A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework

Online social networking and addiction--a review of the psychological literature

Social Networking Sites (SNSs) are virtual communities where users can create individual public profiles, interact with real-life friends, and meet other people based on shared interests. They are seen as a 'global consumer phenomenon' with an exponential rise in usage within the last few years. Anecdotal case study evidence suggests that 'addiction' to social networks on the Internet may be a potential mental health problem for some users. However, the contemporary scientific literature addressing the addictive qualities of social networks on the Internet is scarce. Therefore, this literature review is intended to provide empirical and conceptual insight into the emerging phenomenon of addiction to SNSs by: (1) outlining SNS usage patterns, (2) examining motivations for SNS usage, (3) examining personalities of SNS users, (4) examining negative consequences of SNS usage, (5) exploring potential SNS addiction, and (6) exploring SNS addiction specificity and comorbidity. The findings indicate that SNSs are predominantly used for social purposes, mostly related to the maintenance of established offline networks. Moreover, extraverts appear to use social networking sites for social enhancement, whereas introverts use it for social compensation, each of which appears to be related to greater usage, as does low conscientiousness and high narcissism. Negative correlates of SNS usage include the decrease in real life social community participation and academic achievement, as well as relationship problems, each of which may be indicative of potential addiction.

The effects of pathological gaming on aggressive behavior

Studies have shown that pathological involvement with computer or video games is related to excessive gaming binges and aggressive behavior. Our aims for this study were to longitudinally examine if pathological gaming leads to increasingly excessive gaming habits, and how pathological gaming may cause an increase in physical aggression. For this purpose, we conducted a two-wave panel study among 851 Dutch adolescents (49% female) of which 540 played games (30% female). Our analyses indicated that higher levels of pathological gaming predicted an increase in time spent playing games 6 months later. Time spent playing violent games specifically, and not just games per se, increased physical aggression. Furthermore, higher levels of pathological gaming, regardless of violent content, predicted an increase in physical aggression among boys. That this effect only applies to boys does not diminish its importance, because adolescent boys are generally the heaviest players of violent games and most susceptible to pathological involvement.

Prevalence of the addictions: a problem of the majority or the minority?

An increasing number of research studies over the last three decades suggest that a wide range of substance and process addictions may serve similar functions. The current article considers 11 such potential addictions (tobacco, alcohol, illicit drugs, eating, gambling, Internet, love, sex, exercise, work, and shopping), their prevalence, and co-occurrence, based on a systematic review of the literature. Data from 83 studies (each study n = at least 500 subjects) were presented and supplemented with small-scale data. Depending on which assumptions are made, overall 12-month prevalence of an addiction among U.S. adults varies from 15% to 61%. The authors assert that it is most plausible that 47% of the U.S. adult population suffers from maladaptive signs of an addictive disorder over a 12-month period and that it may be useful to think of addictions as due to problems of lifestyle as well as to person-level factors.

The biopsychosocial and “complex” systems approach as a unified framework for addiction

The “unified framework” for addiction proposed by Redish and colleagues is only unified at a reductionist level of analysis, the biological one relating to decision-making. Theories of addiction may be complementary rather than mutually exclusive, suggesting that limitations of individual theories might be unified through the combination of ideas from different biopsychosocial “complex” systems perspectives.

A qualitative investigation of problem gambling as an escape-based coping strategy

BACKGROUND

There has been a small but growing body, of largely quantitative research, that has examined problem gambling in the context of poor coping skills. These studies suggest that gambling may be used as an alternative method of coping that some will use to distract themselves from having to deal with problems in their lives.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the role that gambling plays in the lives of problem gamblers and the extent to which it may be used as a means of coping.

DESIGN

Fifty problem gamblers, ranging in age from 18 to 63 years, with an average age of 39 years, were interviewed. The focus of the interview was upon the participant's accounts of how their gambling problem had developed and the role that gambling played in their lives. A structured grounded theory approach was utilized.

RESULTS

Following the selective coding process, 'gambling to escape' was identified as the core category. This state was achieved through 'mood modification', involving fantasies, dissociation and/or changes in arousal. For some problem gamblers seeking mood modification was their primary motivation. For others mood modification was sought as a means to cope with one or two other psychological and/or psychosocial states consisting of 'filling the void' and/or 'avoiding problems'. Two other factors sometimes influenced the need to gamble, either directly through 'control beliefs' or through 'cognitive regret'.

CONCLUSIONS

Escape was the prime characteristic of the gambling experience that facilitated the continuation of problem gambling among the interviewed participants. In relation to these findings, the implications for prevention, intervention, treatment and future research are discussed.