Occurrence and toxicity of a fusarium mycotoxin, zearalenone

Efficacy of a multicomponent binding agent against combined exposure to zearalenone and ochratoxin A in weaned pigs

Introduction

The study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of a novel multicomponent substance against combined exposure to the mycotoxins zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in weaned piglets.

Methods

In total, 60 piglets at the age of 28 days were equally allocated to four experimental groups (A-D), consisting of eight female and seven male piglets each (15 animals per group, for a total trial duration of 42 days). Animals from group A received typical weaner feed without mycotoxins or the test product [multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA)]. Group B animals received the same weaner feed contaminated with 0.992 mg ZEN/kg feed and 0.531 mg OTA/kg feed without the addition of the MMDA. Animals in group C received the same contaminated feed as group B with the addition of 1.5 g MMDA/kg feed, whereas group D received the same feed as group B with the inclusion of 3 g MMDA/kg feed. Clinical signs and performance parameters [body weight (BW), average daily weight gain (ADWG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR)] were evaluated, while mycotoxin residues were also assessed in the liver and kidney tissues.

Results

Findings showed improved FCR in the group that received the greatest dose of the test product (3 g MMDA/kg feed) compared to the group that received the lower dose (1.5 g MMDA/kg feed). A few hematological and biochemical parameters were slightly altered, predominantly within normal limits. The residue analysis demonstrated a reduction of OTA in liver samples, a-ZEL in the liver and total tested samples, and a total of ZEN and metabolite contents in all samples of the group that received the greatest MMDA dose in comparison to the group that received the toxins without the addition of the test product.

Discussion

Therefore, a positive effect of the MMDA at the greatest dosage regime on reducing bioavailability and tissue deposition of ZEN and OTA, with a particularly positive effect on FCR in weaned pigs, is suggested under concurrent ZEN and OTA exposure in vivo.

Hidden Hazards Revealed: Mycotoxins and Their Masked Forms in Poultry

The presence of mycotoxins and their masked forms in chicken feed poses a significant threat to both productivity and health. This review examines the multifaceted impacts of mycotoxins on various aspects of chicken well-being, encompassing feed efficiency, growth, immunity, antioxidants, blood biochemistry, and internal organs. Mycotoxins, toxic substances produced by fungi, can exert detrimental effects even at low levels of contamination. The hidden or masked forms of mycotoxins further complicate the situation, as they are not easily detected by conventional methods but can be converted into their toxic forms during digestion. Consequently, chickens are exposed to mycotoxin-related risks despite apparently low mycotoxin levels. The consequences of mycotoxin exposure in chickens include reduced feed efficiency, compromised growth rates, impaired immune function, altered antioxidant levels, disturbances in blood biochemical parameters, and adverse effects on internal organs. To mitigate these impacts, effective management strategies are essential, such as routine monitoring of feed ingredients and finished feeds, adherence to proper storage practices, and the implementation of feed detoxification methods and mycotoxin binders. Raising awareness of these hidden hazards is crucial for safeguarding chicken productivity and health.

27-Hydroxycholesterol/liver X receptor/apolipoprotein E mediates zearalenone-induced intestinal immunosuppression: A key target potentially linking zearalenone and cancer

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that extensively contaminates food and feed, posing a significant threat to public health. However, the mechanisms behind ZEN-induced intestinal immunotoxicity remain unclear. In this study, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were exposed to ZEN at a dosage of 5 mg/kg/day b.w. for a duration of 14 days. The results demonstrated that ZEN exposure led to notable pathological alterations and immunosuppression within the intestine. Furthermore, ZEN exposure caused a significant reduction in the levels of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) and liver X receptor (LXR) (P < 0.05). Conversely, it upregulated the levels of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) markers (P < 0.05) and decreased the presence of 27-hydroxycholesterol (27-HC) in the intestine (P < 0.05). It was observed that ApoE or LXR agonists were able to mitigate the immunosuppressive effects induced by ZEN. Additionally, a bioinformatics analysis highlighted that the downregulation of ApoE might elevate the susceptibility to colorectal, breast, and lung cancers. These findings underscore the crucial role of the 27-HC/LXR/ApoE axis disruption in ZEN-induced MDSCs proliferation and subsequent inhibition of T lymphocyte activation within the rat intestine. Notably, ApoE may emerge as a pivotal target linking ZEN exposure to cancer development.

Effect of DON and ZEN and their metabolites DOM-1 and HZEN on B cell proliferation and antibody production

Introduction

The mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN), produced by Fusarium fungi, are frequently found in the cereal-rich diet of pigs and can modulate the immune system. Some enzymes or bacteria present in the digestive tract can de-epoxydize DON to deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) and biotransform ZEN into hydrolyzed ZEN (HZEN). The effects of these metabolites on immune cells, particularly with respect to the vaccine responses, are poorly documented. The aim of this study was to address the impact of DON and ZEN and their respective derivatives, on proliferation, and antibody production of porcine B cells in vitro.

Methods

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), isolated from healthy pigs, were stimulated with the Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7/8-agonist Resiquimod (R848) or the TLR/1/2-agonist Pam3Cys-SKKKK in combination with DON [0.1-1.6 µM] or DOM-1 [1.6 µM and 16 µM] and ZEN [2.5-40 µM] or HZEN [40 µM].

Results

A strong decrease in B-cell proliferation was observed at DON concentrations equal to or exceeding 0.8 µM and at ZEN concentrations equal to or exceeding 20 µM. Treatment with 1.6 µM DON or 40 µM ZEN led to almost a complete loss of live CD79α+ B cells. Moreover, CD21 expression of proliferating IgG+ and IgM+ B-cell subsets was decreased at DON concentrations equal to and exceeding 0.4 µM and at ZEN concentrations equal to or exceeding 10 µM. ELISpot assays revealed a decrease of IgG-secreting B cells at concentrations of and exceeding 0.4 µM and at ZEN concentrations equal to and exceeding 10 µM. ELISA assays showed a decrease of IgM, IgG, and IgA secretion at concentrations equal to or exceeding 0.4 µM DON. ZEN reduced IgM secretion at 20-40 µM (both R848 and Pam3Cys-SKKKK), IgG secretion at 40 µM (both R848 and Pam3Cys-SKKKK) and IgA secretion at 20-40 µM.

Discussion

Our in vitro experiments show that while DON and ZEN impair immunoglobulin production and B-cell proliferation, this effect is abrogated by HZEN and DOM-1.

Caspase-8 dependent apoptosis contributes to dyskinesia caused by muscle defects and neurotoxicity in zebrafish exposed to zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEA), one of the usual mycotoxins, has been recognized in many areas and crops, posing a significant threat to the living organisms even to human beings. However, the mechanisms of locomotive defects remain unknown. Herein, zebrafish larvae was employed to investigate ZEA effects on developmental indexes, muscle and neural toxicity, apoptosis, transcriptome and motor behaviors of zebrafish larvae. Zebrafish larvae exposed to ZEA (0, 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 μM) showed no change in survival rate, but the malformation rate of zebrafish larvae increased dramatically manifesting with severe body bending and accomplished with adverse effects on hatching rate and body length. Moreover, the larvae manifested with defective muscle and abnormal neural development, resulting in decreased swimming ability, which probably due to the abnormal overactivation of apoptosis. And this was confirmed by enriched caspase 8-mediated apoptosis signaling pathway in the following transcriptome analysis. Meanwhile, there was a recovery in swimming behaviors in the larvae co-exposed in ZEA and caspase 8 inhibitor. These findings provide an important evidence for risk assessment and potential treatment target of ZEA exposure.

Scutellarin targets Wnt5a against zearalenone-induced apoptosis in mouse granulosa cells in vitro and in vivo

Zearalenone (ZEA) poses severe reproductive toxicity to both humans and animals. Scutellarin has been demonstrated to rescue ZEA-induced apoptosis in mouse ovarian granulosa cells (GCs), but its specific targets remain unclear. In the present study, the potential targets of scutellarin were determined to clarify the mechanisms of scutellarin against ZEA-induced ovarian damage. 287 targets of scutellarin in mouse ovarian GCs were obtained by magnetic nano-probe-based fishing assay and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Wnt5a had the lowest binding free energy with scutellarin at - 8.3 kcal/mol. QRT-PCR and western blot showed that scutellarin significantly increased the Wnt5a and β-catenin expression compared with the ZEA-treated group, and cleaved-caspase-3 expression was significantly increased in the scutellarin-treated group after interfering with the expression of Wnt5a. The affinity constant (KD) of Wnt5a and scutellarin was 1.7 × 10-5 M. The pull-down assay also demonstrated that scutellarin could specifically bind to Wnt5a protein. Molecular docking results showed that scutellarin could form hydrogen bonds with TRY52, GLN56, and SER90 on Wnt5a protein, and western blot assay confirmed SER90 was an important site for the binding. Scutellarin significantly increased Wnt5a and β-catenin expression and decreased cleaved-caspase-3 expression in ovarian tissues of mice. In conclusion, scutellarin exerted anti-apoptotic effects on ZEA-induced mouse ovarian GCs by targeting Wnt5a.

Adsorption of Zearalenone by Aureobasidium pullulans Autolyzed Biomass Preparation and Its Detoxification Properties in Cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Yeast

Different preventive strategies are needed to minimize the intake risks of mycotoxins, including zearalenone (ZEN). The aim of this study was to determine the ZEN adsorption ability of an autolyzed biomass preparation of polymorphic yeast Aureobasidium pullulans A.p.-3. The evaluation of the antitoxic properties of the preparation was also performed in relation to Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast (ATCC 2366, ATCC 7090 and ATCC 9763) used as a model cell exposed to a toxic ZEN dose. The preparation at a dose of 5 mg/mL showed the adsorption of ZEN present in model systems at concentrations between 1 μg/mL to 100 μg/mL. The highest degree of adsorption was established for ZEN concentrations of 1 μg/mL and 5 μg/mL, becoming limited at higher doses of the toxin. Based on the Langmuir model of adsorption isotherms, the predicted maximum ZEN adsorption was approx. 190 µg/mL, regardless of pH. The growth of three strains of S. cerevisiae yeast cells in the medium with ZEN at concentrations within the range of 1.56 μg/mL-100 μg/mL was analyzed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration. The growth of all tested strains was especially limited by high doses of ZEN, i.e., 50 and 100 μg/mL. The protective effect of the tested preparation was noted in relation to yeast cells exposed to toxic 100 μg/mL ZEN doses. The highest yeast cell growth (app. 36% percentage) was noted for a S. cerevisiae ATCC 9763 strain compared to the medium with ZEN but without preparation. More detailed tests determining the antitoxic mechanisms of the A. pullulans preparation are planned in the future, including cell culture bioassays and animal digestive tract models.

Protective effects of melanoidins from black garlic on zearalenone-induced toxicity in zebrafish embryonic developmental model

Zearalenone (ZEN), a ubiquitous mycotoxin that widely occurs in grain and foodstuff may induce serious toxic effects after accumulation in vivo. Melanoidins (MLDs) have shown multiple bio-functional properties such as antioxidant, anti-bacterial and prebiotic activities. Black garlic exhibits several advantages over fresh garlic related to health improvement. In this study, the alleviative effects of black garlic MLDs on ZEN-induced toxicity and the potential mechanisms were studied using zebrafish embryonic developmental model. The results showed that MLDs restored the ZEN-induced adverse influences on zebrafish embryonic development, including delay in hatching time, morphological abnormality and the impairment of nervous development. Further studies showed that MLDs significantly inhibited the ZEN-induced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and enhanced the intrinsic antioxidant ability by increasing the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (CAT) and the content of glutathione (GSH). In addition, co-exposure of MLDs significantly inhibited the ZEN-stimulated cellular apoptosis in zebrafish larvae through down-regulation of pro-apoptotic genes of bax, caspase-3 and caspase-9 and up-regulation of anti-apoptotic gene bcl-2. Moreover, MLDs inhibited the in vivo accumulation of ZEN in zebrafish larvae. To sum up, MLDs attenuated the ZEN-induced zebrafish embryonic developmental toxicity through suppression of the oxidative stress and intervention on mitochondria apoptosis pathway as well as inhibiting the absorption of ZEN in zebrafish embryos/larvae. The results suggest that black garlic MLDs have potential to be used as a functional ingredient against the adverse effects of exogenous toxins.

Toxicokinetics of Zearalenone following Oral Administration in Female Dezhou Donkeys

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by various Fusarium strains, that is present in food and feed raw materials worldwide, causing toxicity effects in animals and humans. This research aimed to explore the toxicokinetics of ZEN on female Dezhou donkeys following a single oral exposure dosage of 2 mg/kg BW (body weight). The sample collection of donkeys plasma was carried out at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90 min, 2 h, 2.5 h, 3 h, 3.5 h, 4 h, 4.5 h, 6 h, 9 h, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, 96 h and 120 h via intravenous catheter, and fecal and urinary samples were severally collected at 0 h and every 6 h until 120 h. The concentrations of ZEN, α-zearalenol (α-ZOL), β-zearalenol (β-ZOL), α-zearalanol (α-ZAL), β-zearalanol (β-ZAL), zearalanone (ZAN) in plasma, urine, and feces were detected by UPLC-MS/MS. Only ZEN was detected in plasma, and the maximum was 15.34 ± 5.12 µg/L occurred at 0.48 h after gavage. The total plasma clearance (Cl) of ZEN was 95.20 ± 8.01 L·kg·BW-1·h-1. In addition, the volume of distribution (Vd) was up to 216.17 ± 58.71 L/kg. The percentage of total ZEN (ZEN plus the main metabolites) excretion in feces and urine was 2.49% and 2.10%, respectively. In summary, ZEN was fast absorbed and relatively slowly excreted in female donkeys during 120 h after a single gavage, indicating a trend of wider tissue distribution and longer tissue persistence.

A sensitive monoclonal antibody-based ELISA integrated with immunoaffinity column extraction for the detection of zearalenone in food and feed samples

Zearalenone (ZEN) is one of the most toxic mycotoxins widely found in agricultural products. In this study, a sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) integrated with immunoaffinity column extraction for the detection of ZEN in food and feed samples was developed. A ZEN derivative containing a carboxylic group was first synthesized and then linked to bovine serum albumin (BSA). The formed ZEN-BSA conjugate was used as the immunogen for the production of the monoclonal antibody (mAb) against ZEN. The hybridoma clones (1G5) capable of secreting antibodies against ZEN were successfully selected. Based on this mAb, the IC50 and LOD of the ELISA for ZEN were 0.37 ng mL-1 and 0.04 ng mL-1, respectively, which were 1.6-308.1 times lower than those in the published ELISAs, indicating the high sensitivity of our assay. There was no cross-reactivity of the mAb with other four mycotoxins (patulin, AFB1, DON, and OTA). Due to the high similarity in molecular structures among ZEN and its homologs (α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol, zearalanone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol), the CR values of the mAb with the homologs were within 3.59%-105.71%. Taking advantage of plenty of mAb, the immunoaffinity column was prepared by immobilizing the mAb on Sepharose-4B gel and filling it into an SPE column. ZEN spiked samples (corn, wheat, feed) were extracted using an immunoaffinity column and measured by ELISA and HPLC-FLD simultaneously. The recoveries of the ELISA for ZEN in the spiked samples were 92.46-105.48% with RSDs of 4.87-10.11%. A good correlation between ELISA (x) and HPLC-FLD (y) with the linear regression equation y = 1.0589x + 1.43815 (R2 = 0.998, n = 6) was obtained. To verify the applicability, the proposed ELISA was also applied to some real samples randomly collected from a local market. It was proven that the newly produced mAb-based ELISA was a feasible and sensitive method for the detection of ZEN in food and feed samples.

Bacillus velezensis A2 Can Protect against Damage to IPEC-J2 Cells Induced by Zearalenone via the Wnt/FRZB/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway

Zearalenone (ZEA) has adverse effects on human and animal health, and finding effective strategies to combat its toxicity is essential. The probiotic Bacillus velezensis A2 shows various beneficial physiological functions, including the potential to combat fungal toxins. However, the detailed mechanism by which the Bacillus velezensis A2 strain achieves this protective effect is not yet fully revealed. This experiment was based on transcriptome data to study the protective mechanism of Bacillus velezensis A2 against ZEA-induced damage to IPEC-J2 cells. The experiment was divided into CON, A2, ZEA, and A2+ZEA groups. This research used an oxidation kit to measure oxidative damage indicators, the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated nick end labeling (TUNEL) method to detect cell apoptosis, flow cytometry to determine the cell cycle, and transcriptome sequencing to screen and identify differentially expressed genes. In addition, gene ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) were adopted to screen out relevant signaling pathways. Finally, to determine whether A2 can alleviate the damage caused by ZEA to cells, the genes and proteins involved in inflammation, cell apoptosis, cell cycles, and related pathways were validated using a quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot methods. Compared with the CON group, the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in the ZEA group increased significantly (p < 0.01), while the levels of antioxidant enzyme activity, total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), and catalase (CAT) decreased significantly (p < 0.01). Compared with the ZEA group, the A2+ZEA group showed a significant decrease in ROS and MDA levels (p < 0.01), while the levels of T-SOD, GSH-PX, T-AOC, and CAT increased significantly (p < 0.01). TUNEL and cell cycle results indicated that compared with the ZEA group, the A2+ZEA group demonstrated a significant decrease in the cell apoptosis rate (p < 0.01), and the cell cycle was restored. Combining transcriptome data, qRT-PCR, and Western blot, the results showed that compared with the CON group, the mRNA and protein expression levels of Wnt10 and β-catenin increased significantly (p < 0.01), while the expression level of FRZB decreased significantly (p < 0.01); compared with the ZEA group, the expression levels of these mRNA and proteins were reversed. Bacillus velezensis A2 can increase the antioxidant level, reduce inflammatory damage, decrease cell apoptosis, and correct the cell cycle when that damage is being caused by ZEA. The protective mechanism may be related to the regulation of the Wnt/FRZB cell/β-catenin signaling pathway.

Innovative approaches for mycotoxin detection in various food categories

Mycotoxins (MTs), produced by filamentous fungi, represent a severe hazard to the health of humans and food safety, affecting the quality of various agricultural products. They can contaminate a wide range of foods, during any processing phase before or after harvest. Animals and humans who consume MTs-contaminated food or feed may experience acute or chronic poisoning, which may result in serious pathological consequences. Accordingly, developing rapid, easy, and accurate methods of MTs detection in food becomes highly urgent and critical as a quality control and to guarantee food safety and lower health hazards. In this review, we highlighted and discussed innovative approaches like biosensors, fluorescent polarization, capillary electrophoresis, infrared spectroscopy, and electronic noses for MT identification pointing out current challenges and future directions. The limitations, current challenges, and future directions of conventional detection methods versus innovative methods have also been highlighted and discussed.

Improving feed intake and rumen fermentation in lambs using mixed-dimensional attapulgite clay to adsorb naturally occurring mycotoxins

This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of including a mixed-dimensional attapulgite clay (MDA) into a naturally moldly diet for Hu lambs. Fifty male Hu lambs with similar initial body weight (28.24 ± 1.80 kg) were randomly allocated into five dietary treatments: a basal diet containing naturally occurring mycotoxins with 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 kg/t MDA, and basal diet with a commercial mycotoxin adsorbent Solis with montmorillonite as the major component at 1 kg/t. Both MDA and Solis increased average daily gain (ADG) and dry matter intake (DMI; P ≤ 0.004), and there was no difference in growth performance between MDA and Solis (P ≥ 0.26). The final body weight, DMI, and ADG were linearly increased with increasing MDA supplementation (P < 0.01). Lambs treated with both MDA and Solis demonstrated greater apparent digestibility of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), and energy compared with the control group (P ≤ 0.03), and there were no differences in nutrient digestibilities between MDA and Solis (P ≥ 0.38). Digestibility of CP was linearly increased with the increasing MDA supplementation (P = 0.01). Neither MDA nor Solis affected rumen total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) concentration (P ≥ 0.39), but decreased the acetate-to-propionate ratio and molar proportion of n-butyrate (P ≤ 0.01), and MDA also increased the concentration of ammonia (P = 0.003). Besides, increasing MDA supplementation linearly reduced the acetate-to-propionate ratio and molar proportion of n-butyrate (P = 0.01), but linearly and quadratically increased the concentration of ammonia (P ≥ 0.003). These results showed that the incorporation of MDA into a naturally moldy diet of Hu lambs yielded comparable results to the Solis product, with higher growth performance and nutrient digestibility but lower acetate-to-propionate ratio observed. In conclusion, including ≥ 1 kg/t of MDA in high mycotoxin risk diets for growing lambs improves feed intake and rumen fermentation.

A mechanistic toxicology study to grasp the mechanics of zearalenone estrogenicity: Spotlighting aromatase and the effects of its genetic variability

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogen produced by Fusarium fungi contaminating cereals and in grain-based products threatening human and animal health due to its endocrine disrupting effects. Germane to the mechanisms of action, ZEN may activate the estrogen receptors and inhibit the estrogens-producing enzyme aromatase (CYP19A1). Both show single nucleotide variants (SNVs) among humans associated with a diverse susceptibility of being activated or inhibited. These variations might modify the endocrine disrupting action of ZEN, requiring dedicated studies to improve its toxicological understanding. This work focused on human aromatase investigating via 3D molecular modelling whether some of the SNVs reported so far (n = 434) may affect the inhibitory potential of ZEN. It has been also calculated the inhibition capability of α-zearalenol, the most prominent and estrogenically potent phase I metabolite of ZEN, toward those aromatase variants with an expected diverse sensitivity of being inhibited by ZEN. The study: i) described SNVs likely associated with a different susceptibility to ZEN and α-zearalenol inhibition - like T310S that is likely more susceptible to inhibition, or D309G and S478F that are possibly inactive variants; ii) proofed the possible existence of inter-individual susceptibility to ZEN; iii) prioritized aromatase variants for future investigations toward a better comprehension of ZEN xenoestrogenicity at an individual level.

Zearalenone Induces Blood-Testis Barrier Damage through Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Paraptosis of Sertoli Cells in Goats

Zearalenone (ZEA) is present worldwide as a serious contaminant of food and feed and causes male reproductive toxicity. The implication of paraptosis, which is a nonclassical paradigm of cell death, is unclear in ZEA-induced male reproductive disorders. In this study, the toxic effects of ZEA on the blood-testis barrier (BTB) and the related mechanisms of paraptosis were detected in goats. ZEA exposure, in vivo, caused a significant decrease in spermatozoon quality, the destruction of seminiferous tubules, and damage to the BTB integrity. Furthermore, ZEA exposure to Sertoli cells (SCs) in vitro showed similar dysfunction in structure and barrier function. Importantly, the formation of massive cytoplasmic vacuoles in ZEA-treated SCs corresponded to the highly swollen and dilative endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and paraptosis inhibition significantly alleviated ZEA-induced SC death and vacuolization, which indicated the important contribution of paraptosis in ZEA-induced BTB damage. Meanwhile, the expression of ER stress marker proteins was increased after ZEA treatment but decreased under the inhibition of paraptosis. The vacuole formation and SC death, induced by ZEA, were remarkably blocked by ER stress inhibition. In conclusion, these results facilitate the exploration of the mechanisms of the SC paraptosis involved in ZEA-induced BTB damage in goats.

Nutritional Values and Bio-Functional Properties of Fungal Proteins: Applications in Foods as a Sustainable Source

From the preparation of bread, cheese, beer, and condiments to vegetarian meat products, fungi play a leading role in the food fermentation industry. With the shortage of global protein resources and the decrease in cultivated land, fungal protein has received much attention for its sustainability. Fungi are high in protein, rich in amino acids, low in fat, and almost cholesterol-free. These properties mean they could be used as a promising supplement for animal and plant proteins. The selection of strains and the fermentation process dominate the flavor and quality of fungal-protein-based products. In terms of function, fungal proteins exhibit better digestive properties, can regulate blood lipid and cholesterol levels, improve immunity, and promote gut health. However, consumer acceptance of fungal proteins is low due to their flavor and safety. Thus, this review puts forward prospects in terms of these issues.

Quercetin alleviates zearalenone-induced apoptosis and necroptosis of porcine renal epithelial cells by inhibiting CaSR/CaMKII signaling pathway

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin that is highly contaminated in feed and can cause severe toxic effects on the kidneys and other organs of animals. Quercetin (QUE) is a plant-derived flavonoid with a variety of detoxification properties, but the mechanism by which QUE detoxifies the toxic effects induced by ZEA has not yet been fully elucidated. We treated porcine kidney cells (PK15) with 80 μM ZEA and/or 30 μM QUE. The results showed that ROS and MDA levels were increased, antioxidant system levels were down-regulated, anti-apoptotic factor expression levels were decreased, and apoptotic and necroptosis-related factors were up-regulated after ZAE exposure. In addition, the results of Ca2+ staining, mitochondrial membrane potential, and mitochondrial dynamics-related indicators showed that ZEA induced Ca2+ overload in PK15 cells and increased mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake (MCU expression increased). The accumulated ROS and free Ca2+ further aggravate mitochondrial damage and eventually lead to mitochondrial pathway apoptosis and necroptosis. Nevertheless, QUE targets CaSR to inhibit the CaSR/CaMKII pathway and regulate calcium homeostasis, thereby alleviating apoptosis and necroptosis mediated by mitochondrial dynamic disorder and dysfunction. The present study demonstrated the mechanism by which ZEA induces apoptosis and necroptosis in PK15 and the protective role of QUE in this process.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside Mitigates the Ovarian Defect Induced by Zearalenone via p53-GADD45a Signaling during Primordial Follicle Assembly

Zearalenone (ZEN) is well known as a kind of endocrine disruptor whose exposure is capable of causing reproductive toxicity in animals. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) is a derivative of cyanidin and owns multiple biofunctions, and prior efforts have suggested that C3G has therapeutic actions for reproductive diseases. In this article, a ZEN exposure model during primordial follicle assembly was constructed using the in vitro culture platform of neonatal mouse ovaries. We investigated the protective effect of C3G on ZEN-induced ovarian toxicity during primordial follicle assembly in mice, as well as its potential mechanism. Interestingly, we observed that C3G could effectively protect the ovary from ZEN damage, mainly by restoring primordial follicle assembly, which upregulated the expression of LHX8 and SOHLH1 proteins and relieved ZEN-induced DNA damage. Next, to explore the mechanism by which C3G rescued ZEN-induced injury, we performed RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). The bioinformatic analysis illustrated that the rescue pathway of C3G was associated with p53-Gadd45a signaling and cell cycle. Then, western blotting and flow cytometry results revealed that C3G restored the expression levels of cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (CDK6) and cyclin D2 (CCND2) and regulated the ovarian cell cycle to normal. In conclusion, our findings manifested that C3G could alleviate ZEN-induced primordial follicle assembly impairment by restoring the cell cycle involved in p53-GADD45a signaling.

LncRNA profiles of Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside ameliorated Zearalenone-induced damage in porcine granulosa cells

Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), a class of RNA molecules with transcripts longer than 200 nt, is crucial for maintaining animal reproductive function. Zearalenone (ZEN) damaged animal reproduction by targeting ovarian granulosa cells (GCs), especially in pigs. Nonetheless, it is not quite clear that whether Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) exert effects on porcine GCs (pGCs) after ZEN exposure by altering lncRNA expression. Here, we sought to gain novel information regarding C3G protect against damages induced by ZEN in pGCs. The pGCs were divided into control (Ctrl), ZEN, ZEN + C3G (Z + C), and C3G groups. Results revealed that C3G effectively increased cell viability and suppressed ZEN-induced apoptosis in pGCs. 87 and 82 differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs) were identified in ZEN vs. Ctrl and Z + C vs. ZEN group, respectively. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis observed that the DELs were related to cell metabolism and cell-matrix adhesion biological processes. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis found that the DELs were associated with the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases (PI3K)-protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathway. In brief, we demonstrated that C3G could shield apoptosis induced by ZEN, which may be connected with the changes of lncRNA expression profiles in pGCs. This study complemented our understanding of the genetic basis and molecular mechanisms by which C3G mitigated the toxicity of ZEN in pGCs.

Ergot Alkaloids on Cereals and Seeds: Analytical Methods, Occurrence, and Future Perspectives

Ergot alkaloids are secondary metabolites resulting from fungi of the genus Claviceps that have proven to be highly toxic. These mycotoxins commonly infect cereal crops such as wheat, rye, barley, and oats. Due to the increase worldwide consumption of cereal and cereal-based products, the presence of ergot alkaloids in food presents a concern for human safety. For this reason, it is essential to develop several analytical methods that allow the detection of these toxic compounds. This review compiles and discusses the most relevant studies and methods used in the detection and quantification of ergot alkaloids. Moreover, the decontamination techniques are also addressed, with special attention to sorting, cleaning, frying, baking, peeling, and ammonization methods, as they are the only ones already applied to ergot alkaloids.

Simultaneous degradation of aflatoxin B1 and zearalenone by Porin and Peroxiredoxin enzymes cloned from Acinetobacter nosocomialis Y1

Mycotoxin contamination can cause severe health issues for both humans and animals. This study examined the potential of enzymes derived from Acinetobacter nosocomialis Y1 to simultaneously degrade aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and zearalenone (ZEN), which could have significant implications in reducing mycotoxin contamination. Two enzymes, Porin and Peroxiredoxin, were identified with molecular weights of 27.8 and 20.8 kDa, respectively. Porin could completely degrade 2 µg/mL of AFB1 and ZEN within 24 h at 80 °C and 60 °C, respectively. Peroxiredoxin could completely degrade 2 µg/mL of AFB1 and reduce ZEN by 91.12% within 24 h. The addition of Na+, Cu2+, and K+ ions enhanced the degradation activities of both enzymes. LC-MS/MS analysis revealed that the molar masses of the degradation products of AFB1 and ZEN were 286 g/mol and 322.06 g/mol, and the products were identified as AFD1 and α or β-ZAL, respectively. Vibrio fischeri bioluminescence assays further confirmed that the cytotoxicity of the two degradation products was significantly lower than that of AFB1 and ZEN. Based on these results, it can be inferred that the degradation product of ZEN is β-ZAL. These findings suggest that both enzymes have the potential to be utilized as detoxification enzymes in food and feed.

Zearalenone-14-glucoside specifically promotes dysplasia of Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue: A natural product for constructing intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia model

INTRODUCTION

Zearalenone-14-glucoside (Z14G) is a modified mycotoxin that widely contaminates food across the world. Our preliminary experiment showed that Z14G degrades to zearalenone (ZEN) in the intestine exerting toxicity. Notably, oral administration of Z14G in rats induces intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the mechanism of Z14G intestinal toxicity and how it differs from ZEN toxicity. We conducted a precise toxicology study on the intestine of rats exposed to Z14G and ZEN using multi-omics technology.

METHODS

Rats were exposed to ZEN (5 mg/kg), Z14G-L (5 mg/kg), Z14G-H (10 mg/kg), and pseudo germ free (PGF)-Z14G-H (10 mg/kg) for 14 days. Histopathological studies were performed on intestines from each group and compared. Metagenomic, metabolomic, and proteomic analyses were performed on rat feces, serum, and intestines, respectively.

RESULTS

Histopathological studies showed that Z14G exposure resulted in dysplasia of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) compared to ZEN exposure. The elimination of gut microbes in the PGF-Z14G-H group alleviated or eliminated Z14G-induced intestinal toxicity and GALT dysplasia. Metagenomic analysis revealed that Z14G exposure significantly promoted the proliferation of Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides compared to ZEN. Metabolomic analysis showed that Z14G exposure significantly reduced bile acid, while proteomic analysis found that Z14G exposure significantly reduced the expression of C-type lectins compared to ZEN.

CONCLUSIONS

Our experimental results and previous research suggest that Z14G is hydrolyzed to ZEN by Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides promoting their co-trophic proliferation. This leads to inactivation of lectins by hyperproliferative Bacteroides when ZEN caused intestinal involvement, resulting in abnormal lymphocyte homing and ultimately GALT dysplasia. It is noteworthy that Z14G is a promising model drug to establish rat models of intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia (INLH), which is of great significance for studying the pathogenesis, drug screening and clinical application of INLH.

Quantitative PCR (qPCR) for estimating the presence of Fusarium and its mycotoxins in barley grains

Members within the Fusarium sambucinum species complex (FSAMSC) are able to produce mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), zearalenone (ZEN) and enniatins (ENNs) in food products. Consequently, alternative methods for assessing the levels of these mycotoxins are relevant for quick decision-making. In this context, qPCR based on key mycotoxin biosynthetic genes could aid in determining the toxigenic fungal biomass, and could therefore infer mycotoxin content. The aim of this study was to verify the use of qPCR as a technique for estimating DON, NIV, ENNs and ZEN, as well as Fusarium graminearum sensu lato (s.l.) and F. poae in barley grains. For this purpose, 53 barley samples were selected for mycobiota, mycotoxin and qPCR analyses. ENNs were the most frequent mycotoxins, followed by DON, ZEN and NIV. 83% of the samples were contaminated by F. graminearum s.l. and 51% by F. poae. Pearson correlation analysis showed significant correlations for TRI12/15-ADON with DON, ESYN1 with ENNs, TRI12/15-ADON and ZEB1 with F. graminearum s.l., as well as ESYN1 and TRI12/NIV with F. poae. Based on the results, qPCR could be useful for the assessment of Fusarium presence, and therefore, provide an estimation of its mycotoxins' levels from the same sample.

The release of zearalenone-induced heterophil extracellular traps in chickens is associated with autophagy, glycolysis, PAD enzyme, and P2X1 receptor

Zearalenone (ZEA) is produced mainly by fungi belonging to genus Fusarium in foods and feeds. Heterophil extracellular traps (HETs) are a novel defense mechanism of chicken innate immunity involving activated heterophils. However, the conditions and requirements for ZEA-triggered HET release remain unknown. In this study, immunostaining analysis demonstrated that ZEA-triggered extracellular fibers were composed of histone and elastase assembled on DNA skeleton, showing that ZEA can induce the formation of HETs. Further experiments indicated that ZEA-induced HET release was concentration-dependent (ranging from 20 to 80 μM ZEA) and time-dependent (ranging from 30 to 180 min). Moreover, in 80 μM ZEA-exposed chicken heterophils, reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and glutathione (GSH) content were increased. Simultaneously, ZEA at 80 μM activated ERK and p38 MAPK signaling pathways by increasing the phosphorylation level of ERK and p38 proteins. Pharmacological inhibition assays revealed that blocking nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, ERK, and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) reduced ZEA-induced ROS levels but had no impact on HET formation. Furthermore, immunostaining analysis indicated that the heterophil underwent the formation of autophagosome based on being stained with LC3B. The pharmacological inhibition assays demonstrated that rapamycin-, wortmannin-, and 3-methyladenine (3-MA)-treatments modulated ZEA-triggered HET formation, indicating that heterophil autophagy played a key role in ZEA-induced HET formation. Further studies on energy metabolism showed that inhibition of lactate/glucose transport, hexokinase-2 (HK-2), fructose-2,6-biphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3) in glycolysis abated ZEA-induced HETs, implying that glycolysis was one of the factors influencing the ZEA-induced HET formation. Besides, inhibition of the peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD) enzyme and P2X1 significantly reduced the ZEA-induced HET formation. In conclusion, we demonstrated that ZEA-triggered HET formation, which was associated with glycolysis, autophagy, PAD enzyme, and P2X1 receptor activation, providing valuable insight into the negative effect of ZEA on chicken innate immunity.

Advancements in Sample Preparation Methods for the Chromatographic and Mass Spectrometric Determination of Zearalenone and Its Metabolites in Food: An Overview

Zearalenone and its metabolites are mycotoxins generated by Fusarium species while crops are growing and can typically be found in various foods, posing a risk to human health. Governments have implemented stricter regulations concerning the permissible levels of zearalenone in food products to safeguard public health. Stricter regulations on zearalenone levels in food have been implemented. However, detecting zearalenone and its metabolites remains challenging due to sample complexity and interference. Surprisingly few reviews of sample preparation methods for zearalenone in food have appeared in the past decade. In this overview, we outline the most recent developments in the sample pre-treatment technology of zearalenone and its metabolites in food samples based on chromatography-mass spectrometry methods since 2012. This review covers some prominent technologies, such as liquid-liquid extraction-based methods, solid-phase extraction-based methods, and QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) extraction, providing valuable insights into their advantages and limitations for potential applications. The assessment of the methods discussed, along with an overview of current challenges and prospects, will guide researchers in advancing the field and ensuring safer food quality for consumers worldwide.

Oxidative Status and Histological Evaluation of Wild Boars' Tissues Positive for Zearalenone Contamination in the Campania Region, Southern Italy

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by fungi belonging to the genera Fusarium spp. and commonly found in feed and food. It is frequently related to reproductive disorders in farm animals and, occasionally, to hyperestrogenic syndromes in humans. Nowadays, knowledge about ZEN effects on wild boars (Sus scrofa) is extremely scarce, despite the fact that they represent one of the most hunted game species in Italy. The aim of this study was to investigate how ZEN affects the liver, kidney, and muscle oxidative status and morphology of wild boars hunted in various locations throughout the province of Avellino, Campania Region, Southern Italy, during the 2021-2022 hunting season. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities, as well as the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, were assessed by colorimetric assays; tissue morphology was evaluated by hematoxylin-eosin and Masson's stains. Our data showed that ZEN contamination might result in oxidative stress (OS) and some histopathological alterations in wild boars' livers and kidneys rather than in muscles, emphasizing the importance of developing a wildlife monitoring and management strategy for dealing not only with the problem of ZEN but the surveillance of mycotoxins in general.

Gastrodin protects porcine sertoli cells from zearalenone-induced abnormal secretion of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor through the NOTCH signaling pathway

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a prevalent mycotoxin found in moldy diets and is associated with reproductive dysfunction. However, the molecular underpinning of ZEA in impairment of spermatogenesis remains largely unknown. To unveil the toxic mechanism of ZEA, we established a co-culture model using porcine Sertoli cells and porcine spermatogonial stem cells (pSSCs) to investigate the impact of ZEA on these cell types and their associated signaling pathways. Our findings showed that low concentration of ZEA inhibited cell apoptosis, while high concentration induced cell apoptosis. Furthermore, the expression levels of Wilms' tumor 1 (WT1), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) were significantly decreased in ZEA treatment group, while concurrently upregulating the transcriptional levels of the NOTCH signaling pathway target genes HES1 and HEY1. The addition of the NOTCH signaling pathway inhibitor DAPT (GSI-IX) alleviated the damage to porcine Sertoli cells caused by ZEA. Gastrodin (GAS) significantly increased the expression levels of WT1, PCNA and GDNF, and inhibited the transcription of HES1 and HEY1. GAS also efficiently restored the decreased expression levels of DDX4, PCNA and PGP9.5 in co-cultured pSSCs suggesting its potential in ameliorating the damage caused by ZEA to Sertoli cells and pSSCs. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that ZEA disrupts pSSCs self-renewal by affecting the function of porcine Sertoli cell, and highlights the protective mechanism of GAS through the regulation of the NOTCH signaling pathway. These findings may offer a novel strategy for alleviating ZEA-induced male reproductive dysfunction in animal production.

Bioinformatic Analysis of Secondary Metabolite Biosynthetic Potential in Pathogenic Fusarium

Fusarium species are among the filamentous fungi with the most pronounced impact on agricultural production and human health. The mycotoxins produced by pathogenic Fusarium not only attack various plants including crops, causing various plant diseases that lead to reduced yields and even death, but also penetrate into the food chain of humans and animals to cause food poisoning and consequent health hazards. Although sporadic studies have revealed some of the biosynthetic pathways of Fusarium toxins, they are insufficient to satisfy the need for a comprehensive understanding of Fusarium toxin production. In this study, we focused on 35 serious pathogenic Fusarium species with available genomes and systematically analyzed the ubiquity of the distribution of identified Fusarium- and non-Fusarium-derived fungal toxin biosynthesis gene clusters (BGCs) in these species through the mining of core genes and the comparative analysis of corresponding BGCs. Additionally, novel sesterterpene synthases and PKS_NRPS clusters were discovered and analyzed. This work is the first to systematically analyze the distribution of related mycotoxin biosynthesis in pathogenic Fusarium species. These findings enhance the knowledge of mycotoxin production and provide a theoretical grounding for the prevention of fungal toxin production using biotechnological approaches.

Isolation and Characterization of the Zearalenone-Degrading Strain, Bacillus spizizenii B73, Inspired by Esterase Activity

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a widespread mycotoxin found in grain and feed, presenting a serious threat to animal and human health. This study investigated the ability of the novel strain B73, isolated from petroleum-contaminated soil, to detoxify ZEN. B73 was identified as Bacillus spizizenii through physiological and biochemical tests, and further confirmed based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence and the complete genome sequence. B. spizizenii B73 was capable of degrading up to 99.3% of ZEN at a concentration of 10 μg/mL in a minimal medium (pH = 7.0) within 8 h at 37 °C via HPLC-UV. In addition, B. spizizenii B73 was used to treat ZEN-contaminated wheat bran, dried distillers grains (DDGS), and corn meal, whereby the respective degradation rates reached 96.32%, 98.73%, and 80.31% after 36 h of treatment. HPLC-Q-Exactive-MS/MS analysis revealed one of the degradation products to have the formula C17H24O4. B. spizizenii B73 is a novel strain isolated from petroleum-contaminated soil, and the extracellular enzymes secreted by this strain show a remarkable ability to degrade ZEN.

Combination of Zearalenone and Deoxynivalenol Induces Apoptosis by Mitochondrial Pathway in Piglet Sertoli Cells: Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Zearalenone (ZEA) and deoxynivalenol (DON) are widely found in various feeds, which harms livestock's reproductive health. Both mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) can regulate cell apoptosis. This study aimed to explore the regulatory mechanism of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) on ZEA- combined with DON-induced mitochondrial pathway apoptosis in piglet Sertoli cells (SCs). The results showed that ZEA + DON damaged the ultrastructure of the cells, induced apoptosis, decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, promoted the expression of cytochrome c (CytC), and decreased the cell survival rate. Furthermore, ZEA + DON increased the relative mRNA and protein expression of Bid, Caspase-3, Drp1, and P53, while that of Bcl-2 and Mfn2 declined. ZEA + DON was added after pretreatment with 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA). The results showed that 4-PBA could alleviate the toxicity of ZEA + DON toward SCs. Compared with the ZEA + DON group, 4-PBA improved the cell survival rate, decreased the apoptosis rate, inhibited CytC expression, and increased mitochondrial membrane potential, and the damage to the cell ultrastructure was alleviated. Moreover, after pretreatment with 4-PBA, the relative mRNA and protein expression of Bid, Caspase-3, Drp1, and P53 were downregulated, while the relative mRNA and protein expression of Bcl-2 and Mfn2 were upregulated. It can be concluded that ERS plays an important part in the apoptosis of SCs co-infected with ZEA-DON through the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway, and intervention in this process can provide a new way to alleviate the reproductive toxicity of mycotoxins.

Ex vivo effects of bisphenol A or zearalenone on the prepubertal rat testis

Bisphenol A (BPA) and zearalenone (ZEA) are two widespread xenoestrogens involved in male reproductive disorders. Few studies investigated the effects of these compounds on the prepubertal testis, which is highly sensitive to endocrine disruptors such as xenoestrogens. An ex vivo approach was performed to evaluate the effects of BPA or ZEA (10^-11, 10^-9, 10^-6 M) on the testes of 20 and 25 dpp rats. To investigate the involvement of classical nuclear ER-mediated estrogen signaling in these effects, pre-incubation with an antagonist (ICI 182.780 10^-6M) was performed. BPA and ZEA have similar effects on spermatogenesis- and steroidogenesis-related endpoints in the immature testis, but our study highlights different age-dependent patterns of sensitivity to each compound during the prepubertal period. Moreover, our results indicate that the effects of BPA are likely to be induced by nuclear ER, whereas those of ZEA appear to involve other mechanisms.

Zearalenone Exposure Disrupts STAT-ISG15 in Rat Colon: A Potential Linkage between Zearalenone and Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Zearalenone (ZEN), a prevalent mycotoxin contaminating food and known for its intestinal toxicity, has been suggested as a potential risk factor for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), although the exact relationship between ZEN exposure and IBD remains unclear. In this study, we established a rat model of colon toxicity induced by ZEN exposure to investigate the key targets of ZEN-induced colon toxicity and explore the underlying connection between ZEN exposure and IBD. Histological staining of the rat colon revealed significant pathological changes resulting from ZEN exposure (p < 0.01). Furthermore, the proteomic analysis demonstrated a notable upregulation of protein expression levels, specifically STAT2 (0.12 ± 0.0186), STAT6 (0.36 ± 0.0475) and ISG15 (0.43 ± 0.0226) in the rat colon (p < 0.05). Utilizing bioinformatics analysis, we combined ZEN exposure and IBD clinical sample databases to reveal that ZEN exposure may increase the risk of IBD through activation of the STAT-ISG15 pathway. This study identified novel targets for ZEN-induced intestinal toxicity, providing the basis for further study of ZEN exposure to IBD.

Presence of the toxigenic fungi Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp. in Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae) collected from dairy farms

The objective of the study was to identify the presence of toxigenic fungi Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp. in domestic flies collected from dairy farms. We selected 10 dairy farms distributed in the central valley of the state of Aguascalientes, México. The flies were trapped using entomological traps with an olfactory attractant in 7 sites of the farm (silo-cutting surface, feed store, milking parlor, 3 feeders, and the rearing room). The fungi were cultivated in Sabouraud agar through direct sowing by serial dilutions to obtain the isolates, and a taxonomical identification was carried out under the microscope. The aflatoxins and zearalenone production capacity of the pure isolates were quantified using the ELISA test. The flies were present in all of the capture sites (45.3 flies, 567 mg, trap per day). We obtained 50 isolates of Aspergillus spp. genus, 12 of which produced aflatoxins (327 ± 143 µg/kg), whereas from 56 of the Fusarium spp. isolates, 10 produced large quantities of zearalenone (3,132 ± 665 µg/kg). These results suggest that the presence of domestic flies on dairy farms can constitute a source of dissemination for toxigenic fungi that can eventually contaminate grains and forage that are part of the daily cattle diet.

An enhanced fluorescent sensor system based on molecularly imprinted polymer chips with silver nanoparticles for highly-sensitive zearalenone analysis

A novel enhanced fluorescent sensor system for zearalenone (ZON) determination in flour samples is presented. The ZON-selective molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) films were developed with a computational modelling method and synthesised with cyclododecyl-2,4-dihydroxybenzoate as a "dummy" template and ethylene glycol methacrylate phosphate as a functional monomer acted as the selective recognition elements for ZON fluorescence detection. Spherical silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were embedded in the MIP films' structure to enhance the sensor sensitivity. The imprinted films showed a high ZON recognition ability compared to non-imprinted films. Various factors that affected the measurement of the analysed sample were investigated and optimised. Embedding the AgNPs in the MIP films' structure led to an enhanced sensitivity (up to a 200-fold decrease of LOD) compared to unmodified MIP films. This fluorescent sensor system provided ZON analysis with high sensitivity, specificity, and a wider linear dynamic range of 5 ng mL^-1 to 25 μg mL^-1. An enhanced fluorescent sensor system based on MIP chips with embedded AgNPs could detect trace amounts of ZON in foods and feedstuffs with high sensitivity and selectivity.

Impacts of co-exposure to zearalenone and trifloxystrobin on the enzymatic activity and gene expression in zebrafish

Although humans and animals are usually exposed to combinations of toxic substances, little is known about the interactive toxicity of mycotoxins and farm chemicals. Therefore, we can not precisely evaluate the health risks of combined exposure. In the present work, using different approaches, we examined the toxic impacts of zearalenone and trifloxystrobin on zebrafish (Danio rerio). Our findings showed that the lethal toxicity of zearalenone to embryonic fish with a 10-day LC₅₀ of 0.59 mg L^-1 was lower than trifloxystrobin (0.037 mg L^-1). Besides, the mixture of zearalenone and trifloxystrobin triggered acute synergetic toxicity to embryonic fish. Moreover, the contents of CAT, CYP450, and VTG were distinctly altered in most single and combined exposures. Transcriptional levels of 23 genes involved in the oxidative response, apoptosis, immune, and endocrine systems were determined. Our results implied that eight genes (cas9, apaf-1, bcl-2, il-8, trb, vtg1, erβ1, and tg) displayed greater changes when exposed to the mixture of zearalenone and trifloxystrobin compared with the corresponding individual chemicals. Our findings indicated that performing the risk assessment based on the combined impact rather than the individual dosage response of these chemicals was more accurate. Nevertheless, further investigations are still necessary to reveal the modes of action of mycotoxin and pesticide combinations and alleviate their effects on human health.

The N-terminal hydrophobicity modulates a distal structural domain conformation of zearalenone lacton hydrolase and its application in protein engineering

Zearalenone (ZEN) is one of the most common mycotoxins in maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, rye and other grains. ZEN contamination in feed is an international health issue due to its estrogenicity by competitively binding to estrogen receptors. Enzymatic detoxification of ZEN is superior to physical and chemical methods in terms of safety, environmental impact and preserving nutritional value and palatability, but is hampered by both the currently limited repertoire of detoxifying enzymes and the lack of knowledge about their structure-function relationships. In this study, a ZEN lacton hydrolase candidate (ZHD11C) was identified from thermo-tolerant Fonsecaea multimorphosa CBS 102226, and characterized to be more thermostable than these reported homologues. An intriguing feature of ZHD11C is that the N-terminal hydrophobicity affects its thermal stability and causes conformational change of a domain far from the N-terminal. This finding was successfully applied to enhance the thermostability of the most active ZEN lacton hydrolase ZHD518 through rationally tailoring its N-terminal hydrophobicity. Our results not only provide more insights into the structure-function relationships of ZEN lacton hydrolases, but generate better candidate for bio-decontamination of zearalenone in feed industries.

A fluorescence aptasensor based on hybridization chain reaction for simultaneous detection of T-2 toxins and zearalenone1

It is extremely necessary to establish a rapid and high-throughput method to detect mycotoxins in food, because grains and cereals are greatly vulnerable to mycotoxins before and after harvest. In this study, we developed a portable aptasensor based on streptavidin magnetic microspheres (MMPs) and hybridization chain reaction (HCR) to simultaneously detect T-2 toxin and zearalenone (ZEN) in corn and oat flour. The MMPs compete with the aptamer for binding, which releases more H0 and triggers HCR with the H1 intermediate modified using 6-FAM and BHQ-1 and the unmodified H2. Subsequently, placing the HCR system corresponding to T-2 and ZEN in a constant-temperature fluorescence detector resulted in well-recovered fluorescence of the HCR products. T-2 and ZEN exhibited good fluorescence response in the dynamic range of 0.001-10 ng mL^-1 and 0.01-100 ng mL^-1 with detection limits of 0.1 pg mL^-1 and 1.2 pg mL^-1, respectively. In addition, this strategy achieved the selective detection of T-2 and ZEN in the spiked corn and oat flour samples. The results are also in good agreement with those obtained using commercial ELISA kits. This developed aptasensor with the characteristics of simple operation and portability has the application potential of establishing sensitive and portable field detection of various mycotoxins.

Probing the Interactions of 31 Mycotoxins with Xanthine Oxidase: Alternariol, Alternariol-3-Sulfate, and α-Zearalenol Are Allosteric Inhibitors of the Enzyme

Mycotoxins are frequent toxic contaminants in foods and beverages, causing a significant health threat. Interactions of mycotoxins with biotransformation enzymes (e.g., cytochrome P450 enzymes, sulfotransferases, and uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases) may be important due to their possible detoxification or toxic activation during enzymatic processes. Furthermore, mycotoxin-induced enzyme inhibition may affect the biotransformation of other molecules. A recent study described the strong inhibitory effects of alternariol and alternariol-9-methylether on the xanthine oxidase (XO) enzyme. Therefore, we aimed to test the impacts of 31 mycotoxins (including the masked/modified derivatives of alternariol and alternariol-9-methylether) on XO-catalyzed uric acid formation. Besides the in vitro enzyme incubation assays, mycotoxin depletion experiments and modeling studies were performed. Among the mycotoxins tested, alternariol, alternariol-3-sulfate, and α-zearalenol showed moderate inhibitory actions on the enzyme, representing more than tenfold weaker impacts compared with the positive control inhibitor allopurinol. In mycotoxin depletion assays, XO did not affect the concentrations of alternariol, alternariol-3-sulfate, and α-zearalenol in the incubates; thus, these compounds are inhibitors but not substrates of the enzyme. Experimental data and modeling studies suggest the reversible, allosteric inhibition of XO by these three mycotoxins. Our results help the better understanding of the toxicokinetic interactions of mycotoxins.

Probing Serum Albumins and Cyclodextrins as Binders of the Mycotoxin Metabolites Alternariol-3-Glucoside, Alternariol-9-Monomethylether-3-Glucoside, and Zearalenone-14-Glucuronide

Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of molds. Chronic exposure to alternariol, zearalenone, and their metabolites may cause the development of endocrine-disrupting and carcinogenic effects. Alternariol-3-glucoside (AG) and alternariol-9-monomethylether-3-glucoside (AMG) are masked derivatives of alternariol. Furthermore, in mammals, zearalenone-14-glucuronide (Z14Glr) is one of the most dominant metabolites of zearalenone. In this study, we examined serum albumins and cyclodextrins (CDs) as potential binders of AG, AMG, and Z14Glr. The most important results/conclusions were as follows: AG and AMG formed moderately strong complexes with human, bovine, porcine, and rat albumins. Rat albumin bound Z14Glr approximately 4.5-fold stronger than human albumin. AG–albumin and Z14Glr–albumin interactions were barely influenced by the environmental pH, while the formation of AMG–albumin complexes was strongly favored by alkaline conditions. Among the mycotoxin–CD complexes examined, AMG–sugammadex interaction proved to be the most stable. CD bead polymers decreased the mycotoxin content of aqueous solutions, with moderate removal of AG and AMG, while weak extraction of Z14Glr was observed. In conclusion, rat albumin is a relatively strong binder of Z14Glr, and albumin can form highly stable complexes with AMG at pH 8.5. Therefore, albumins can be considered as affinity proteins with regard to the latter mycotoxin metabolites.

Recent Insights into Sample Pretreatment Methods for Mycotoxins in Different Food Matrices: A Critical Review on Novel Materials

Mycotoxins pollution is a global concern, and can pose a serious threat to human health. People and livestock eating contaminated food will encounter acute and chronic poisoning symptoms, such as carcinogenicity, acute hepatitis, and a weakened immune system. In order to prevent or reduce the exposure of human beings and livestock to mycotoxins, it is necessary to screen mycotoxins in different foods efficiently, sensitively, and selectively. Proper sample preparation is very important for the separation, purification, and enrichment of mycotoxins from complex matrices. This review provides a comprehensive summary of mycotoxins pretreatment methods since 2017, including traditionally used methods, solid-phase extraction (SPE)-based methods, liquid-liquid extraction (LLE)-based methods, matrix solid phase dispersion (MSPD), QuEChERS, and so on. The novel materials and cutting-edge technologies are systematically and comprehensively summarized. Moreover, we discuss and compare the pros and cons of different pretreatment methods and suggest a prospect.

Impact of Climate Changes on the Natural Prevalence of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Maize Harvested in Serbia and Croatia

Ongoing climate change may affect the susceptibility of plants to attacks by pathogenic, mostly mycotoxigenic fungi with a consequent increase in the presence of mycotoxins. Fusarium fungi represent one of the most important producers of mycotoxins, and are also important pathogens of agricultural crops. Therefore, the main aim of the study was to estimate the impact of weather parameters on the natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins B1 and B2 (FUMs), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2, and HT-2 toxins (T-2/HT-2) in maize samples harvested from two neighboring countries, Serbia and Croatia, during a four-year production period (2018-2021). The frequency and contamination level of examined Fusarium mycotoxins varied by maize year of production and could be linked to weather conditions per investigated country. Among them, FUMs were found to be the most common contaminants (84-100%) of maize in both Serbia and Croatia. Additionally, a critical assessment of Fusarium mycotoxins occurrence in the last 10 years (2012-2021), for both Serbia and Croatia, was done. Results pointed out the highest contamination of maize from 2014, especially with DON and ZEN, in connection to extreme levels of precipitation observed in both Serbia and Croatia, whereas FUMs occurred with high prevalence from each of the ten investigated years.

Cyanidin-3-O-Glucoside Rescues Zearalenone-Induced Apoptosis via the ITGA7-PI3K-AKT Signaling Pathway in Porcine Ovarian Granulosa Cells

Zearalenone (ZEN) is an important secondary metabolite of Fusarium fungi, exposure to which can cause reproductive disorders through its effects on ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) in many mammals, especially in pigs. This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) on the ZEN-induced negative effects in porcine GCs (pGCs). The pGCs were treated with 30 µM ZEN and/or 20 µM C3G for 24 h; they were divided into a control (Ctrl) group, ZEN group, ZEN+C3G (Z+C) group, and a C3G group. Bioinformatics analysis was used to systematically screen differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the rescue process. Results showed that C3G could effectively rescue ZEN-induced apoptosis in pGCs, and notably increase cell viability and proliferation. Furthermore, 116 DEGs were identified, and the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases-protein kinase B (PI3K-AKT) signaling pathway was the center of attention, of which five genes and the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway were confirmed by real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) and/or Western blot (WB). As analyzed, ZEN inhibited mRNA and protein levels of integrin subunit alpha-7 (ITGA7), and promoted the expression of cell cycle inhibition kinase cyclin-D3 (CCND3) and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 (CDKN1A). After the knock-down of ITGA7 by siRNA, the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway was significantly inhibited. Meanwhile, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression decreased, and apoptosis rates and pro-apoptotic proteins increased. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that C3G exhibited significant protective effects on the ZEN-induced inhibition of proliferation and apoptosis via the ITGA7-PI3K-AKT pathway.

Multi-mycotoxin detection and human exposure risk assessment in medicinal foods

Mycotoxin contamination in medicinal foods has attracted increasing global attention. In this study, a simple and sensitive ultrasonication assisted one-step extraction based ultra-fast liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS/MS) method was developed for simultaneous detection of multi-mycotoxins in five kinds of medicinal foods rich in starch. Under optimal conditions, the developed technique displayed excellent analytical performances. Limits of detection and quantitation for the six mycotoxins were 0.04-0.25 ng/mL and 0.10-0.67 ng/mL, respectively. Average recoveries at three fortified levels ranged from 75.33 % to 118.0 %. Real-world application in 103 batches of medicinal foods displayed that 58 samples were positive with one or more mycotoxins at an occurrence rate of 56.31 % (58/103). Coix seed gave the highest positive rate of 96.15 %, followed by Lily (90 %), Chinese yam (50 %), Lotus seed (34.04 %) and Malt (30 %). Zearalenone had the highest positive rate of 28.16 % with contents in 5 Coix seeds exceeding the maximum residue limit (MRL), followed by aflatoxin B₁ of 27.18 % (28/103) with contents in 7 Coix seed and 10 Lotus seeds over its MRL, and ochratoxin A (OTA) of 11.65 % with contents in 1 Lotus seed and 5 Lily samples greater than its MRL. Exposure risk assessment indicated that Coix seed and Lotus seeds that were susceptible to aflatoxins posed great threats to human health. Long-term consumption of Lily that was easily contaminated with OTA were also harmful. This work provides a robust platform for multi-mycotoxin monitoring in medicinal foods to protect the consumers from potential health risks.

Zearalenone damages the male reproductive system of rats by destroying testicular focal adhesion

Zearalenone (ZEA), a common mycotoxin in animal feed, is harmful to public health and causes huge economic losses. The potential target proteins of ZEA and its derivatives were screened using the PharmMapper database and the related genes (proteins) of the testis were obtained from Genecards. We obtained 144 potential targets of ZEA and its derivatives related to the testis using Venn diagrams. The PPI analysis showed that ZEA had the most targets in testis, followed by ZAN, α-ZAL, β-ZEL, α-ZEL, and β-ZAL. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) analyses evaluated the metabolic and cancer pathways. We further screened four hub genes: RAC3, CCND1, EP300, and CTNNB1. Eight key biological processes were obtained by GO analysis, and four important pathways were identified by KEGG analysis. Animal and cell experimental results confirmed that ZEA could inhibit the expression of four key KEGG pathway protein components and four hub proteins that interfere with cell adhesion by inhibiting the focal adhesion structure of the testis, Leydig cells, and Sertoli cells. Collectively, our findings reveal that the destruction of the focal adhesion structure in the testis is the mechanism through which ZEA damages the male reproductive system.

Understanding the Chemical Exposome During Fetal Development and Early Childhood: A Review

Early human life is considered a critical window of susceptibility to external exposures. Infants are exposed to a multitude of environmental factors, collectively referred to as the exposome. The chemical exposome can be summarized as the sum of all xenobiotics that humans are exposed to throughout a lifetime. We review different exposure classes and routes that impact fetal and infant metabolism and the potential toxicological role of mixture effects. We also discuss the progress in human biomonitoring and present possiblemodels for studying maternal-fetal transfer. Data gaps on prenatal and infant exposure to xenobiotic mixtures are identified and include natural biotoxins, in addition to commonly reported synthetic toxicants, to obtain a more holistic assessment of the chemical exposome. We highlight the lack of large-scale studies covering a broad range of xenobiotics. Several recommendations to advance our understanding of the early-life chemical exposome and the subsequent impact on health outcomes are proposed.

Mycotoxin Contamination in Hazelnut: Current Status, Analytical Strategies, and Future Prospects

Hazelnuts represent a potential source of mycotoxins that pose a public health issue due to their increasing consumption as food ingredients worldwide. Hazelnuts contamination by mycotoxins may derive from fungal infections occurring during fruit development, or in postharvest. The present review considers the available data on mycotoxins detected in hazelnuts, on fungal species reported as infecting hazelnut fruit, and general analytical approaches adopted for mycotoxin investigation. Prompted by the European safety regulation concerning hazelnuts, many analytical methods have focused on the determination of levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total aflatoxins. An overview of the available data shows that a multiplicity of fungal species and further mycotoxins have been detected in hazelnuts, including anthraquinones, cyclodepsipeptides, ochratoxins, sterigmatocystins, trichothecenes, and more. Hence, the importance is highlighted in developing suitable methods for the concurrent detection of a broad spectrum of these mycotoxins. Moreover, control strategies to be employed before and after harvest in the aim of controlling the fungal contamination, and in reducing or inactivating mycotoxins in hazelnuts, are discussed.

Phenolic compounds as natural microbial toxin detoxifying agents

Despite the abundance of promising studies, developments, and improvements about the elimination of microbial toxins from food matrices, they are still considered as one of the major food safety problems due to the lack of their complete avoidance even today. Every year, many crops and foodstuffs have to be discarded due to unconstrained contamination and/or production of microbial toxins. Furthermore, the difficulty for the detection of toxin presence and determination of its level in foods may lead to acute or chronic health problems in many individuals. On the other hand, phenolic compounds might be considered as microbial toxin detoxification agents because of their inhibition effect on the toxin synthesis of microorganisms or exhibiting protective effects against varying damaging mechanisms caused by toxins. In this study, the effect of phenolic compounds on the synthesis of bacterial toxins and mycotoxins is comprehensively reviewed. The potential curing effect of phenolic compounds against toxin-induced damages has also been discussed. Consequently, phenolic compounds are indicated as promising, and considerable natural preservatives against toxin damages and their detoxification potentials are pronounced.

A Novel and Label-Free Chemiluminescence Detection of Zearalenone Based on a Truncated Aptamer Conjugated with a G-Quadruplex DNAzyme

Zearalenone (ZEN), one of the most frequently occurring mycotoxin contaminants in foods and feeds, poses considerable threat to human and animal health, owing to its acute and chronic toxicities. Thus, rapid and accurate detection of ZEN has attracted broad research interest. In this work, a novel and label-free chemiluminescence aptasensor based on a ZEN aptamer and a G-quadruplex DNAzyme was constructed. It was established on a competitive assay between ZEN and an auxiliary DNA for the aptamer, leading to activation of the G-quadruplex/hemin DNAzyme and subsequent signal amplification by chemiluminescence generation after substrate addition. To maximize the detection sensitivity, numerous key parameters including truncated aptamers were optimized with molecular docking analysis. Upon optimization, our aptasensor exhibited a perfect linear relationship (R² = 0.9996) for ZEN detection in a concentration range of 1-100 ng/mL (3.14-314.10 nM) within 40 min, achieving a detection limit of 2.85 ng/mL (8.95 nM), which was a 6.7-fold improvement over that before optimization. Most importantly, the aptasensor obtained a satisfactory recovery rate of 92.84-137.27% and 84.90-124.24% for ZEN-spiked wheat and maize samples, respectively. Overall, our label-free chemiluminescence aptasensor displayed simplicity, sensitivity, specificity and practicality in real samples, indicating high application prospects in the food supply chain for rapid detection of ZEN.

Betulinic acid alleviates zearalenone-induced uterine injury in mice

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin with estrogen-like biological activity, which widely present in feed and raw materials, with strong reproductive system toxicity and a major threat to animal reproduction. Betulinic acid (BA) is a natural plant compound with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and other pharmacological activities. However, the mechanism of ZEA-induced uterine injury and the protective effect of BA have not been reported. Our results show that ZEA could cause uterine histopathological damage and cellular ultrastructural damage, affecting the secretion of sex hormones, such as estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4), and increase the mRNA and protein expression of estrogen receptor α (ERα). ZEA could inhibit the activities of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), increase the production of malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), and cause uterine oxidative stress. Furthermore, ZEA affected the homeostasis of uterine cell proliferation and death by regulating the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and activating the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. ZEA-induced uterine injury might be related to the activation of p38/ERK MAPK signaling pathway. However, the regulatory effect of ZEA on the uterus was reversed after BA treatment. In conclusion, the uterus is an important target organ attacked by ZEA, and BA showed a good therapeutic effect.