EMT Transition States during Tumor Progression and Metastasis

USP3 promotes gastric cancer progression and metastasis by deubiquitination-dependent COL9A3/COL6A5 stabilisation

As an important regulator of intracellular protein degradation, the mechanism of the deubiquitinating enzyme family in tumour metastasis has received increasing attention. Our previous study revealed that USP3 promotes tumour progression and is highly expressed in gastric cancer (GC). Herein, we report two critical targets, COL9A3 and COL6A5, downstream of USP3, via the isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification technique. Mechanistically, we observed that USP3 interacted with and stabilised COL9A3 and COL6A5 via deubiquitination in GC. Importantly, we found that COL9A3 and COL6A5 were essential mediators of USP3-modulated oncogenic activity in vitro and in vivo. Examination of clinical samples confirmed that elevated expression of USP3, concomitant with increased COL9A3 and COL6A5 abundance, correlates with human GC progression. These data suggest that USP3 promotes GC progression and metastasis by deubiquitinating COL9A3 and COL6A5. These findings identify a mechanism of GC metastasis regarding USP3-mediated deubiquitinating enzyme activity and suggest potential therapeutic targets for GC management.

E-cadherin on epithelial-mesenchymal transition in thyroid cancer

Thyroid carcinoma is a common malignant tumor of endocrine system and head and neck. Recurrence, metastasis and high malignant expression after routine treatment are serious clinical problems, so it is of great significance to explore its mechanism and find action targets. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is associated with tumor malignancy and invasion. One key change in tumour EMT is low expression of E-cadherin. Therefore, this article reviews the expression of E-cadherin in thyroid cancers (TC), discuss the potential mechanisms involved, and outline opportunities to exploit E-cadherin on regulating the occurrence of EMT as a critical factor in cancer therapeutics.

PDE4B Induces Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition in Bladder Cancer Cells and Is Transcriptionally Suppressed by CBX7

Urinary bladder cancer (UBC) is a common malignant tumor with high incidence. Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of this disease demand the identification of novel therapeutic targets. Multiple studies demonstrated that PDE4B level was upregulated in malignancies and high PDE4B expression was correlated with poor outcomes. Herein, we identified that PDE4B was a potential therapeutic target in UBC. We confirmed that PDE4B expression was correlated with aggressive clinicopathological characteristics and unfavorable prognosis. Functional studies demonstrated that ectopic expression of PDE4B promoted UBC cells proliferation, migration and invasion, whereas PDE4B depletion suppressed cancer cell aggressiveness. We also identified CBX7 as a regulator of PDE4B to suppress the expression of PDE4B at the transcription level in a PRC1-dependent manner. Moreover, our results indicated that PDE4B induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in UBC cells via β-catenin pathway, whereas inhibition of PDE4B by its small molecule inhibitor, rolipram, effectively reversed the PDE4B overexpression-induced effects. To sum up, our results indicated that PDE4B acts as an oncogene by promoting UBC cell migration and invasion via β-catenin/EMT pathway.

The Autophagic Route of E-Cadherin and Cell Adhesion Molecules in Cancer Progression

Simple Summary

A hallmark of carcinoma progression is the loss of epithelial integrity. In this context, the deregulation of adhesion molecules, such as E-cadherin, affects epithelial structures and associates with epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). This, in turn, fosters cancer progression. Autophagy endows cancer cells with the ability to overcome intracellular and environmental stress stimuli, such as anoikis, nutrient deprivation, hypoxia, and drugs. Furthermore, it plays an important role in the degradation of cell adhesion proteins and in EMT. This review focuses on the interplay between the turnover of adhesion molecules, primarily E-cadherin, and autophagy in cancer progression.

Abstract

Cell-to-cell adhesion is a key element in epithelial tissue integrity and homeostasis during embryogenesis, response to damage, and differentiation. Loss of cell adhesion and gain of mesenchymal features, a phenomenon known as epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), are essential steps in cancer progression. Interestingly, downregulation or degradation by endocytosis of epithelial adhesion molecules (e.g., E-cadherin) associates with EMT and promotes cell migration. Autophagy is a physiological intracellular degradation and recycling process. In cancer, it is thought to exert a tumor suppressive role in the early phases of cell transformation but, once cells have gained a fully transformed phenotype, autophagy may fuel malignant progression by promoting EMT and conferring drug resistance. In this review, we discuss the crosstalk between autophagy, EMT, and turnover of epithelial cell adhesion molecules, with particular attention to E-cadherin.

The Dynamics of Aerotaxis in a Simple Eukaryotic Model

In aerobic organisms, oxygen is essential for efficient energy production, and it acts as the last acceptor of the mitochondrial electron transport chain and as regulator of gene expression. However, excessive oxygen can lead to production of deleterious reactive oxygen species. Therefore, the directed migration of single cells or cell clumps from hypoxic areas toward a region of optimal oxygen concentration, named aerotaxis, can be considered an adaptive mechanism that plays a major role in biological and pathological processes. One relevant example is the development of O₂ gradients when tumors grow beyond their vascular supply, leading frequently to metastasis. In higher eukaryotic organisms, aerotaxis has only recently begun to be explored, but genetically amenable model organisms suitable to dissect this process remain an unmet need. In this regard, we sought to assess whether Dictyostelium cells, which are an established model for chemotaxis and other motility processes, could sense oxygen gradients and move directionally in their response. By assessing different physical parameters, our findings indicate that both growing and starving Dictyostelium cells under hypoxic conditions migrate directionally toward regions of higher O₂ concentration. This migration is characterized by a specific pattern of cell arrangement. A thickened circular front of high cell density (corona) forms in the cell cluster and persistently moves following the oxygen gradient. Cells in the colony center, where hypoxia is more severe, are less motile and display a rounded shape. Aggregation-competent cells forming streams by chemotaxis, when confined under hypoxic conditions, undergo stream or aggregate fragmentation, giving rise to multiple small loose aggregates that coordinately move toward regions of higher O₂ concentration. By testing a panel of mutants defective in chemotactic signaling, and a catalase-deficient strain, we found that the latter and the pkbR1^null exhibited altered migration patterns. Our results suggest that in Dictyostelium, like in mammalian cells, an intracellular accumulation of hydrogen peroxide favors the migration toward optimal oxygen concentration. Furthermore, differently from chemotaxis, this oxygen-driven migration is a G protein-independent process.

SPTBN2 regulated by miR-424-5p promotes endometrial cancer progression via CLDN4/PI3K/AKT axis

Endometrioid Endometrial Cancer (EEC) is the main subtype of endometrial cancer. In our study, we demonstrated that SPTBN2 was significantly overexpressed in EEC tissues. Upregulated SPTBN2 expression was positively associated with poor prognosis. In addition, we testified that SPTBN2 knockdown significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of EEC cells. Moreover, we found SPTBN2 could interact with CLDN4 to promote endometrial cancer metastasis via PI3K/AKT pathway. Then we further demonstrated that CLDN4 is upregulated in EEC and promotes EEC metastasis. CLDN4 overexpression could partially reversed the decrease in cell migration and invasion caused by SPTBN2 downregulation. In addition, we confirmed that SPTBN2 was a target of miR-424-5p, which plays a tumor suppressor in endometrial cancer. Rescue experiments showed that inhibition of SPTBN2 could partially reverse the effect of miR-424-5p in EEC. In conclusion, we demonstrated that by acting as a significant target of miR-424-5p, SPTBN2 could interact with CLDN4 to promote endometrial cancer metastasis via PI3K/AKT pathway in EEC. Our study revealed the prognostic and metastatic effects of SPTBN2 in EEC, suggesting that SPTBN2 could serve as a prognostic biomarker and a target for metastasis therapy.

Reiterating the Emergence of Noncoding RNAs as Regulators of the Critical Hallmarks of Gall Bladder Cancer

Gall bladder cancer (GBC) is a rare and one of the most aggressive types of malignancies, often associated with a poor prognosis and survival. It is a highly metastatic cancer and is often not diagnosed at the initial stages, which contributes to a poor survival rate of patients. The poor diagnosis and chemoresistance associated with the disease limit the scope of the currently available surgical and nonsurgical treatment modalities. Thus, there is a need to explore novel therapeutic targets and biomarkers that will help relieve the severity of the disease and lead to advanced therapeutic strategies. Accumulating evidence has correlated the atypical expression of various noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), including circular RNAs (circRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNA) with the increased cell proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion, migration, metastasis, chemoresistance, and decreased apoptosis in GBC. Numerous reports have indicated that the dysregulated expression of ncRNAs is associated with poor prognosis and lower disease-free and overall survival in GBC patients. These reports suggest that ncRNAs might be considered novel diagnostic and prognostic markers for the management of GBC. The present review recapitulates the association of various ncRNAs in the initiation and progression of GBC and the development of novel therapeutic strategies by exploring their functional and regulatory role.

Mechanistic Insights Delineating the Role of Cholesterol in Epithelial Mesenchymal Transition and Drug Resistance in Cancer

Despite the significant advancements made in targeted anti-cancer therapy, drug resistance constitutes a multifaceted phenomenon leading to therapy failure and ultimately mortality. Emerging experimental evidence highlight a role of cholesterol metabolism in facilitating drug resistance in cancer. This review aims to describe the role of cholesterol in facilitating multi-drug resistance in cancer. We focus on specific signaling pathways that contribute to drug resistance and the link between these pathways and cholesterol. Additionally, we briefly discuss the molecular mechanisms related to the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and the documented link between EMT, metastasis and drug resistance. We illustrate this by specifically focusing on hypoxia and the role it plays in influencing cellular cholesterol content following EMT induction. Finally, we provide a proposed model delineating the crucial role of cholesterol in EMT and discuss whether targeting cholesterol could serve as a novel means of combatting drug resistance in cancer progression and metastasis.

Distinct contributions of partial and full EMT to breast cancer malignancy

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a transient, reversible process of cell de-differentiation where cancer cells transit between various stages of an EMT continuum, including epithelial, partial EMT, and mesenchymal cell states. We have employed Tamoxifen-inducible dual recombinase lineage tracing systems combined with live imaging and 5-cell RNA sequencing to track cancer cells undergoing partial or full EMT in the MMTV-PyMT mouse model of metastatic breast cancer. In primary tumors, cancer cells infrequently undergo EMT and mostly transition between epithelial and partial EMT states but rarely reach full EMT. Cells undergoing partial EMT contribute to lung metastasis and chemoresistance, whereas full EMT cells mostly retain a mesenchymal phenotype and fail to colonize the lungs. However, full EMT cancer cells are enriched in recurrent tumors upon chemotherapy. Hence, cancer cells in various stages of the EMT continuum differentially contribute to hallmarks of breast cancer malignancy, such as tumor invasion, metastasis, and chemoresistance.

Long non-coding RNA CRNDE exacerbates NPC advancement mediated by the miR-545-5p/CCND2 axis

BACKGROUND

Previous studies indicated CRNDE to have a pivotal part within tumorigenesis. Notwithstanding, precise details on CRNDE activities within NPC are still uncertain. The investigation described in this article served to focus in greater depth on the mechanistics regarding CRNDE, together with all associated regulatory networks, on nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and its treatment possibilities.

METHODS

Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analyzed CRNDE, miR-545-5p and CCND2 expression within NPCs and representative cell lineages. CCK-8 cell counting-, EdU-, wound-healing-/transwell-assays analyzed cellular proliferation, migrative, together with invasive properties. Apoptosis/cell cycle progression were scrutinized through flow cytometry. Dual-luciferase reporter assays validated CRNDE/miR-545-5p/CCND2 interplay. Proteomic expression of apoptosis-related protein, EMT-related protein and CCND2 protein were evaluated through Western blotting. In addition, Ki67 expression was evaluated through immunohistochemical staining. The effect of CRNDE in vivo was assessed by nude murine xenograft model studies.

RESULTS

This study demonstrated up-regulated expression of CRNDE and CCND2 within NPC tissues/cell lines. Meanwhile, miR-545-5p was down-regulated. CRNDE knock-down or miR-545-5p over-expression drastically reduced NPC proliferative, migrative and invasive properties, promoted apoptosis/altered cell cycle, and inhibited CCND2 expression. However, miR-545-5p down-regulation had opposing effects. All inhibiting functions generated by CRNDE down-regulation upon NPC progression could be counterbalanced or synergistically exacerbated, depending on miR-545-5p down-regulation or up-regulation, respectively. Multiple-level investigations revealed CRNDE to serve as a sponge for miR-545-5p, and can target CCND2 within NPCs.

CONCLUSIONS

CRNDE increases CCND2 expression by competitive binding with miR-545-5p, thus accelerating the development of NPC. This provides potential therapeutic targets and prognostic markers against NPC.

hsa_circ_0013401 Accelerates the Growth and Metastasis and Prevents Apoptosis and Autophagy of Neuroblastoma Cells by Sponging miR-195 to Release PAK2

Background

Increased levels of circRNAs have been identified in a variety of cancers. However, the specific functions and mechanisms of circRNAs in neuroblastoma (NB) have not been fully explored.

Methods

The levels of hsa_circ_0045997, hsa_circ_0080307, hsa_circ_0013401, hsa_circ_0077578, and microRNA-195 were confirmed by RT-qPCR in NB. Gain- and loss-of-function assays and rescue experiments were conducted to determine the influence of hsa_circ_0013401, miR-195, and P21-activated kinase 2 (PAK2) on the proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, migration, and invasion of NB cells. Regulatory gene targets were validated by the luciferase assay. A xenograft mouse model was used to determine the in vivo effects of hsa_circ_0013401.

Results

hsa_circ_0013401 was highly expressed, miR-195 was lowly expressed, and there was a negative correlation between hsa_circ_0013401 and miR-195 in NB. The inhibitory effects of hsa_circ_0013401 knockdown suppressed the proliferation, migration, and invasion and induced the apoptosis and autophagy of NB cells by targeting miR-195 to downregulate PAK2 expression. Luciferase reporter assays showed that miR-195 was a direct target of hsa_circ_0013401, and PAK2 was the downstream target gene of miR-195. In vivo studies showed that hsa_circ_0013401 promotes tumor formation.

Conclusions

hsa_circ_0013401 induced NB progression through miR-195 to enhance PAK2. Therefore, we might highlight a novel regulatory axis (hsa_circ_0013401/miR-195/PAK2) in NB.

GPR116 overexpression correlates with poor prognosis in gastric cancer

ABSTRACT

The G protein-coupled receptor 116 (GPR116) is an adhesion subtype of the G protein-coupled receptor family and has been reported to be involved in tumorigenesis and cancer progression. Moreover, it has been shown to predict poor prognosis in breast and colorectal cancers. However, little is known about the role of GPR116 in gastric cancer (GC). In this study, we aimed to investigate the expression and clinical prognostic significance of GPR116 in GC.The mRNA expression levels of GPR116 in GC were analyzed using Gene Expression Omnibus and UALCAN databases, and GPR116 protein expression in GC tissues was detected using immunohistochemistry. The relationship between GPR116 expression and prognosis in patients with GC was analyzed and further validated using the Kaplan-Meier Plotter database. The correlation between GPR116 and the differentially expressed genes identified was analyzed using the LinkedOmics database. Gene set enrichment analysis was performed using WebGestalt. The results revealed that GPR116 expression was significantly upregulated in GC tissues, which was positively correlated with tumor node metastasis (TNM) staging and tumor invasion. Prognostic analysis suggested that high GPR116 expression contributed to poor overall survival in GC patients. Multivariate Cox analysis indicated that GPR116 overexpression was an independent prognostic indicator in patients with GC (HR = 1.855, 95% CI 1.021-3.370, P = .043). Enrichment analysis showed that GPR116 co-expression genes were mainly involved in extracellular matrix-receptor interaction, focal adhesion, cell adhesion, PI3K-Akt signaling, DNA replication, and cell cycle pathways. In conclusion, GPR116 was highly expressed in GC tissues and associated with poor prognosis in patients with GC, Thus GPR116 may be a novel prognostic marker and a potential therapeutic target for GC treatment.

Paclitaxel-based supramolecular hydrogel loaded with mifepristone for the inhibition of breast cancer metastasis

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer death among women and almost all of the breast cancer-caused mortality is related to metastasis. It has been reported that glucocorticoid facilitates the metastasis of breast cancer in mice, and mifepristone can antagonize the effect of glucocorticoid. Paclitaxel is one of the important drugs in the treatment of breast cancer. Mifepristone combined with paclitaxel could be an effective strategy for inhibiting breast cancer metastasis. However, their inherent defects, in terms of short blood circulation half-life and lack of tumor targeting, not only limit their effectiveness but also cause adverse reactions. Therefore, our aim is to explore a novel protocol against breast cancer metastasis, further optimize its therapeutic efficacy by a nanodelivery system, and explore its mechanism. Herein, a paclitaxel-conjugated and mifepristone-loaded hydrogel (PM-nano) was prepared by self-assembly. Its characterizations were studied. The antimetastatic effect was evaluated in vitro and in vivo and its mechanism was also explored by western blot assay. The resultant PM-nano was developed with favorable water solubility and good biocompatibility. Moreover, PM-nano displayed increased cell uptake properties and stimulated drug release in the tumor micro-acidic environment. The PM-nano was more effective in inhibiting the proliferation and metastasis of breast cancer than other groups in vitro and in vivo. The PM-nano might inhibit metastasis through glucocorticoid receptor/receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 1 and MMPs. Taken together, PM-nano showed superior antimetastatic effects against breast cancer and excellent biocompatibility in vitro and in vivo, providing a new option for limiting metastasis.

EWSR1-WT1 Target Genes and Therapeutic Options Identified in a Novel DSRCT In Vitro Model

Simple Summary

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is an extremely rare soft tissue sarcoma arising in the abdomen of adolescents and young adults. This sarcoma is driven by a single genomic rearrangement, resulting in the expression of the EWSR1-WT1 fusion gene. No effective treatment exists for DSRCT patients, which highlights the need for preclinical models to study disease progression and drug sensitivity. The aim of this study is to develop a pre-clinical DSRCT in vitro model, which enables investigating the molecular target genes of the EWSR1-WT1 fusion gene and allows for medium-throughput drug screening to discover new therapeutic options.

Abstract

Desmoplastic small round cell tumor (DSRCT) is a rare and aggressive soft tissue sarcoma with a lack of effective treatment options and a poor prognosis. DSRCT is characterized by a chromosomal translocation, resulting in the EWSR1-WT1 gene fusion. The molecular mechanisms driving DSRCT are poorly understood, and a paucity of preclinical models hampers DSRCT research. Here, we establish a novel primary patient-derived DSRCT in vitro model, recapitulating the original tumor. We find that EWSR1-WT1 expression affects cell shape and cell survival, and we identify downstream target genes of the EWSR1-WT1 fusion. Additionally, this preclinical in vitro model allows for medium-throughput drug screening. We discover sensitivity to several drugs, including compounds targeting RTKs. MERTK, which has been described as a therapeutic target for several malignancies, correlates with EWSR1-WT1 expression. Inhibition of MERTK with the small-molecule inhibitor UNC2025 results in reduced proliferation of DSRCT cells in vitro, suggesting MERTK as a therapeutic target in DSRCT. This study underscores the usefulness of preclinical in vitro models for studying molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic options.

Prognostic Value of LHFPL Tetraspan Subfamily Member 6 (LHFPL6) in Gastric Cancer: A Study Based on Bioinformatics Analysis and Experimental Validation

Purpose

The identification of biomarkers and effective therapeutic targets for gastric cancer (GC), the most common cause of cancer-related deaths around the world, is currently a major focus in research. Here, we examined the utility of LHFPL6 as a prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for GC.

Methods

We explored the clinical relevance, function, and molecular role of LHFPL6 in GC using the MethSurv, cBioPortal, TIMER, Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis, ONCOMINE, MEXPRESS, and EWAS Atlas databases. The GSE118919, GSE29272, and GSE13861 datasets were used for differential expression analysis. Using The Cancer Genome Atlas, we developed a Cox regression model and assessed the clinical significance of LHFPLs. In addition, we used the “CIBERSORT” algorithm to make reliable immune infiltration estimations. Western blot and immunohistochemistry were used to examine protein expression. Cell migration and invasion were assessed using transwell experiments. THP-1-derived macrophages and GC cells were co-cultured in order to model tumor–macrophage interactions in vitro. The levels of CD206 and CD163 were measured using immunofluorescence assays. The results were visualized with the “ggplot2” and “circlize” packages.

Results

Our results showed that in GC, LHFPL6 overexpression was significantly associated with a poor prognosis. Our findings also suggested that LHFPL6 may be involved in the activation of the epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Furthermore, LHFPL6 expression showed a positive correlation with the abundance of M2 macrophages, which are potent immunosuppressors.

Conclusion

LHFPL6 could be a prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for GC.

Tumor-associated macrophages induced spheroid formation by CCL18-ZEB1-M-CSF feedback loop to promote transcoelomic metastasis of ovarian cancer

BACKGROUND

Ovarian cancer (OvCa)-tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) spheroids are abundantly present within ascites of high malignant patients. This study investigated the mutual interaction of OvCa cells and TAMs in the spheroids.

METHODS

Three-dimensional coculture system and transwell coculture system were created to mimic the OvCa and TAMs in spheroids and in disassociated state. Transwell-migration assay and scratch wound healing assay were used to measure the invasive and migratory capacity. Western blot, quantitative reverse transcription-PCR and immunostaining were used to measure the mesenchymal and epithelial markers. Flow cytometry was used to assess the polarization of TAMs. Also, the differential gene expression profile of OvCa cells and OvCa cells from spheroids were tested by RNA-sequence. Finally, the ovarian mice models were constructed by intraperitoneal injection of ID8 or OvCa-TAMs spheroids.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that the formation of OvCa-TAMs spheroids was positive related to the malignancy of OvCa cells. M2-TAMs induced the epithelial-mesenchymal transition of OvCa cells by releasing chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 18 (CCL18) in the spheroids. While, CCL18 induced macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) transcription in OvCa cells through zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1). This study further indicated that M-CSF secreted by OvCa cells drived the polarization of M2-TAMs. Therefore, a CCL18-ZEB1-M-CSF interacting loop between OvCa cells and TAMs in the spheroids was identified. Moreover, with blocking the expression of ZEB1 in the OvCa cell, the formation of OvCa-TAMs spheroids was impeded. In the ovarian mice models, the formation of OvCa-TAMs spheroids in the ascites was promoted by overexpressing of ZEB1 in OvCa cells, which resulted in faster and earlier transcoelomic metastasis.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggested that the formation of OvCa-TAMs spheroids resulted in aggressive phenotype of OvCa cells, as a specific feedback loop CCL18-ZEB1-M-CSF in it. Inhibition of ZEB1 reduced OvCa-TAMs spheroids in the ascites, impeding the transcoelomic metastasis and improving the outcome of ovarian patients.

Clinicopathological significance of SOX4 and epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers in patients with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Sex-determining region-Y-related high-mobility-group box 4 (SOX4) is associated with the metastasis and prognosis of many cancer types. However, studies on the role of SOX4 in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) are few, and hence the mechanism is unclear. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) allows neoplastic cells to gain the plasticity and motility required for tumor progression and metastasis. This study aimed to analyze the relationship between SOX4 and EMT, and their relationship with clinicopathological factors and related prognosis.

METHODS

Immunohistochemical staining was used to detect the positive expression of SOX4 protein, EMT-related transcription factor protein, and related marker protein in 127 LSCC tissue samples. At the same time, data on various parameters of clinical pathology and postoperative survival were collected.

RESULTS

The positive expression rate of SOX4 and Slug in LSCC was related to pathological differentiation, Lymph node metastasis (LNM), and pathological TNM of a tumor. The expression rates of ZEB1, E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and β-catenin in LSCC correlated with LNM and pTNM. The expression of SOX4, combined expression of SOX4 and ZEB1, and LNM were independent prognostic factors for the total survival time of patients with LSCC.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, SOX4 was vital in the LSCC EMT process, which might be mediated by transcription factor ZEB1. SOX4 and ZEB1 might serve as potential biomarkers of metastasis and prognosis, as well as promising therapeutic targets of LSCC.

The enhanced cell cycle related to the response to adjuvant therapy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

A major clinical challenge for treating patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is identifying those that may benefit from adjuvant chemotherapy versus those that will not. Thus, there is a need for a robust and convenient biomarker for predicting chemotherapy response in PDAC patients. In this study, network inference was conducted by integrating the differentially expressed cell cycle signatures and target genes between the basal-like subtype and classical subtype of PDAC. As a result from this statistical analysis, two dominant cell cycle genes, RASAL2 and ASPM, were identified. Based on the expression levels of these two genes, we constructed a "Enhanced Cell Cycle" scoring system (ECC score). Patients were given an ECC score, and respectively divided into ECC-high and ECC-low groups. Survival, pathway enrichment, immune environment characteristics, and chemotherapy response analysis' were performed between the two groups in a total of 891 patients across 5 cohorts. ECC-high patients exhibited shortened recurrence-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS) rates. In addition, it was found that adjuvant chemotherapy could significantly improve the outcome of the ECC-high patients while ECC-low patients did not benefit from adjuvant chemotherapy. It was also found that there was less CD8+ T cell, natural killer (NK) cell, M1 macrophage, and plasma cell infiltration in ECC-high patients when compared to ECC-low patients. Also, the expression of CD73, an immune suppressor gene, and it's related hypoxia pathway were elevated in the ECC-high group when compared to the ECC-low group. In conclusion, this study showed that patients characterized as ECC-high not only had reduced RFS and OS rates, but were also more sensitive to adjuvant chemotherapy and could potentially be less sensitive to immune checkpoint inhibitors. Being able to characterize patients by these parameters would allow doctors to make more informed decisions on patient treatment regimens.

The anti-neoplastic activities of aloperine in HeLa cervical cancer cells are associated with inhibition of the IL-6-JAK1-STAT3 feedback loop

Cervical cancer (CC) is recognized as the most common neoplasm in the female reproductive system worldwide. The lack of chemotherapeutic agents with outstanding effectiveness and safety severely compromises the anti-cipated prognosis of patients. Aloperine (ALO) is a natural quinolizidine alkaloid with marked anti-cancer effects on multiple malignancies as well as favorable activity in relieving inflammation, allergies and infection. However, its therapeutic efficacy and underlying mechanism in CC are still unclear. In the current study, MTT assay was employed to evaluate the viability of HeLa cells exposed to ALO to preliminarily estimate the effectiveness of ALO in CC. Then, the effects of ALO on the proliferation and apoptosis of HeLa cells were further investigated by plate colony formation and flow cytometry, respectively, while the migration and invasion of ALO-treated HeLa cells were evaluated using Transwell assay. Moreover, nude mice were subcutaneously inoculated with HeLa cells to demonstrate the anti-CC properties of ALO in vivo. The molecular mechanisms underlying these effects of ALO were evaluated by Western blot and immunohistochemical analysis. This study experimentally demonstrated that ALO inhibited the proliferation of HeLa cells via G2 phase cell cycle arrest. Simultaneously, ALO promoted an increase in the percentage of apoptotic HeLa cells by increasing the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. Additionally, the migration and invasion of HeLa cells were attenuated by ALO treatment, which was considered to result from inhibition of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. For molecular mechanisms, the expression and activation of the IL-6-JAK1-STAT3 feedback loop were markedly suppressed by ALO treatment. This study indicated that ALO markedly suppresses the proliferation, migration and invasion and enhances the apoptosis of HeLa cells. In addition, these prominent anti-CC properties of ALO are associated with repression of the IL-6-JAK1-STAT3 feedback loop.

Long noncoding RNA NR2F1-AS1 plays a carcinogenic role in gastric cancer by recruiting transcriptional factor SPI1 to upregulate ST8SIA1 expression

Gastric cancer (GC) is a highly malignant solid tumor of the digestive tract, which is associated with a high mortality rate. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) nuclear receptor subfamily 2 group F member 1 antisense RNA 1 (NR2F1-AS1) has been reported to exert a tumor-promoting effect in some types of cancer. The present study aimed to investigate the role of NR2F1-AS1 in GC. The expression levels of NR2F1-AS1 and its potential target gene were measured in GC cell lines. Bioinformatics analysis, an RNA immunoprecipitation assay and a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay were used to determine the binding relationship between NR2F1-AS1 and downstream genes. The effect of NR2F1-AS1 regulatory axis on AGC cell viability, proliferation, migration, invasion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition was evaluated. The results of the present study revealed that the knockdown of NR2F1-AS1 inhibited the proliferation, invasion and migration of GC cells. NR2F1-AS1 also upregulated the expression levels of ST8SIA1 by recruiting transcriptional factor SPI1. Thus, the effects of the knockdown of NR2F1-AS1 on GC cell functions were suggested to occur via regulation of ST8SIA1. In conclusion, the findings of the current study indicated that NR2F1-AS1 may promote the proliferation, invasion and migration of GC cells by recruiting SPI1, to upregulate ST8SIA1 expression. Thus, the regulation of their expression levels may provide a novel direction for the treatment of GC.

Modular characteristics and the mechanism of Chinese medicine's treatment of gastric cancer: a data mining and pharmacology-based identification

Background

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is increasingly extensively being applied as a complementary and alternative therapy for gastric cancer (GC); however, there is a lack of large-scale evidence-based deep learning for the guidance of its clinical prescription.

Methods

The combinational search terms of “Gastric cancer and/or gastric malignancy” and “Traditional Chinese Medicine” were used to retrieve clinical study-based herbal prescriptions from public database over the past 3 decades [1990–2020]. Association rules mining (ARM) was used to analyze the prescription patterns of the herbs extracted from the eligible studies. Deep machine learning and computational prediction were conducted to explore candidate prescriptions with general applicability for GC. The action mechanism of the preferred prescription was investigated through network pharmacology, and further validated via in vivo and in vitro experiments.

Results

A total of 194 clinical study-based herbal prescriptions with good efficacy for GC were collected. TCM with focus on invigorating the Spleen and tonifying the vital-Qi is a promising adjuvant therapy for GC. The preferred prescription is composed of Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma, Astragali Radix, Pinelliae Rhizoma, Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium, Herba Hedyotidis Diffusae, Crataegi Fructus, and so on. We screened 74 bioactive compounds and 2,128 predictive targets of the preferred prescription from public databases. Eventually, 135 GC-related genes were identified as the targets of the preferred prescription. The compound-target network revealed that the crucial substances in the preferred prescription are quercetin, kaempferol, baicalein, and nobiletin. Experimentally, the preferred prescription was validated to modulate GC cell survival and inhibit tumor progression mainly via the hTERT/MDM2-p53 signaling pathway in vivo and in vitro.

Conclusions

TCM aimed at invigorating the Spleen and tonifying the vital-Qi is a promising adjuvant therapy for GC, which offers a guidance for worldwide use of TCM in the treatment of GC.

Multifaceted roles of CCL20 (C-C motif chemokine ligand 20): mechanisms and communication networks in breast cancer progression

Emerging studies have demonstrated notable roles of CCL20 in breast cancer progression. Based on these findings, CCL20 has become a potential therapeutic target for cancer immunotherapy. Accordingly, studies utilizing monoclonal antibodies to target CCL20 are currently being experimented. However, the existence of cytokine network in the tumor microenvironment collectively regulates tumor progression. Hence, a deeper understanding of the role of CCL20 and the underlying signaling pathways regulating the functions of CCL20 may provide a novel strategy for therapeutic interventions. This review provides the current knowledge on how CCL20 interacts with breast cancer cells to influence tumor progression via immunosuppression, angiogenesis, epithelial to mesenchymal transition, migration/invasion and chemoresistance. As a possible candidate biomarker, we also reviewed signal pathways and other factors in the tumor microenvironment regulating the tumor-promoting functions of CCL20.These new insights may be useful to design new potent and selective CCL20 inhibitors against breast cancer in the future.

USP18 promotes tumor metastasis in esophageal squamous cell carcinomas via deubiquitinating ZEB1

The dysregulation of deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), which regulate the stability of most cellular proteins, have been implicated in many human diseases, including cancers. Ubiquitin-specific protease 18 (USP18), a member of the DUBs family, functions as a potential tumour promoter in various cancers. However, the biological function and clinical significance of USP18 in esophageal squamous cell carcinomas (ESCC) are still unclear. Here, we found that ESCC tumors had higher USP18 expression compared with that of normal esophageal epithelial tissues, and high USP18 level was significantly correlated with malignant phenotype and shorter survival in patients with ESCC. In functional experiments, USP18 knockdown significantly inhibited ESCC invasion and metastasis in vitro. Consistently, a xenograft assay showed that knockdown of USP18 in ESCC cell suppressed their dissemination to lung tissue in vivo. Furthermore, we showed that USP18 promoted ESCC cell metastasis by inducing ZEB1 mediated epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Importantly, our results demonstrated that the oncogenic effect of USP18 in ESCC is partially dependent on ZEB1 enhancement. Mechanistic investigations revealed that USP18 directly bound ZEB1 and decreased its ubiquitination to enhance the protein stability of ZEB1 in ESCC cells. Overall, our data highlighted an essential role of USP18 in ESCC metastasis, suggesting that it could be a potential diagnostic and therapeutic target for ESCC.

Altered Epithelial-mesenchymal Plasticity as a Result of Ovol2 Deletion Minimally Impacts the Self-renewal of Adult Mammary Basal Epithelial Cells

Stem-cell containing mammary basal epithelial cells exist in a quasi-mesenchymal transcriptional state characterized by simultaneous expression of typical epithelial genes and typical mesenchymal genes. Whether robust maintenance of such a transcriptional state is required for adult basal stem cells to fuel self-renewal and regeneration remains unclear. In this work, we utilized SMA-CreER to direct efficient basal cell-specific deletion of Ovol2, which encodes a transcription factor that inhibits epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), in adult mammary gland. We identified a basal cell-intrinsic role of Ovol2 in promoting epithelial, and suppressing mesenchymal, molecular traits. Interestingly, Ovol2-deficient basal cells display minimal perturbations in their ability to support tissue homeostasis, colony formation, and transplant outgrowth. These findings underscore the ability of adult mammary basal cells to tolerate molecular perturbations associated with altered epithelia-mesenchymal plasticity without drastically compromising their self-renewal potential.

Zinc Finger E-Box Binding Homeobox 1 Promotes Cholangiocarcinoma Progression Through Tumor Dedifferentiation and Tumor-Stroma Paracrine Signaling

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1) is a transcription factor that promotes metastatic and stem cell features, which has been associated with poor prognosis in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), a desmoplastic cancer enriched in cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). We aimed to define ZEB1 regulatory functions in malignant and stromal compartments of CCA.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Bioinformatic and immunohistochemical analyses were performed to determine correlations between ZEB1 and markers of progressiveness in human intrahepatic CCA (iCCA). Gain-of-function and loss-of-function models were generated in CCA cells and liver myofibroblasts as a model of CAFs. Conditioned media (CM) was used to unravel tumor-stroma interplay. In vivo experiments were performed using a xenograft CCA model. ZEB1 expression in tumor cells of human iCCA was associated with undifferentiated tumor and vascular invasion. In vitro, ZEB1 promoted epithelial-mesenchymal transition and stemness in tumor cells, leading to cell migration and spheroid formation. In vivo, ZEB1-overexpressing CCA cells formed larger tumors with more abundant stroma. Expression of cellular communication network factor 2 (CCN2, encoding connective tissue growth factor [CTGF]) was increased in tumor cells from ZEB1-overexpressing xenografts and correlated with ZEB1 expression in human tumors. In vitro, CM from ZEB1-overexpressing tumor cells or recombinant CTGF induced myofibroblast proliferation. ZEB1 was also expressed by CAFs in human CCA, and its expression correlated with CCN2 in myofibroblasts and CCA stroma. In mice, cotransplantation of CCA cells with ZEB1-depleted myofibroblasts reduced CCA progressiveness compared to CCA cells/ZEB1-expressing myofibroblasts. Furthermore, ZEB1 controls the expression of paracrine signals (i.e., HGF and IL6) in tumor cells and myofibroblasts.

CONCLUSIONS

ZEB1 plays a key role in CCA progression by regulating tumor cell-CAF crosstalk, leading to tumor dedifferentiation and CAF activation.

Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Signaling and Prostate Cancer Stem Cells: Emerging Biomarkers and Opportunities for Precision Therapeutics

Prostate cancers may reactivate a latent embryonic program called the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) during the development of metastatic disease. Through EMT, tumors can develop a mesenchymal phenotype similar to cancer stem cell traits that contributes to metastasis and variation in therapeutic responses. Some of the recurrent somatic mutations of prostate cancer affect EMT driver genes and effector transcription factors that induce the chromatin- and androgen-dependent epigenetic alterations that characterize castrate-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). EMT regulators in prostate cancer comprise transcription factors (SNAI1/2, ZEB1, TWIST1, and ETS), tumor suppressor genes (RB1, PTEN, and TP53), and post-transcriptional regulators (miRNAs) that under the selective pressures of antiandrogen therapy can develop an androgen-independent metastatic phenotype. In prostate cancer mouse models of EMT, Slug expression, as well as WNT/β-Catenin and notch signaling pathways, have been shown to increase stemness potential. Recent single-cell transcriptomic studies also suggest that the stemness phenotype of advanced prostate cancer may be related to EMT. Other evidence correlates EMT and stemness with immune evasion, for example, activation of the polycomb repressor complex I, promoting EMT and stemness and cytokine secretion through RB1, TP53, and PRC1. These findings are helping clinical trials in CRPC that seek to understand how drugs and biomarkers related to the acquisition of EMT can improve drug response.

Zeb1-mediated autophagy enhances resistance of breast cancer cells to genotoxic drugs

Autophagy is a highly conserved process of cellular self-digestion that involves the formation of autophagosomes for the delivery of intracellular components and dysfunctional organelles to lysosomes. This process is induced by different signals including starvation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and DNA damage. The molecular link between autophagy and DNA damage is not well understood yet. Importantly, tumor cells utilize the mechanism of autophagy to cope with genotoxic anti-cancer drug therapy. Another mechanism of drug resistance is provided to cancer cells via the execution of the EMT program. One of the critical transcription factors of EMT is Zeb1. Here we demonstrate that Zeb1 is involved in the regulation of autophagy in several breast cancer cell models. On the molecular level, Zeb1 likely facilitates autophagy through the regulation of autophagic genes, resulting in increased LC3-II levels, augmented staining with Lysotracker, and increased resistance to several genotoxic drugs. The attenuation of Zeb1 expression in TNBC cells led to the opposite effect. Consequently, we propose that Zeb1 augments the resistance of breast cancer cells to genotoxic drugs, at least partially, via autophagy. Collectively, we have uncovered a novel function of Zeb1 in the regulation of autophagy in breast cancer cells.

Upregulation of homeobox D10 expression suppresses invasion and migration of clear cell renal cell carcinoma through targeting of E-cadherin

Background

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (CCRCC) is one of the most common types of renal cell carcinoma. Accumulating evidence indicates that homeobox D10 (HOXD10) acts as a tumor suppressor or oncogene in various carcinomas. However, the regulation and potential mechanisms of HOXD10 in CCRCC remain largely unknown.

Purpose

To explore the effect and potential mechanism of HOXD10 on the invasion and migration of CCRCC cells.

Methods

The expression of HOXD10, E-cadherin and other epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related proteins was assessed by reverse transcription-quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blots. A series of functional assays were performed in RCC cell lines to explore the function of HOXD10 in CCRCC progression. Bioinformatics analysis, ChIP assays, and dual luciferase reporter assays were utilized to identify the interaction between HOXD10 and E-cadherin.

Results

Low expression of HOXD10 and E-cadherin was observed in CCRCC tissues and ACHN and 786-O cells. Downregulation of HOXD10 expression was correlated with the TNM stage of CCRCC patients. Functional experiments demonstrated that malignant biological ability was significantly inhibited by HOXD10 overexpression in RCC cells. Moreover, E-cadherin was a potential target gene of HOXD10, as evidenced by a series of assays. In addition, overexpression of HOXD10 inhibited the progression of CCRCC by regulating the expression of E-cadherin, vimentin, and β-catenin in vitro.

Conclusion

HOXD10 acts as a tumor suppressor and suppresses invasion and migration of CCRCC cells by regulating E-cadherin and EMT processes. Thus, targeting HOXD10 may be a therapeutic strategy for CCRCC treatment.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11033-021-06993-8.

Dissecting the heterogeneity and tumorigenesis of BRCA1 deficient mammary tumors via single cell RNA sequencing

Background: BRCA1 plays critical roles in mammary gland development and mammary tumorigenesis. And loss of BRCA1 induces mammary tumors in a stochastic manner. These tumors present great heterogeneity at both intertumor and intratumor levels.

Methods: To comprehensively elucidate the heterogeneity of BRCA1 deficient mammary tumors and the underlying mechanisms for tumor initiation and progression, we conducted bulk and single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) on both mammary gland cells and mammary tumor cells isolated from Brca1 knockout mice.

Results: We found the BRCA1 deficient tumors could be classified into four subtypes with distinct molecular features and different sensitivities to anti-cancer drugs at the intertumor level. Whereas within the tumors, heterogeneous subgroups were classified mainly due to the different activities of cell proliferation, DNA damage response/repair and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Besides, we reconstructed the BRCA1 related mammary tumorigenesis to uncover the transcriptomes alterations during this process via pseudo-temporal analysis of the scRNA-seq data. Furthermore, from candidate markers for BRCA1 mutant tumors, we discovered and validated one oncogene Mrc2, whose loss could reduce mammary tumor growth in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusion: Our study provides a useful resource for better understanding of mammary tumorigenesis induced by BRCA1 deficiency.

TGFβ-induced expression of long noncoding lincRNA Platr18 controls breast cancer axonogenesis

Tumor axonogenesis is an emerging hallmark of cancer and TGF-beta is a well-known cytokine involved in the control of cancer progression. In this study we identify a novel function for the TGF-beta signaling in cancer aggressivity by promoting cancer axonogenesis.

Metastasis is the leading driver of cancer-related death. Tumor cell plasticity associated with the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), an embryonic program also observed in carcinomas, has been proposed to explain the colonization of distant organs by the primary tumor cells. Many studies have established correlations between EMT marker expression in the primary tumor and metastasis in vivo. However, the longstanding model of EMT-transitioned cells disseminating to secondary sites is still actively debated and hybrid states are presently considered as more relevant during tumor progression and metastasis. Here, we describe an unexplored role of EMT on the tumor microenvironment by controlling tumor innervation. Using in vitro and in vivo breast tumor progression models, we demonstrate that TGFβ-mediated tumor cell EMT triggers the expression of the embryonic LincRNA Platr18 those elevated expression controls the expression of the axon guidance protein semaphorin-4F and other neuron-related molecules such as IGSF11/VSIG-3. Platr18/Sema4F axis silencing abrogates axonogenesis and attenuates metastasis. Our observations suggest that EMT-transitioned cells are also locally required in the primary tumor to support distant dissemination by promoting axonogenesis, a biological process known for its role in metastatic progression of breast cancer.

Autophagic tumor-associated macrophages promote the endothelial mesenchymal transition in lung adenocarcinomas through the FUT4/p-ezrin pathway

Background

Lung adenocarcinoma is one of the most common malignant tumors with high morbidity and mortality, but the effect of Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) on lung adenocarcinoma has not been studied clearly now.

Methods

In this study, TAMs were stably transfected with Atg5 silence or overexpression lentiviral vectors to inhibit or induce autophagy of TAMs. In addition, the expression of fucosyltransferase IV (FUT4) or Ezrin were interfered in TAMs with autophagy. The above treated TAMs were then co-cultured with A549 or H1299 cells. The expressions of genes were detected by qPCR, western blotting, cell immunofluorescence, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Meanwhile, cell migration and invasion were analyzed by Transwell assay and wound healing assay. Furthermore, the effects of TAMs with autophagy were explored in lung adenocarcinoma xenograft model of mice.

Results

The results showed that overexpression of autophagy-related gene 5 (ATG5) induced autophagy in TAMs, which increased the expression of FUT4, TGF-β1, and p-ezrin, and promoted epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in lung adenocarcinoma cells. However, FUT4 silencing partially reversed the effects of TAM autophagy, specifically, the expression of TGF-β1 and p-ezrin was inhibited and EMT in lung adenocarcinoma cells was suppressed. Notably, ezrin deletion in autophagic TAMs induced by rapamycin reduced TGF-β1 expression and suppressed EMT in lung adenocarcinoma cells. Consistently, in vivo experiments also revealed that autophagic TAMs increased the expression of FUT4, TGF-β1, and p-ezrin, and promoted EMT in lung adenocarcinomas. Similarly, FUT4 silencing partially reversed the effects of autophagic TAMs on EMT in lung adenocarcinomas.

Conclusions

In conclusion, autophagic TAMs promoted TGF-β1 secretion through the FUT4/p-ezrin pathway and induced EMT in co-cultured lung adenocarcinoma cells.

Involvement of immune system and Epithelial-Mesenchymal-Transition in increased invasiveness of clustered circulatory tumor cells in breast cancer

Background

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are the critical initiators of distant metastasis formation. In which, the reciprocal interplay among different metastatic pathways and their metastasis driver genes which promote survival of CTCs is not well introduced using network approaches.

Methods

Here, to investigate the unknown pathways of single/cluster CTCs, the co-expression network was reconstructed, using WGCNA (Weighted Correlation Network Analysis) method. Having used the hierarchical clustering, we detected the Immune-response and EMT subnetworks. The metastatic potential of genes was assessed and validated through the support vector machine (SVM), neural network, and decision tree methods on two external datasets. To identify the active signaling pathways in CTCs, we reconstructed a casual network. The Log-Rank test and Kaplan–Meier curve were applied to detect prognostic gene signatures for distant metastasis-free survival (DMFS). Finally, a predictive model was developed for metastasis risk of patients using VIF-stepwise feature selection.

Results

Our results showed the crosstalk among EMT, the immune system, menstrual cycles, and the stemness pathway in CTCs. In which, fluctuation of menstrual cycles is a new detected pathway in breast cancer CTCs. The reciprocal association between immune responses and EMT was identified in CTCs. The SVM model indicated a high metastatic potential of EMT subnetwork (accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity scores were 87%). The DMFS model was identified to predict patients’ metastasis risks. (c-index = 0.7). Finally, novel metastatic biomarkers of KRT18 and KRT19 were detected in breast cancer CTCs.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the reciprocal interplay among critical unknown pathways in CTCs manifests both their survival in blood and metastatic potentials. Such findings may help to develop more precise predictive metastatic-risk models or detect pivotal metastatic biomarkers.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12920-021-01112-9.

Seamless Genetic Recording of Transiently Activated Mesenchymal Gene Expression in Endothelial Cells During Cardiac Fibrosis

Background: Cardiac fibrosis is a lethal outcome of excessive formation of myofibroblasts that are scar-forming cells accumulated after heart injury. It has been reported that cardiac endothelial cells (ECs) contribute to a substantial portion of myofibroblasts through EndoMT. Recent lineage tracing studies demonstrate that myofibroblasts are derived from expansion of resident fibroblasts rather than from transdifferentiation of ECs. However, it remains unknown whether ECs can transdifferentiate into myofibroblasts reversibly or EndoMT genes were just transiently activated in ECs during cardiac fibrosis. Methods: By using the dual recombination technology based on Cre-loxP and Dre-rox, we generated a genetic lineage tracing system for tracking EndoMT in cardiac ECs. We used it to examine if there is transiently activated mesenchymal gene expression in ECs during cardiac fibrosis. Activation of the broadly used marker gene in myofibroblasts, αSMA, and the transcription factor that induces epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), Zeb1, was examined. Results: The genetic system enables continuous tracing of transcriptional activity of targeted genes in vivo. Our genetic fate mapping results revealed that a subset of cardiac ECs transiently expressed αSMA and Zeb1 during embryonic valve formation and transdifferentiated into mesenchymal cells through EndoMT. Nonetheless, they did not contribute to myofibroblasts; nor transiently expressed αSMA or Zeb1 after heart injury. Instead, expression of αSMA was activated in resident fibroblasts during cardiac fibrosis. Conclusions: Mesenchymal gene expression is activated in cardiac ECs through EndoMT in the developing heart; but ECs do not transdifferentiate into myofibroblasts, nor transiently express some known mesenchymal genes during homeostasis and fibrosis in the adult heart. Resident fibroblasts that are converted to myofibroblasts by activating mesenchymal gene expression are the major contributors to cardiac fibrosis.

Understanding the Complex Milieu of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Cancer Metastasis: New Insight Into the Roles of Transcription Factors

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a physiological program during which polarised, immobile epithelial cells lose connection with their neighbours and are converted to migratory mesenchymal phenotype. Mechanistically, EMT occurs via a series of genetic and cellular events leading to the repression of epithelial-associated markers and upregulation of mesenchymal-associated markers. EMT is very crucial for many biological processes such as embryogenesis and ontogenesis during human development, and again it plays a significant role in wound healing during a programmed replacement of the damaged tissues. However, this process is often hijacked in pathological conditions such as tumour metastasis, which constitutes the most significant drawback in the fight against cancer, accounting for about 90% of cancer-associated mortality globally. Worse still, metastatic tumours are not only challenging to treat with the available conventional radiotherapy and surgical interventions but also resistant to several cytotoxic agents during treatment, owing to their anatomically diffuse localisation in the body system. As the quest to find an effective method of addressing metastasis in cancer intervention heightens, understanding the molecular interplay involving the signalling pathways, downstream effectors, and their interactions with the EMT would be an important requisite while the challenges of metastasis continue to punctuate. Unfortunately, the molecular underpinnings that govern this process remain to be completely illuminated. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that EMT, which initiates every episode of metastasis, significantly requires some master regulators called EMT transcription factors (EMT-TFs). Thus, this review critically examines the roles of TFs as drivers of molecular rewiring that lead to tumour initiation, progression, EMT, metastasis, and colonisation. In addition, it discusses the interaction of various signalling molecules and effector proteins with these factors. It also provides insight into promising therapeutic targets that may inhibit the metastatic process to overcome the limitation of "undruggable" cancer targets in therapeutic design and upturn the current spate of drug resistance. More so, it extends the discussion from the basic understanding of the EMT binary switch model, and ultimately unveiling the E/M cellular plasticity along a phenotypic spectrum via multiple trans-differentiations. It wraps up on how this knowledge update shapes the diagnostic and clinical approaches that may demand a potential shift in investigative paradigm using novel technologies such as single-cell analyses to improve overall patient survival.

Single-Cell RNA-Seq Analysis Reveals the Acquisition of Cancer Stem Cell Traits and Increase of Cell-Cell Signaling during EMT Progression

Intermediate cell states (ICSs) during the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) are emerging as a driving force of cancer invasion and metastasis. ICSs typically exhibit hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal characteristics as well as cancer stem cell (CSC) traits including proliferation and drug resistance. Here, we analyze several single-cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq) datasets to investigate the relation between several axes of cancer progression including EMT, CSC traits, and cell-cell signaling. To accomplish this task, we integrate computational methods for clustering and trajectory inference with analysis of EMT gene signatures, CSC markers, and cell-cell signaling pathways, and highlight conserved and specific processes across the datasets. Our analysis reveals that "standard" measures of pluripotency often used in developmental contexts do not necessarily correlate with EMT progression and expression of CSC-related markers. Conversely, an EMT circuit energy that quantifies the co-expression of epithelial and mesenchymal genes consistently increases along EMT trajectories across different cancer types and anatomical locations. Moreover, despite the high context specificity of signal transduction across different cell types, cells undergoing EMT always increased their potential to send and receive signals from other cells.

Silencing ACTG1 Expression Induces Prostate Cancer Epithelial Mesenchymal Transition Through MAPK/ERK Signaling Pathway

Purpose: Metastatic prostate cancer (PCa) has become a major obstacle in the treatment of PCa. The study's purpose is to find biomarkers of tumor metastasis by proteomics and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and to design related experiments to study its role in the progress and metastasis of PCa. Method: We analyzed serum from primary PCa stage and metastatic stage of 12 patients to find metastatic PCa serum protein biomarkers using isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ). An effective diagnostic model based on validated biomarkers using logistic regression was established. In vivo and in vitro biological behavior experiments (wound healing, CCK8, and Transwell tests) were carried out after obtaining the biomarkers. Related mechanism has been studied, which may be associated with metastatic PCa. Result: Actin gamma 1 (ACTG1) is a potential biomarker in the metastasis of PCa. Bioinformatics and related experiments show that ACTG1 is high-expressed in PCa tissues and cells. In vivo and in vitro experiments illustrated that the ability of proliferation, migration, and invasion of PCa cells was significantly inhibited after the knockdown of ACTG1 expression. Surprisingly, ERK protein expression was downregulated after ACTG1 knockdown. At the same time, the expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related markers in PCa cells decrease after treated with ERK1/2 inhibitor, which indicating that ACTG1 may affect the metastatic ability of PCa cells through MAPK/ERK signaling pathway. Conclusion: ACTG1 is a marker of metastasis PCa. It mediates cell proliferation and may regulate the metastasis of PCa through MAPK/ERK signaling pathway, which provides a useful theoretical basis for exploring the treatment of PCa.

Key promoters of tumor hallmarks

Evolution of tumor hallmarks is a result of accommodation of tumor cells with their nearby milieu called tumor microenvironment (TME). Accommodation or adaptive responses is highly important for a cell to survive, without which no cell is allowed to take any further steps in tumorigenesis. Metabolism of cancer cells is largely depended on stroma. Composition and plasticity of cells within the stroma is highly affected from inflammatory setting of TME. Hypoxia which is a common event in many solid cancers, is known as one of the key hallmarks of chronic inflammation and the master regulator of metastasis. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β is produced in the chronic inflammatory and chronic hypoxic settings, and it is considered as a cardinal factor for induction of all tumor hallmarks. Aging, obesity and smoking are the main predisposing factors of cancer, acting mainly through modulation of TME.

Fatty acid transport protein-5 (FATP5) deficiency enhances hepatocellular carcinoma progression and metastasis by reprogramming cellular energy metabolism and regulating the AMPK-mTOR signaling pathway

Aberrant lipid metabolism is an essential feature of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Fatty acid transport protein-5 (FATP5) is highly expressed in the liver and is involved in the fatty acid transport pathway. However, the potential role of FATP5 in the pathogenesis of HCC remains largely unknown. Herein, we showed that FATP5 was downregulated in HCC tissues and even much lower in vascular tumor thrombi. Low expression of FATP5 was correlated with multiple aggressive and invasive clinicopathological characteristics and contributed to tumor metastasis and a poor prognosis in HCC patients. FATP5 inhibited the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process and suppressed HCC cell migration and invasion, while silencing FATP5 had the opposite effects. Mechanistically, knockdown of FATP5 promoted cellular glycolytic flux and ATP production, thus suppressing AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and activating its downstream signaling mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) to support HCC progression and metastasis. Activation of AMPK using metformin reversed the EMT program and impaired the metastatic capacity of FATP5-depleted HCC cells. Collectively, FATP5 served as a novel suppressor of HCC progression and metastasis partly by regulating the AMPK/mTOR pathway in HCC, and targeting the FATP5-AMPK axis may be a promising therapeutic strategy for personalized HCC treatment.

Targeting the Tumor Microenvironment: A Literature Review of the Novel Anti-Tumor Mechanism of Statins

Statins is widely used in clinical practice as lipid-lowering drugs and has been proven to be effective in the treatment of cardiovascular, endocrine, metabolic syndrome and other diseases. The latest preclinical evidence shows that statins have anti-proliferation, pro-apoptotic, anti-invasion and radiotherapy sensitization effects on tumor cells, suggesting that statins may become a new type of anti-tumor drugs. For a long time, mevalonate pathway has been proved to play a supporting role in the development of tumor cells. As an effective inhibitor of mevalonate pathway, statins have been proved to have a direct auxiliary anti-tumor effect in a large number of studies. In addition, anti-tumor effects of statins through ferroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy and tumor microenvironment (TME) have also been gradually discovered. However, the specific mechanism of the antitumor effect of statins in the tumor microenvironment has not been clearly elucidated. Herein, we reviewed the antitumor effects of statins in tumor microenvironment, focusing on hypoxia microenvironment, immune microenvironment, metabolic microenvironment, acid microenvironment and mechanical microenvironment.

Overexpression of NREP Promotes Migration and Invasion in Gastric Cancer Through Facilitating Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition

The identification of biomarkers and effective therapeutic targets for gastric cancer (GC), the most common cause of cancer-related deaths around the world, is currently a major focus area in research. Here, we examined the utility of Neuronal Regeneration Related Protein (NREP) as a prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for GC. We assessed the clinical relevance, function, and molecular role of NREP in GC using bioinformatics analysis and experimental validation. Our results showed that in GC, NREP overexpression was significantly associated with a poor prognosis. Our findings also suggested that NREP may be involved in the activation of cancer-associated fibroblasts and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), with transforming growth factor β1 mediating both processes. In addition, NREP expression showed a positive correlation with the abundance of M2 macrophages, which are potent immunosuppressors. Together, these results indicate that NREP is overexpressed in GC and affects GC prognosis. Thus, NREP could be a prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for GC.

Discovery and Validation of an Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition-Based Signature in Gastric Cancer by Genomics and Prognosis Analysis

Objective

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) exerts a key function in cancer initiation and progression. Herein, we aimed to develop an EMT-based prognostic signature in gastric cancer.

Methods

The gene expression profiles of gastric cancer were obtained from TCGA dataset as a training set and GSE66229 and GSE84437 datasets as validation sets. By LASSO regression and Cox regression analyses, key prognostic EMT-related genes were screened for developing a risk score (RS) model. Potential small molecular compounds were predicted by the CMap database based on the RS model. GSEA was employed to explore signaling pathways associated with the RS. ESTIMATE and seven algorithms (TIMER, CIBERSORT, CIBERSORT-ABS, QUANTISEQ, MCPCOUNTER, XCELL, and EPIC) were applied to assess the RS and immune microenvironment.

Results

This study developed an EMT-related gene signature comprised of SERPINE1, PCOLCE2, MATN3, and DKK1. High-RS patients displayed poorer survival outcomes than those with low RS. ROC curves demonstrated the robustness of the model in predicting the prognosis. After external validation, the RS model was an independent risk factor for gastric cancer. Several compounds were predicted for gastric cancer treatment based on the RS model. ECM receptor interaction, focal adhesion, pathway in cancer, TGF-beta, and WNT pathways were distinctly activated in high-RS samples. Also, high RS was significantly associated with increased stromal and immune scores and increased infiltration of CD4+ T cell, CD8+ T cell, cancer-associated fibroblast, and macrophage in gastric cancer tissues.

Conclusion

Our findings suggested that the EMT-related gene model may robustly predict gastric cancer prognosis, which could improve the efficacy of personalized therapy.

Knockdown of METTL14 suppresses the malignant progression of non-small cell lung cancer by reducing Twist expression

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most malignant cancer types. N6-methyladenosine (m6A), an abundant eukaryotic mRNA modification, has been observed in multiple diseases, particularly cancer. Methyltransferase-like 14 (METTL14) is a central component of the m6A methyltransferase complex and has been reported to promote tumor development in several cancer types. The present study aimed to investigate the role of METTL14 in NSCLC. Relevant clinical and mRNA sequencing data for m6A-related genes were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. R software was used to evaluate the expression of m6A regulators in NSCLC. The biological functions of METTL14 were evaluated using Cell Counting Kit-8, colony formation, Transwell migration and western blot analyses. The results demonstrated that METTL14 expression was upregulated in NSCLC tissues and cell lines, and its expression was high in cancer tissues from patients with NSCLC with all four stages (I, II, III and IV) of disease. METTL14 downregulation inhibited cell proliferation and migration in A549 and SK-MES-1 lung cancer cell lines. Knockdown of METTL14 in lung cancer cell lines increased E-cadherin expression and suppressed N-cadherin expression. Furthermore, METTL14 downregulation reduced the expression levels of the transcription factor Twist and the p-AKT/AKT ratio. In conclusion, the present findings revealed that silencing of METTL14 suppressed NSCLC malignancy by inhibiting Twist-mediated activation of AKT signaling. These data suggest that METTL14 may be a potential therapeutic target for NSCLC.

Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition: Key Regulator of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Progression and Chemoresistance

Simple Summary

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma’s (PDAC) dismal prognosis is associated with its aggressive biological behavior and resistance to chemotherapy. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been recognized as a key driver of PDAC progression and development of drug resistance. EMT is a transient and reversible process leading to transdifferentiation of epithelial cells into a more mesenchymal phenotype. It is regulated by multiple signaling pathways that control the activity of a transcription factors network. Activation of EMT in pre-invasive stages of PDAC has been accused for early dissemination. Furthermore, it contributes to the development of intratumoral heterogeneity and drug resistance. This review summarizes the available data regarding signaling networks regulating EMT and describes the integral role of EMT in different aspects of PDAC pathogenesis.

Abstract

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the deadliest malignancies, characterized by aggressive biological behavior and a lack of response to currently available chemotherapy. Emerging evidence has identified epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) as a key driver of PDAC progression and a central regulator in the development of drug resistance. EMT is a reversible transdifferentiation process controlled by complex interactions between multiple signaling pathways such as TGFb, Wnt, and Notch, which converge to a network of specific transcription factors. Activation of EMT transcriptional reprogramming converts cancer cells of epithelial differentiation into a more mesenchymal phenotypic state. EMT occurrence in pre-invasive pancreatic lesions has been implicated in early PDAC dissemination. Moreover, cancer cell phenotypic plasticity driven by EMT contributes to intratumoral heterogeneity and drug tolerance and is mechanistically associated with the emergence of cells exhibiting cancer stem cells (CSCs) phenotype. In this review we summarize the available data on the signaling cascades regulating EMT and the molecular isnteractions between pancreatic cancer and stromal cells that activate them. In addition, we provide a link between EMT, tumor progression, and chemoresistance in PDAC.

Biological and clinical implications of metastasis-associated circular RNAs in oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a prevalent malignancy with high morbidity and mortality as a result of early metastasis and poor prognosis. Metastasis is a multistep process, involving various signalling pathways. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a class of covalently closed noncoding RNAs, the aberrant expression of which is reported to be involved in several biological events, including cell transformation, proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptosis and metastasis. Several studies have reported interactions between circRNAs and metastasis-associated signalling pathways. The abundance, stability and highly specific expression of candidate circRNAs make them potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets in OSCC. In this review article, we comprehensively describe metastasis-related circRNAs and their interactions with epithelial-mesenchymal transition-associated molecules. We also describe the molecular mechanisms and clinical relevance of circRNAs in OSCC progression and metastasis.

HOXD9‑induced SCNN1A upregulation promotes pancreatic cancer cell proliferation, migration and predicts prognosis by regulating epithelial‑mesenchymal transformation

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is a malignant tumor disease, whose molecular mechanism is not fully understood. Sodium channel epithelial 1α subunit (SCNN1A) serves an important role in tumor progression. The current study explored the role of homeobox D9 (HOXD9) and SCNN1A in the progression of PC. The expression of SCNN1A and HOXD9 in PC samples was predicted on online databases and detected in PC cell lines. The association between SCNN1A expression and PC prognosis was examined by the Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis, The Cancer Genome Atlas and Genotype‑Tissue Expression databases and by a Kaplan‑Meier plotter. Subsequently, the biological effects of SCNN1A on PC cell growth, colony formation, migration and invasion were investigated through RNA interference and cell transfection. Next, the expression of E‑cadherin, N‑cadherin, Vimentin and Snail was detected by western blotting to discover whether HOXD9 dysregulation mediated PC metastasis. Binding sites of HOXD9 and SCNN1A promoters were predicted on JASPAR. Reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and western blotting were used to detect the expression level of SCNN1A following interference and overexpression of HOXD9. Luciferase assay detected luciferase activity following interference with HOXD9 and the transcriptional activity of SCNN1A following binding site deletion. High expression of SCNN1A and HOXD9 in PC was predicted by online databases, signifying poor prognosis. The present study confirmed the above predictions in PC cell lines. Knockdown of SCNN1A and HOXD9 could effectively inhibit the proliferation, migration, invasion and epithelial‑mesenchymal transition of PC cells. Furthermore, HOXD9 activated SCNN1A transcription, forming a feedback regulatory loop. HOXD9 was demonstrated to activate SCNN1A and promote the malignant biological process of PC.

Deciphering the molecular mechanism of the cancer formation by chromosome structural dynamics

Cancer reflects the dysregulation of the underlying gene network, which is strongly related to the 3D genome organization. Numerous efforts have been spent on experimental characterizations of the structural alterations in cancer genomes. However, there is still a lack of genomic structural-level understanding of the temporal dynamics for cancer initiation and progression. Here, we use a landscape-switching model to investigate the chromosome structural transition during the cancerization and reversion processes. We find that the chromosome undergoes a non-monotonic structural shape-changing pathway with initial expansion followed by compaction during both of these processes. Furthermore, our analysis reveals that the chromosome with a more expanding structure than those at both the normal and cancer cell during cancerization exhibits a sparse contact pattern, which shows significant structural similarity to the one at the embryonic stem cell in many aspects, including the trend of contact probability declining with the genomic distance, the global structural shape geometry and the spatial distribution of loci on the chromosome. In light of the intimate structure-function relationship at the chromosomal level, we further describe the cell state transition processes by the chromosome structural changes, suggesting an elevated cell stemness during the formation of the cancer cells. We show that cell cancerization and reversion are highly irreversible processes in terms of the chromosome structural transition pathways, spatial repositioning of chromosomal loci and hysteresis loop of contact evolution analysis. Our model draws a molecular-scale picture of cell cancerization from the chromosome structural perspective. The process contains initial reprogramming towards the stem cell followed by the differentiation towards the cancer cell, accompanied by an initial increase and subsequent decrease of the cell stemness.

Exploiting differential effects of actomyosin contractility to control cell sorting among breast cancer cells

In order to gain a greater understanding of the factors that drive spatial organization in multicellular aggregates of cancer cells, we investigate the segregation patterns of 6 breast cell lines of varying degree of mesenchymal character during formation of mixed aggregates. Cell sorting is considered in the context of available adhesion proteins and cellular contractility. It is found that the primary compaction mediator (cadherins or integrins) for a given cell type in isolation plays an important role in compaction speed, which in turn is the major factor dictating preference for interior or exterior position within mixed aggregates. In particular, cadherin-deficient, invasion-competent cells tend to position towards the outside of aggregates, facilitating access to extracellular matrix. Reducing actomyosin contractility is found to have a differential effect on spheroid formation depending on compaction mechanism. Inhibition of contractility has a significant stabilizing effect on cell-cell adhesions in integrin-driven aggregation and a mildly destabilizing effect in cadherin-based aggregation. This differential response is exploited to statically control aggregate organization and dynamically rearrange cells in pre-formed aggregates. Sequestration of invasive cells in the interior of spheroids provides a physical barrier that reduces invasion in three-dimensional culture, revealing a potential strategy for containment of invasive cell types.

Non-coding RNA-mediated autophagy in cancer: A protumor or antitumor factor?

Autophagy, usually referred to as macroautophagy, is a cytoprotective behavior that helps cells, especially cancer cells, escape crises. However, the role of autophagy in cancer remains controversial. The induction of autophagy is favorable for tumor growth, as it can degrade damaged cell components accumulated during nutrient deficiency, chemotherapy, or other stresses in a timely manner. Whereas the antitumor effect of autophagy might be closely related to its crosstalk with metabolism, immunomodulation, and other pathways. Recent studies have verified that lncRNAs and circRNAs modulate autophagy in carcinogenesis, cancer cells proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and chemoresistance via multiple mechanisms. A comprehensive understanding of the regulatory relationships between ncRNAs and autophagy in cancer might resolve chemoresistance and also offer intervention strategies for cancer therapy. This review systematically displays the regulatory effects of lncRNAs and circRNAs on autophagy in the contexts of cancer initiation, progression, and resistance to chemo- or radiotherapy and provides a novel insight into cancer therapy.

Berberine Suppresses EMT in Liver and Gastric Carcinoma Cells through Combination with TGFβR Regulating TGF-β/Smad Pathway

Berberine (BBR), a natural alkaloid derived from Coptis, has anticancer activity. Some researchers have found that it could restrain epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of melanoma, neuroblastoma, and other tumor cells. However, it is unclear whether BBR can reverse EMT in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and gastric carcinoma (GC). In our study, BBR inhibited the migration and invasion of HepG2, MGC803, and SGC7901 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Transcription sequencing assays showed that Vimentin, MMP, and Smad3 were downregulated, but Smad2, Smad6, TAB2, ZO-1, and claudin 7 were upregulated when treated with BBR. GO Enrichment analysis of KEGG pathway showed that BBR significantly inhibited TGF-β/Smad at 12 h, then, PI3K/Akt and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways at 24 h, which were closely related to the proliferation, migration, and EMT. The results of the transcriptome sequencing analysis were verified by Western Blot. It showed that the expression of epithelial marker E-cadherin and ZO-1 remarkably augmented with BBR treatment, as well as declined mesenchymal markers, including N-cadherin and Vimentin, decreased transcription factor Snail and Slug. The effects of BBR were similar to those of the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 and TGF-β receptor inhibitor SB431542. Furthermore, β-catenin and phosphorylation of AKT, Smad2, and Smad3 were changed dose-dependently by BBR treatment, which upregulated p-Smad2 and downregulated the others. Combined with LY or SB, respectively, BBR could enhance the effects of the two inhibitors. Simultaneously, IGF-1 and TGF-β, which is the activator of PI3K/AKT and TGF-β/Smad, respectively, could reverse the anti-EMT effect of BBR. The Molecular Docking results showed BBR had a high affinity with the TGF-β receptor I (TGFβR1), and the binding energy was -7.5 kcal/mol, which is better than the original ligand of TGFβR1. Although the affinity of BBR with TGF-β receptor II (TGFβR2) was lower than the original ligand of TGFβR2, the more considerable negative binding energy (-8.54 kcal/mol) was obtained. BBR upregulated p-Smad2, which was different from other reports, indicating that the function of Smad2 was relatively complex. Combination BBR with SB could enhance the effect of the inhibitor on EMT, and the results indicated that BBR binding to TGFβR was not competitive with SB to TGFβR since different binding amino acid sites. Our experiments demonstrated BBR increased p-Smad2 and decreased p-Smad3 by binding to TGFβR1 and TGβFR2 inhibiting TGF-β/Smad, then, PI3K/AKT and other signaling pathways to restrain EMT, metastasis, and invasion in tumor cells. The effect of BBR was similar on the three tumor cells.

Mechanotransduction in fibrosis: Mechanisms and treatment targets

To perceive and integrate the environmental cues, cells and tissues sense and interpret various physical forces like shear, tensile, and compression stress. Mechanotransduction involves the sensing and translation of mechanical forces into biochemical and mechanical signals to guide cell fate and achieve tissue homeostasis. Disruption of this mechanical homeostasis by tissue injury elicits multiple cellular responses leading to pathological matrix deposition and tissue stiffening, and consequent evolution toward pro-inflammatory/pro-fibrotic phenotypes, leading to tissue/organ fibrosis. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms linking mechanotransduction to fibrosis and uncovers the potential therapeutic targets to halt or resolve fibrosis.