WPT. The findings suggest that complex motor skills are adversely affected among abstinent polysubstance users with a history of marijuana dependence and that such deficits are compounded by HIV.

Role of CB1 cannabinoid receptors on GABAergic neurons in brain aging

Brain aging is associated with cognitive decline that is accompanied by progressive neuroinflammatory changes. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is involved in the regulation of glial activity and influences the progression of age-related learning and memory deficits. Mice lacking the Cnr1 gene (Cnr1(-/-)), which encodes the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1), showed an accelerated age-dependent deficit in spatial learning accompanied by a loss of principal neurons in the hippocampus. The age-dependent decrease in neuronal numbers in Cnr1(-/-) mice was not related to decreased neurogenesis or to epileptic seizures. However, enhanced neuroinflammation characterized by an increased density of astrocytes and activated microglia as well as an enhanced expression of the inflammatory cytokine IL-6 during aging was present in the hippocampus of Cnr1(-/-) mice. The ongoing process of pyramidal cell degeneration and neuroinflammation can exacerbate each other and both contribute to the cognitive deficits. Deletion of CB1 receptors from the forebrain GABAergic, but not from the glutamatergic neurons, led to a similar neuronal loss and increased neuroinflammation in the hippocampus as observed in animals lacking CB1 receptors in all cells. Our results suggest that CB1 receptor activity on hippocampal GABAergic neurons protects against age-dependent cognitive decline by reducing pyramidal cell degeneration and neuroinflammation.

Is lipid signaling through cannabinoid 2 receptors part of a protective system?

The mammalian body has a highly developed immune system which guards against continuous invading protein attacks and aims at preventing, attenuating or repairing the inflicted damage. It is conceivable that through evolution analogous biological protective systems have been evolved against non-protein attacks. There is emerging evidence that lipid endocannabinoid signaling through cannabinoid 2 (CB₂) receptors may represent an example/part of such a protective system/armamentarium. Inflammation/tissue injury triggers rapid elevations in local endocannabinoid levels, which in turn regulate signaling responses in immune and other cells modulating their critical functions. Changes in endocannabinoid levels and/or CB₂ receptor expressions have been reported in almost all diseases affecting humans, ranging from cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, liver, kidney, neurodegenerative, psychiatric, bone, skin, autoimmune, lung disorders to pain and cancer, and modulating CB₂ receptor activity holds tremendous therapeutic potential in these pathologies. While CB₂ receptor activation in general mediates immunosuppressive effects, which limit inflammation and associated tissue injury in large number of pathological conditions, in some disease states activation of the CB₂ receptor may enhance or even trigger tissue damage, which will also be discussed alongside the protective actions of the CB₂ receptor stimulation with endocannabinoids or synthetic agonists, and the possible biological mechanisms involved in these effects.

Endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol protects neurons against β-amyloid insults

While endocannabinoid modulation of both GABAergic and glutamatergic synaptic transmission and plasticity has been extensively investigated, our understanding of the role of endocannabinoids in protecting neurons from harmful insults remains limited. 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), the most abundant endogenous ligand and a full agonist for cannabinoid receptors, exhibits anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects via a CB1 receptor (CB1R)-mediated mechanism. However, it is still not clear whether 2-AG is also able to protect neurons from β-amyloid (Aβ)-induced neurodegeneration. Here, we demonstrate that exogenous application of 2-AG significantly protected hippocampal neurons in culture against Aβ-induced neurodegeneration and apoptosis. This neuroprotective effect was blocked by SR141716 (SR-1), a selective CB1R antagonist, but not by SR144528 (SR-2), a selective CB2R antagonist, or capsazepine (CAP), a selective transient receptor potential cation channels, subfamily V, member 1 (TRPV1) receptor antagonist. To determine whether endogenous 2-AG is capable of protecting neurons from Aβ insults, hippocampal neurons in culture were treated with URB602 or JZL184, selective inhibitors of monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), the enzyme hydrolyzing 2-AG. MAGL inhibition that elevates endogenous levels of 2-AG also significantly reduced Aβ-induced neurodegeneration and apoptosis. The 2-AG-produced neuroprotective effects appear to be mediated via CB1R-dependent suppression of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) phosphorylation and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. Our results suggest that elevation of endogenous 2-AG by inhibiting its hydrolysis has potential as a novel efficacious therapeutic approach for preventing, ameliorating or treating Alzheimer's disease.

A synthetic cannabinoid, CP55940, inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced cytokine mRNA expression in a cannabinoid receptor-independent mechanism in rat cerebellar granule cells

OBJECTIVES

The inflammatory response plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many diseases in the central nervous system. Cannabinoids exhibit diverse pharmacological actions including anti-inflammatory activity. In this study, we tried to elucidate possible effects of cannabinoids on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced expression of inflammatory cytokine mRNAs in rat cerebellar granule cells.

METHODS

Inhibitory effects of cannabinoids on cytokine induction in cerebellar granule cells were determined by RT-PCR method.

KEY FINDINGS

In these cells, both mRNA and protein of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB(1) ), but not CB(2) , were expressed. LPS (1 µg/ml) produced a marked increase in the induction of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β, interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor-α. CP55940, a synthetic cannabinoid analogue, concentration-dependently inhibited inflammatory cytokine expression induced by LPS. On the other hand, the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol and anandamide were not able to inhibit this inflammatory response. Notably, a CB(1) /CB(2) antagonist NESS0327 (3 µm) did not reverse the inhibition of cytokine mRNA expression induced by CP55940. GPR55, a putative novel cannabinoid receptor, mRNA was also expressed in cerebellar granule cells. Although it has been suggested that G(q) associates with GPR55, cannabinoids including CP55940 did not promote phosphoinositide hydrolysis and consequent elevation of intracellular Ca([2+]) concentration. Furthermore, a putative GPR55 antagonist, cannabidiol, also showed a similar inhibitory effect to that of CP55940.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the synthetic cannabinoid CP55940 negatively modulates cytokine mRNA expression in cerebellar granule cells by a CB and GPR55 receptor-independent mechanism.

Administration of 2-arachidonoylglycerol ameliorates both acute and chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a widely used model of multiple sclerosis (MS) and both conditions have been reported to exhibit reduced endocannabinoid activity. The purpose of this study was to address the effect of exogenously administered 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2AG), an endocannabinoid receptor ligand, on acute phase and chronic disability in EAE.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Acute and chronic EAE models were induced in susceptible mice and 2AG-treatment was applied for 14 days from day of disease induction.

KEY RESULTS

2AG-treatment ameliorated acute phase of disease with delay of disease onset in both EAE models and reduced disease mortality and long-term (70 days post-induction) clinical disability in chronic EAE. Reduced axonal pathology in the chronic EAE- (p<0.0001) and increased activation and ramification of microglia in the 2AG-treated acute EAE- (p<0.05) model were noticed. The latter was accompanied by a 2- to 4-fold increase of the M2-macrophages in the perivascular infiltrations (p<0.001) of the 2AG-treated animals in the acute (day 22), although not the chronic (day 70), EAE model. Expression of cannabinoid receptors 1 (CB1R) and 2 (CB2R) was increased in 2AG-treated animals of acute EAE vs. controls (p<0.05). In addition, ex vivo viability assays exhibited reduced proliferation of activated lymph node cells when extracted from 2AG-treated EAE animals, whereas a dose-dependent response of activated lymphocytes to 2AG-treatment in vitro was noticed.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Our data indicate for the first time that 2AG treatment may provide direct (via CBRs) and immune (via M2 macrophages) mediated neuroprotection in EAE.

The endocannabinoid system in rat gliosomes and its role in the modulation of glutamate release

The endocannabinoid system and endocannabinoid receptor-driven modulation of glutamate release were studied in rat brain cortex astroglial gliosomes. These preparations contained the endocannabinoids N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, as well their major biosynthetic (N-acyl-phosphatidylethanolamines-hydrolyzing-phospholipase D and diacylglycerol-lipase) and catabolic (fatty acid amide-hydrolase and monoacylglycerol-lipase) enzymes. Gliosomes expressed type-1 (CB1R), type-2 (CB2R) cannabinoid, and type-1 vanilloid (TRPV1) receptors, as ascertained by Western blotting and confocal microscopy. Methanandamide, a stable analogue of anandamide acting as CB1R, CB2R, and TRPV1 agonist, stimulated or inhibited the depolarization-evoked gliosomal [(3)H]D: -aspartate release, at lower and higher concentrations, respectively. Experiments with ACEA (arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide), JWH133 ((6aR,10aR)-3-(1,1-dimethylbutyl)-6a,7,10,10a-tetrahydro-6,6,9-trimethyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]-pyran) and capsaicin, selective agonists at CB1R, CB2R and TRPV1, respectively, demonstrated that potentiation of [(3)H]D: -aspartate release was due to CB1R while inhibition to CB2R and TRPV1 engagement. These findings were confirmed by using selective receptor antagonists. Furthermore, CB1R activation caused increase of intracellular IP3 and Ca(2+) concentration, suggesting an involvement of phospholipase C.

Overexpression of CB2 cannabinoid receptors results in neuroprotection against behavioral and neurochemical alterations induced by intracaudate administration of 6-hydroxydopamine

The role of CB2 cannabinoid receptors in the behavioral and neurochemical changes induced by intracaudate administration of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) was evaluated. 6-OHDA (12 μg/4 μL) or its vehicle was injected in the caudate-putamen (CPu) of mice overexpressing the CB2 cannabinoid receptor (CB2xP) and wild type (WT) mice. Motor impairment, emotional behavior, and cognitive alterations were evaluated. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1) were measured by immunocytochemistry in the CPu and/or substantia nigra (SN) of CB2xP mice and WT mice. Oxidative/nitrosative and neuroinflammatory parameters were also measured in the CPu and cortex of 6-OHDA-treated and sham-treated mice. 6-OHDA-treated CB2xP mice presented significantly less motor deterioration than 6-OHDA-treated WT mice. Immunocytochemical analysis of tyrosine hydroxylase in the SN and CPu revealed significantly fewer lesions in CB2xP mice than in WT mice. GFAP and Iba-1 immunostaining revealed less astrocyte and microglia recruitment to the treated area of the CPu in CB2xP mice. Malonyldialdehyde (MDA) concentrations were lower in the striatum and cerebral cortex of sham-treated CB2xP mice than in sham-treated WT mice. The administration of 6-OHDA increased MDA levels in both WT mice and CB2xP mice; it increased the oxidized (GSSG)/reduced (GSH) glutathione ratio in the striatum in WT mice alone compared with matched sham-treated controls. The results revealed that overexpression of CB2 cannabinoid receptors decreased the extent of motor impairment and dopaminergic neuronal loss, reduced the recruitment of astrocytes and microglia to the lesion, and decreased the level of various oxidative parameters. These results suggest that CB2 receptors offer neuroprotection against dopaminergic injury.

Dendritic Cell Regulation by Cannabinoid-Based Drugs

Cannabinoid pharmacology has made important advances in recent years after the cannabinoid system was discovered. Studies in experimental models and in humans have produced promising results using cannabinoid-based drugs for the treatment of obesity and cancer, as well as neuroinflammatory and chronic inflammatory diseases. Moreover, as we discuss here, additional studies also indicates that these drugs have immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory properties including modulation of immune cell function. Thus, manipulation of the endocannabinoid system in vivo may provide novel therapeutic strategies against inflammatory disorders. At least two types of cannabinoid receptors, cannabinoid 1 and cannabinoid 2 receptors are expressed on immune cells such as dendritic cells (DC). Dendritic cells are recognized for their critical role in initiating and maintaining immune responses. Therefore, DC are potential targets for cannabinoid-mediated modulation. Here, we review the effects of cannabinoids on DC and provide some perspective concerning the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids for the treatment of human diseases involving aberrant inflammatory processes.