Norwalk virus does not replicate in human macrophages or dendritic cells derived from the peripheral blood of susceptible humans

Advances in norovirus biology

Human noroviruses are a major cause of epidemic and sporadic gastroenteritis worldwide and can chronically infect immunocompromised patients. Efforts to develop effective vaccines and antivirals have been hindered by the uncultivable nature and extreme genetic diversity of human noroviruses. Although they remain a particularly challenging pathogen to study, recent advances in norovirus animal models and in vitro cultivation systems have led to an increased understanding of norovirus molecular biology and replication, pathogenesis, cell tropism, and innate and adaptive immunity. Furthermore, clinical trials of vaccines consisting of nonreplicating virus-like particles have shown promise. In this review, we summarize these recent advances and discuss controversies in the field, which is rapidly progressing toward generation of antiviral agents and increasingly effective vaccines.

Norovirus: targets and tools in antiviral drug discovery

The development of antiviral strategies to treat or prevent norovirus infections is a pressing matter. Noroviruses are the number 1 cause of acute gastroenteritis, of foodborne illness, of sporadic gastroenteritis in all age groups and of severe acute gastroenteritis in children less than 5 years old seeking medical assistance [USA/CDC]. In developing countries, noroviruses are linked to significant mortality (~200,000 children <5 years old). Noroviruses are a major culprit for the closure of hospital wards, and associated with increased hospitalization and mortality among the elderly. Transplant patients have significant risk of acquiring persistent norovirus gastroenteritis. Control and prevention strategies are limited to the use of disinfectants and hand sanitizers, whose efficacy is frequently insufficient. Hence, there is an ample need for antiviral treatment and prophylaxis of norovirus infections. The fact that only a handful of inhibitors of norovirus replication have been reported can largely be attributable to the hampering inability to cultivate human noroviruses in cell culture. The Norwalk replicon-bearing cells and the murine norovirus-infected cell lines are the available models to assess in vitro antiviral activity of compounds. Human noroviruses have been shown to replicate (to some extent) in mice, calves, gnotobiotic pigs, and chimpanzees. Infection of interferon-deficient mice with the murine norovirus results in virus-induced diarrhea. Here we review recent developments in understanding which norovirus proteins or host cell factors may serve as targets for inhibition of viral replication. Given the recent advances, significant progress in the search for antiviral strategies against norovirus infections is expected in the upcoming years.

Antiviral efficacy and mechanisms of action of oregano essential oil and its primary component carvacrol against murine norovirus

AIMS

To investigate the antiviral efficacy of oregano oil and its primary active component, carvacrol, against the nonenveloped murine norovirus (MNV), a human norovirus surrogate.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Along with an observed loss in cell culture infectivity, the antiviral mechanisms of action were determined in side-by-side experiments including a cell-binding assay, an RNase I protection assay and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Both antimicrobials produced statistically significant reductions (P ≤ 0·05) in virus infectivity within 15 min of exposure (c. 1·0-log10). Despite this, the MNV infectivity remained stable with increasing time exposure to oregano oil (1·07-log10 after 24 h), while carvacrol was far more effective, producing up to 3·87-log10 reductions within 1 h. Based on the RNase I protection assay, both antimicrobials appeared to act directly upon the virus capsid and subsequently the RNA. Under TEM, the capsids enlarged from ≤35 nm in diameter to up to 75 nm following treatment with oregano oil and up to 800 nm with carvacrol; with greater expansion, capsid disintegration could be observed. Virus adsorption to host cells did not appear to be affected by either antimicrobial.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that carvacrol is effective in inactivating MNV within 1 h of exposure by acting directly on the viral capsid and subsequently the RNA.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This study provides novel findings on the antiviral properties of oregano oil and carvacrol against MNV and demonstrates the potential of carvacrol as a natural food and surface (fomite) sanitizer to control human norovirus.

Effect of hypochlorite-based disinfectants on inactivation of murine norovirus and attempt to eliminate or prevent infection in mice by addition to drinking water

We evaluated the in vitro efficacy of weak acid hypochlorous solution (WAHS) against murine norovirus (MNV) by plaque assay and compared the efficacy with diluted NaOCl (Purelox) and 70% ethanol. WAHS was as effective as 70% ethanol and diluted Purelox for 0.5-min reactions. For 0.5-min reactions in the presence of mouse feces emulsion, the efficacy of WHAS and 1:600 diluted Purelox was decreased, reducing the virus titers by 2.3 and 2.6 log₁₀, respectively, while 70% ethanol reduced the titer by more than 5 log₁₀. However, WAHS showed more than 5 log₁₀ reductions for the 5-min reaction even in the presence of feces emulsion. Since WAHS showed enough efficacy in inactivating MNV in vitro, we tried to eliminate MNV from MNV-infected mice by substituting WAHS for their drinking water. However, MNV was found to be positive in feces of mice drinking WAHS by an RT-nested PCR and plaque assay. To investigate whether hypochlorite-based disinfectants could prevent infection of a mouse with MNV, WAHS or 1:6,000 diluted Purelox was substituted for the drinking water of mice for 2 or 4 weeks, and then the mice were placed in a cage with an MNV-infected mouse. The supply of disinfectants was continued after cohabitation, but MNV was detected in the feces of all the mice at 1 week after cohabitation. In this study, we tried to eliminate and prevent MNV infection from mice by supplying hypochlorite-based disinfectants as an easy and low-cost method. Unfortunately, drinking disinfectants was ineffective, so it is important to keep the facility environment clean by use of effective disinfectants. Also, animals introduced into facilities should be tested as MNV free by quarantine and periodically confirmed as MNV free by microbiological monitoring.

Human norovirus detection and production, quantification, and storage of virus-like particles

Human noroviruses constitute a significant worldwide disease burden. Each year, noroviruses cause over 267 million infections, deaths in over 200,000 children under the age of five, and over 50% of U.S. food-borne illness. Due to the absence of a tissue culture model or small animal model to study human norovirus, virus-like particles (VLPs) and ELISA-based biological assays have been used to answer questions about norovirus evolution and immunity as well to provide a potential vaccine platform. This chapter outlines the protocols for norovirus detection in stool, as well as norovirus VLP design, production, purification, and storage using a Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE)-based virus replicon particle (VRP) expression system.

Lack of norovirus replication and histo-blood group antigen expression in 3-dimensional intestinal epithelial cells

TOC summary: The 3-dimensional intestinal model is not sufficient as a virus replication system for developing vaccines or drugs to control human norovirus infections.

Noroviruses (NoVs) are a leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide. An in vitro model for NoV replication remains elusive, making study of the virus difficult. A previous study, which used a 3-dimensional (3-D) intestinal model derived from INT-407 cells reported NoV replication and extensive cytopathic effects (CPE). Using the same 3-D model, but with highly purified Norwalk virus (NV), we attempted to replicate this study. Our results showed no evidence of NV replication by real-time PCR of viral RNA or by immunocytochemical detection of viral structural and nonstructural proteins. Immunocytochemical analysis of the 3-D cultures also showed no detectable presence of histo-blood group antigens that participate in NV binding and host tropism. To determine the potential cause of CPE observed in the previous study, we exposed 3-D cultures to lipopolysaccharide concentrations consistent with contaminated stool samples and observed morphologic features similar to CPE. We conclude that the 3-D INT-407 model does not support NV replication.

Failure of propagation of human norovirus in intestinal epithelial cells with microvilli grown in three-dimensional cultures

Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) are a leading cause of acute gastroenteritis. Establishment of a cell culture system for in vitro HuNoV growth remains challenging. Replication of HuNoVs in human intestinal cell lines (INT-407 and Caco-2) that differentiate to produce microvilli in rotation wall vessel (RWV) three-dimensional cultures has been reported (Straub et al. in Emerg Infect Dis 13:396-403, 2007; J Water Health 9:225-240, 2011, and Water Sci Technol 67:863-868, 2013). We used a similar RWV system, intestinal cell lines, and the same (Genogroup [G] I.1) plus additional (GII.4 and GII.12) HuNoV strains to test the system's reproducibility and to expand the earlier findings. Apical microvilli were observed on the surface of both cell lines by light and electron microscopy. However, none of the cell types tested resulted in productive viral replication of any of the HuNoV strains, as confirmed by plateau or declining viral RNA titers in the supernatants and cell lysates of HuNoV-infected cells, determined by real-time reverse transcription PCR. These trends were the same when culture supplements were added that have been reported to be effective for replication of other fastidious enteric viruses in vitro. Additionally, by confocal microscopy and orthoslice analysis, viral capsid proteins were mainly observed above the actin filament signals, which suggested that the majority of viral antigens were on the cell surface. We conclude that even intestinal cells displaying microvilli were not sufficient to support HuNoV replication under the conditions tested.

Norovirus virus-like particle vaccines for the prevention of acute gastroenteritis

Noroviruses (NoVs) are the most common cause of nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis in humans worldwide. These highly infectious viruses were, until recently, commonly thought to cause a mild, self-limiting disease in healthy individuals, but increasing epidemiology shows that the incidence and severity of illness due to NoV infection is substantial and similar to diseases where immunization is widely recommended. Human NoV challenge studies have identified carbohydrate histo-blood group antigen expression as an important human susceptibility factor for many strains and correspondingly, that antibodies which block carbohydrate virus binding represent a potential correlate of protection against NoV infection and illness. Since human NoVs do not replicate in cell culture, there are numerous challenges to the development of a vaccine to prevent illness or infection. However, the development of NoV virus-like particles (VLPs) has enabled significant progress toward effective vaccine candidates designed to protect against multiple circulating NoV strains. Vaccination with NoV VLP vaccines has been shown to both induce antibodies that block virus-derived VLP carbohydrate binding and protect against homologous viral challenge in a human clinical study.

Median infectious dose of human norovirus GII.4 in gnotobiotic pigs is decreased by simvastatin treatment and increased by age

Human noroviruses (NoVs), a major cause of viral gastroenteritis, are difficult to study due to the lack of a cell-culture and a small-animal model. Pigs share with humans the types A and H histo-blood group antigens on the intestinal epithelium and have been suggested as a potential model for studies of NoV pathogenesis, immunity and vaccines. In this study, the effects of age and a cholesterol-lowering drug, simvastatin, on the susceptibility of pigs to NoV infection were evaluated. The median infectious dose (ID50) of a genogroup II, genotype 4 (GII.4) 2006b variant was determined. The ID50 in neonatal (4-5 days of age) pigs was ≤2.74×10(3) viral RNA copies. In older pigs (33-34 days of age), the ID50 was 6.43×10(4) but decreased to <2.74×10(3) in simvastatin-fed older pigs. Evidence of NoV infection was obtained by increased virus load in the intestinal contents, cytopathological changes in the small intestine, including irregular microvilli, necrosis and apoptosis, and detection of viral antigen in the tip of villi in duodenum. This GII.4 variant was isolated in 2008 from a patient from whom a large volume of stool was collected. GII.4 NoVs are continuously subjected to selective pressure by human immunity, and antigenically different GII.4 NoV variants emerge every 1-2 years. The determination of the ID50 of this challenge virus is valuable for evaluation of protection against different GII.4 variants conferred by NoV vaccines in concurrence with other GII.4 variants in the gnotobiotic pig model.

Challenges of culturing human norovirus in three-dimensional organoid intestinal cell culture models

Human noroviruses are the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Recently, cell culture systems have been described using either human embryonic intestinal epithelial cells (Int-407) or human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2) growing on collagen-I porous micro carrier beads in a rotating bioreactor under conditions of physiological fluid shear. Here, we describe the efforts from two independent laboratories to implement this three dimensional (3D) cell culture system for the replication of norovirus. Int-407 and Caco-2 were grown in a rotating bioreactor for up to 28 days. Prior to infection, cells were screened for the presence of microvilli by electron microscopy and stained for junction proteins (zonula occludens-1, claudin-1, and β-catenin). Differentiated 3D cells were transferred to 24-well plates and infected with bacteria-free filtrates of various norovirus genotypes (GI.1, GI.3, GI.8, GII.2, GII.4, GII.7, and GII.8). At 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h post inoculation, viral RNA from both cells and supernatants were collected and analyzed for norovirus RNA by real-time reverse transcription PCR. Despite observations of high expression of junction proteins and microvilli development in stained thin sections, our data suggest no significant increase in viral titer based on norovirus RNA copy number during the first 48 h after inoculation for the different samples and virus culture conditions tested. Our combined efforts demonstrate that 3D cell culture models using Int-407 or Caco-2 cells do not support norovirus replication and highlight the complexity and difficulty of developing a reproducible in vitro cell culture system for human norovirus.

Critical role for interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) and IRF-7 in type I interferon-mediated control of murine norovirus replication

Human noroviruses (HuNoV) are the major cause of epidemic, nonbacterial gastroenteritis in the world. The short course of HuNoV-induced symptoms has implicated innate immunity in control of norovirus (NoV) infection. Studies using murine norovirus (MNV) confirm the importance of innate immune responses during NoV infection. Type I alpha and beta interferons (IFN-α/β) limit HuNoV replicon function, restrict MNV replication in cultured cells, and control MNV replication in vivo. Therefore, the cell types and transcription factors involved in antiviral immune responses and IFN-α/β-mediated control of NoV infection are important to define. We used mice with floxed alleles of the IFNAR1 chain of the IFN-α/β receptor to identify cells expressing lysozyme M or CD11c as cells that respond to IFN-α/β to restrict MNV replication in vivo. Furthermore, we show that the transcription factors IRF-3 and IRF-7 work in concert to initiate unique and overlapping antiviral responses to restrict MNV replication in vivo. IRF-3 and IRF-7 restrict MNV replication in both cultured macrophages and dendritic cells, are required for induction of IFN-α/β in macrophages but not dendritic cells, and are dispensable for the antiviral effects of IFN-α/β that block MNV replication. These studies suggest that expression of the IFN-α/β receptor on macrophages/neutrophils and dendritic cells, as well as of IRF-3 and IRF-7, is critical for innate immune responses to NoV infection.

Identification of RNA-protein interaction networks involved in the norovirus life cycle

Human noroviruses are one of the major causes of acute gastroenteritis in the developed world, yet our understanding of their molecular mechanisms of genome translation and replication lags behind that for many RNA viruses. Due to the nonculturable nature of human noroviruses, many related members of the Caliciviridae family of small RNA viruses are often used as model systems to dissect the finer details of the norovirus life cycle. Murine norovirus (MNV) has provided one such system with which to study the basic mechanisms of norovirus translation and replication in cell culture. In this report we describe the use of riboproteomics to identify host factors that interact with the extremities of the MNV genome. This network of RNA-protein interactions contains many well-characterized host factors, including PTB, La, and DDX3, which have been shown to play a role in the life cycle of other RNA viruses. By using RNA coimmunoprecipitation, we confirmed that a number of the factors identified using riboproteomics are associated with the viral RNA during virus replication in cell culture. We further demonstrated that RNA inhibition-mediated knockdown of the intracellular levels of a number of these factors inhibits or slows norovirus replication in cell culture, allowing identification of new intracellular targets for this important group of pathogens.

Antiviral activity of nucleoside analogues against norovirus

BACKGROUND

Norovirus (NoV) is the leading cause of epidemic gastroenteritis worldwide. The lack of a cell culture has significantly hampered the development of effective therapies against human NoV. Clinically approved nucleoside and non-nucleoside analogues have been used successfully against RNA viruses.

METHODS

In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of four nucleoside analogues (2'-C-MeC, 2'-F-2'-C-MeC, β-D-N(4)-hydroxycytidine [NHC] and lamivudine) on Norwalk virus (NV) RNA levels and protein expression in NV replicon-harbouring cells (HG23 cells), and their efficacy in blocking murine norovirus (MNV) replication in RAW 264.7 cells.

RESULTS

2'-C-MeC and 2'-F-2'-C-MeC reduced MNV RNA levels and infectivity in RAW 264.7 cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. The median effective concentrations (EC(50)) of 2'-C-MeC and 2'-F-2'-C-MeC were 6.9 μM and 12.7 μM, respectively. 2'-C-MeC, 2'-F-2'-C-MeC and NHC reduced NV RNA levels and protein expression in HG23 cells. For the NV replicon, the EC(50) of 2'-C-MeC (1.3 μM) was comparable to the antiviral activity of NHC (1.5 μM) and twofold more potent than 2'-F-2'-C-MeC (3.2 μM). The combination of 2'-C-MeC/ribavirin resulted in modest synergistic activity, whereas NHC/ribavirin was antagonistic for NV replication in HG23 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The antiviral activity of 2'-C-MeC against strains of two different NoV genogroups and the low EC(50) suggest that this nucleoside analogue may be effective against the more prevalent GII NoVs. In the absence of a vaccine, antiviral agents could be an effective intervention to control the spread of human NoV in populations at a high risk for NoV disease.

Evaluation of four virus recovery methods for detecting noroviruses on fresh lettuce, sliced ham, and frozen raspberries

Although noroviruses play a significant role in causing foodborne illness in developed countries, no standardised method for detecting noroviruses in foodstuffs is currently available. This study compared four virus recovery methods based on ultrafiltration, immunomagnetic separation, ultracentrifugation and PEG precipitation techniques using identical real-time RT-PCR protocols for detection of RNA in eluates from lettuce, sliced ham and raspberries inoculated artificially with genogroup II norovirus. Noroviruses in all the food source matrices were successfully detected by all four methods. Ultracentrifugation yielded the highest recovery efficiencies in lettuce and ham, whereas PEG precipitation recovered the highest yield of noroviruses from raspberries. The repeatability of the results and the applicability of the methods to all food matrices were best with PEG precipitation, which had average virus recoveries of 19%, 47% and 28% for lettuce, ham and raspberries (viral RNA in dilution 1:10), respectively. In each case, a tenfold dilution of the extracted RNA clearly reduced the level of PCR inhibitors, which were released from raspberries in particular. The results of this study show that the detection of noroviruses in food is challenging, and more efforts to develop sensitive methods are still needed to detect noroviruses in food containing viruses in low numbers.

Antiviral activity of a small molecule deubiquitinase inhibitor occurs via induction of the unfolded protein response

Ubiquitin (Ub) is a vital regulatory component in various cellular processes, including cellular responses to viral infection. As obligate intracellular pathogens, viruses have the capacity to manipulate the ubiquitin (Ub) cycle to their advantage by encoding Ub-modifying proteins including deubiquitinases (DUBs). However, how cellular DUBs modulate specific viral infections, such as norovirus, is poorly understood. To examine the role of DUBs during norovirus infection, we used WP1130, a small molecule inhibitor of a subset of cellular DUBs. Replication of murine norovirus in murine macrophages and the human norovirus Norwalk virus in a replicon system were significantly inhibited by WP1130. Chemical proteomics identified the cellular DUB USP14 as a target of WP1130 in murine macrophages, and pharmacologic inhibition or siRNA-mediated knockdown of USP14 inhibited murine norovirus infection. USP14 is a proteasome-associated DUB that also binds to inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1), a critical mediator of the unfolded protein response (UPR). WP1130 treatment of murine macrophages did not alter proteasome activity but activated the X-box binding protein-1 (XBP-1) through an IRE1-dependent mechanism. In addition, WP1130 treatment or induction of the UPR also reduced infection of other RNA viruses including encephalomyocarditis virus, Sindbis virus, and La Crosse virus but not vesicular stomatitis virus. Pharmacologic inhibition of the IRE1 endonuclease activity partially rescued the antiviral effect of WP1130. Taken together, our studies support a model whereby induction of the UPR through cellular DUB inhibition blocks specific viral infections, and suggest that cellular DUBs and the UPR represent novel targets for future development of broad spectrum antiviral therapies.

Deubiquitinases (DUBs) are enzymes, which are implicated in many cellular processes but their functions during virus infection are not well understood. We used WP1130, a small molecule inhibitor of a subset of DUBs, as a probe to unravel the functions of DUBs during norovirus infections. We identified USP14 as a cellular DUB target of WP1130 that is required for optimal norovirus infection. Furthermore, we demonstrated that chemical induction of the unfolded protein response can significantly inhibit viral progeny production of several RNA viruses, including noroviruses. These results suggest that chemical inhibition of cellular DUBs and/or modulation of the unfolded protein response could represent novel targets for therapy against a variety of viral pathogens.

Experimental inoculation of juvenile rhesus macaques with primate enteric caliciviruses

BACKGROUND

Tissue culture-adapted Tulane virus (TV), a GI.1 rhesus enteric calicivirus (ReCV), and a mixture of GII.2 and GII.4 human norovirus (NoV)-containing stool sample were used to intrastomacheally inoculate juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in order to evaluate infection caused by these viruses. METHODOLOGY & FINDINGS: Two of the three TV-inoculated macaques developed diarrhea, fever, virus-shedding in stools, inflammation of duodenum and 16-fold increase of TV-neutralizing (VN) serum antibodies but no vomiting or viremia. No VN-antibody responses could be detected against a GI.2 ReCV strain FT285, suggesting that TV and FT285 represent different ReCV serotypes. Both NoV-inoculated macaques remained asymptomatic but with demonstrable virus shedding in one animal. Examination of duodenum biopsies of the TV-inoculated macaques showed lymphocytic infiltration of the lamina propria and villous blunting. TV antigen-positive (TV+) cells were detected in the lamina propria. In most of the TV+ cells TV co-localized perinuclearly with calnexin--an endoplasmic reticulum protein. A few CD20+TV+ double-positive B cells were also identified in duodenum. To corroborate the authenticity of CD20+TV+ B cells, in vitro cultures of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy macaques were inoculated with TV. Multicolor flow cytometry confirmed the presence of TV antigen-containing B cells of predominantly CD20+HLA-DR+ phenotype. A 2-log increase of viral RNA by 6 days post inoculation (p<0.05) suggested active TV replication in cultured lymphocytes.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Taken together, our results show that ReCVs represent an alternative cell culture and animal model to study enteric calicivirus replication, pathogenesis and immunity.

Novel murine norovirus-like genes in wild rodents in Japan

Novel murine norovirus (MNV)-like sequences were detected in 7 (14.9%) of 47 fecal and intestinal samples obtained from wild rodents in Japan. Sequencing and genetic analyses of the 7 MNV-like genes, 6 derived from Apodemus speciosus and 1 from Rattus rattus, suggested that these sequences form a cluster distinct from known MNV within genogroup V and differed even among clusters of wild rodents. Considering these results, MNV might be genetically diverse depending on the host species or distribution. This is the first report suggesting the prevalence of MNV in A. speciosus and R. rattus.

Evaluation of murine norovirus persistence in environments relevant to food production and processing

Human norovirus (NoV) causes outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis associated with many ready-to-eat foods, including fresh produce. Effective inactivation procedures must consider virus survival under conditions of produce production and processing. This study aimed to investigate the persistence of NoV in a variety of environments, using murine NoV (MNV) as a surrogate for NoV. MNV was incubated for up to 42 days at room temperature on stainless steel disks, on lettuce, on soil, and in potable water and titers determined by plaque assay. A 1-log reduction of MNV infectivity was observed after 29 days in water, 4 days on lettuce, 12 days on soil, and 15 days on stainless steel disks. MNV survived longer in water than in any of the other environments, indicating that drying may contribute to NoV inactivation. MNV genomes were not significantly reduced for up to 42 days, suggesting that genomic detection is not a reliable indicator of viability. Overall, our findings provide valuable information regarding the potential for NoV transmission in the food supply.

Canine noroviruses

Noroviruses are recognized as emerging enteric pathogens of humans and have been identified in recent years in a number of mammalian species. The role of noroviruses as pathogens in immune-competent animals and under natural conditions remains uncertain, although both homologous and heterologous animal models are now available to investigate the pathogenesis, the immune response, and the molecular mechanism regulating norovirus infection. Recently, evidence has been gathered that noroviruses may also circulate in domestic carnivores. The zoonotic implications of these novel viruses deserve more attention, due to the strict social interactions between humans and pets.

Comparative murine norovirus studies reveal a lack of correlation between intestinal virus titers and enteric pathology

Human noroviruses are significant emerging pathogens, causing the majority of non-bacterial gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. The recent discovery of 30 murine norovirus strains is beginning to facilitate a detailed investigation of norovirus pathogenesis. Here, we have performed an in vivo comparative analysis of two murine norovirus strains, MNV-1 and MNV-3. In immunocompetent mice, MNV-1 caused modest intestinal pathology whereas MNV-3 was attenuated compared to MNV-1. Surprisingly though, MNV-3 reached higher titers in intestinal tissue than MNV-1. MNV-3 also displayed attenuation in mice deficient in the critical interferon signaling molecule STAT-1, demonstrating that MNV-3 attenuation is not a result of increased interferon sensitivity. Importantly, MNV-3-infected mice lost weight and developed gastric bloating and diarrhea in STAT1(-/-) mice, from which all animals recovered. This disease profile recapitulates several key features of acute gastroenteritis experienced by people infected with a human norovirus.

Infection of calves with bovine norovirus GIII.1 strain Jena virus: an experimental model to study the pathogenesis of norovirus infection

The experimental infection of newborn calves with bovine norovirus was used as a homologous large animal model to study the pathogenesis of norovirus infection and to determine target cells for viral replication. Six newborn calves were inoculated orally with Jena virus (JV), a bovine norovirus GIII.1 strain, and six calves served as mock-inoculated controls. Following infection, calves were euthanized before the onset of diarrhea (12 h postinoculation [hpi]), shortly after the onset of diarrhea (18 to 21 hpi), and postconvalescence (4 days pi [dpi]). Calves inoculated with JV developed severe watery diarrhea at 14 to 16 hpi, and this symptom lasted for 53.5 to 67.0 h. Intestinal lesions were characterized by severe villus atrophy together with loss and attenuation of villus epithelium. Viral capsid antigen (JV antigen) was detected by immunohistochemistry in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells on villi. In addition, granular material positive for JV antigen was detected in the lamina propria of villi. Lesions first appeared at 12 hpi and were most extensive at 18 to 19 hpi, extending from midjejunum to ileum. The intestinal mucosa had completely recovered at 4 dpi. There was no indication of systemic infection as described for norovirus infection in mice. JV was found in intestinal contents by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) as early as 12 hpi. Fecal shedding of the virus started at 13 hpi and stopped at 23 hpi or at necropsy (4 dpi), respectively. Throughout the trial, none of the control calves tested positive for JV by ELISA or RT-PCR.

In vitro whole-virus binding of a norovirus genogroup II genotype 4 strain to cells of the lamina propria and Brunner's glands in the human duodenum

Human norovirus (hNoV) remains refractory to propagation in cell culture systems. We believe that knowing the exact cell type that hNoV targets will provide important insights into culturing the virus. By the use of an in vitro whole-virus binding assay, the hNoV genogroup II genotype 4 Sakai variant was found to bind predominantly to cells of the lamina propria and Brunner's glands, but not to those of the luminal epithelial surface, of human duodenum tissue. Our findings, together with accumulating evidence reported elsewhere, suggest that hNoV may display tropism to nonepithelial cells, which is distinct from observations of other human enteric pathogens.

The dynamics of norovirus outbreak epidemics: recent insights

Noroviruses are a major cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. Norovirus outbreaks frequently occur as epidemics which appear to be related to both genetic and environmental factors. This review considers recent progress in understanding these factors. The norovirus genome undergoes continuous change and this appears to be important in the persistence of the virus in the community. Studies on the common GII.4 genotype have shown that some norovirus outbreak epidemics involving this genotype are correlated with specific changes in the genome. In contrast to the growing understanding of the role of genetic factors in norovirus outbreak epidemics, the role of environmental factors is less well understood. Topics reviewed here include long term excretion of norovirus in some individuals, long term survivability of norovirus in the environment, the role of meteorological factors in the control of norovirus outbreaks and the possible zoonotic transmission of the virus.

Chimpanzees as an animal model for human norovirus infection and vaccine development

Noroviruses are global agents of acute gastroenteritis, but the development of control strategies has been hampered by the absence of a robust animal model. Studies in chimpanzees have played a key role in the characterization of several fastidious hepatitis viruses, and we investigated the feasibility of such studies for the noroviruses. Seronegative chimpanzees inoculated i.v. with the human norovirus strain Norwalk virus (NV) did not show clinical signs of gastroenteritis, but the onset and duration of virus shedding in stool and serum antibody responses were similar to that observed in humans. NV RNA was detected in intestinal and liver biopsies concurrent with the detection of viral shedding in stool, and NV antigen expression was observed in cells of the small intestinal lamina propria. Two infected chimpanzees rechallenged 4, 10, or 24 mo later with NV were resistant to reinfection, and the presence of NV-specific serum antibodies correlated with protection. We evaluated the immunogenicity and efficacy of virus-like particles (VLPs) derived from NV (genogroup I, GI) and MD145 (genogroup II, GII) noroviruses as vaccines. Chimpanzees vaccinated intramuscularly with GI VLPs were protected from NV infection when challenged 2 and 18 mo after vaccination, whereas chimpanzees that received GII VLPs vaccine or a placebo were not. This study establishes the chimpanzee as a viable animal model for the study of norovirus replication and immunity, and shows that NV VLP vaccines could induce protective homologous immunity even after extended periods of time.