Lipid nano scale cargos for the protection and delivery of food bioactive ingredients and nutraceuticals

Critical Review of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles as Carriers of Neuroprotective Drugs and Extracts

The biggest obstacle to the treatment of diseases that affect the central nervous system (CNS) is the passage of drugs across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a physical barrier that regulates the entry of substances into the brain and ensures the homeostasis of the CNS. This review summarizes current research on lipid-based nanoparticles for the nanoencapsulation of neuroprotective compounds. A survey of studies on nanoemulsions (NEs), nanoliposomes/nanophytosomes and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)/nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) was carried out and is discussed herein, with particular emphasis upon their unique characteristics, the most important parameters influencing the formulation of each one, and examples of neuroprotective compounds/extracts nanoencapsulated using these nanoparticles. Gastrointestinal absorption is also discussed, as it may pose some obstacles for the absorption of free and nanoencapsulated neuroprotective compounds into the bloodstream, consequently hampering drug concentration in the brain. The transport mechanisms through which compounds or nanoparticles may cross BBB into the brain parenchyma, and the potential to increase drug bioavailability, are also discussed. Additionally, factors contributing to BBB disruption and neurodegeneration are described. Finally, the advantages of, and obstacles to, conventional and unconventional routes of administration to deliver nanoencapsulated neuroprotective drugs to the brain are also discussed, taking into account the avoidance of first-pass metabolism, onset of action, ability to bypass the BBB and concentration of the drug in the brain.

Naringenin Nano-Delivery Systems and Their Therapeutic Applications

Naringenin (NRG) is a polyphenolic phytochemical belonging to the class of flavanones and is widely distributed in citrus fruits and some other fruits such as bergamot, tomatoes, cocoa, and cherries. NRG presents several interesting pharmacological properties, such as anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, the therapeutic potential of NRG is hampered due to its hydrophobic nature, which leads to poor bioavailability. Here, we review a wide range of nanocarriers that have been used as delivery systems for NRG, including polymeric nanoparticles, micelles, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), nanosuspensions, and nanoemulsions. These nanomedicine formulations of NRG have been applied as a potential treatment for several diseases, using a wide range of in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo models and different routes of administration. From this review, it can be concluded that NRG is a potential therapeutic option for the treatment of various diseases such as cancer, neurological disorders, liver diseases, ocular disorders, inflammatory diseases, skin diseases, and diabetes when formulated in the appropriate nanocarriers.

Nanoemulsion-Based Technologies for Delivering Natural Plant-Based Antimicrobials in Foods

There is increasing interest in the use of natural preservatives (rather than synthetic ones) for maintaining the quality and safety of foods due to their perceived environmental and health benefits. In particular, plant-based antimicrobials are being employed to protect against microbial spoilage, thereby improving food safety, quality, and shelf-life. However, many natural antimicrobials cannot be utilized in their free form due to their chemical instability, poor dispersibility in food matrices, or unacceptable flavor profiles. For these reasons, encapsulation technologies, such as nanoemulsions, are being developed to overcome these hurdles. Indeed, encapsulation of plant-based preservatives can improve their handling and ease of use, as well as enhance their potency. This review highlights the various kinds of plant-based preservatives that are available for use in food applications. It then describes the methods available for forming nanoemulsions and shows how they can be used to encapsulate and deliver plant-based preservatives. Finally, potential applications of nano-emulsified plant-based preservatives for improving food quality and safety are demonstrated in the meat, fish, dairy, and fresh produce areas.

Polysaccharides-based bio-nanostructures and their potential food applications

Polysaccharides are omnipresent biomolecules that hold great potential as promising biomaterials for a myriad of applications in various biotechnological and industrial sectors. The presence of diverse functional groups renders them tailorable functionalities for preparing a multitude of novel bio-nanostructures. Further, they are biocompatible and biodegradable, hence, considered as environmentally friendly biopolymers. Application of nanotechnology in food science has shown many advantages in improving food quality and enhancing its shelf life. Recently, considerable efforts have been made to develop polysaccharide-based nanostructures for possible food applications. Therefore, it is of immense importance to explore literature on polysaccharide-based nanostructures delineating their food application potentialities. Herein, we reviewed the developments in polysaccharide-based bio-nanostructures and highlighted their potential applications in food preservation and bioactive "smart" food packaging. We categorized these bio-nanostructures into polysaccharide-based nanoparticles, nanocapsules, nanocomposites, dendrimeric nanostructures, and metallo-polysaccharide hybrids. This review demonstrates that the polysaccharides are emerging biopolymers, gaining much attention as robust biomaterials with excellent tuneable properties.

Utilization of Nanotechnology to Improve the Handling, Storage and Biocompatibility of Bioactive Lipids in Food Applications

Bioactive lipids, such as fat-soluble vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acids, carotenoids and phytosterols play an important role in boosting human health and wellbeing. These lipophilic substances cannot be synthesized within the human body, and so people must include them in their diet. There is increasing interest in incorporating these bioactive lipids into functional foods designed to produce certain health benefits, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer and cholesterol-lowering properties. However, many of these lipids have poor compatibility with food matrices and low bioavailability because of their extremely low water solubility. Moreover, they may also chemically degrade during food storage or inside the human gut because they are exposed to certain stressors, such as high temperatures, oxygen, light, moisture, pH, and digestive/metabolic enzymes, which again reduces their bioavailability. Nanotechnology is a promising technology that can be used to overcome many of these limitations. The aim of this review is to highlight different kinds of nanoscale delivery systems that have been designed to encapsulate and protect bioactive lipids, thereby facilitating their handling, stability, food matrix compatibility, and bioavailability. These systems include nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), nanoliposomes, nanogels, and nano-particle stabilized Pickering emulsions.

Physical and turbidimetric properties of cholecalciferol- and menaquinone-loaded lipid nanocarriers emulsified with polysorbate 80 and soy lecithin

The present study aimed to investigate the physical and turbidimetric properties of cholecalciferol- and menaquinone-loaded lipid nanocarriers emulsified with different ratios of polysorbate 80 and soy lecithin. The lipid nanocarriers were subjected to three different heat treatments, LTLT (low temperature long time), HTST (high temperature short time), and autoclave treatments. Both cholecalciferol and menaquinone were successfully encapsulated in lipid nanocarriers and there was little loss of them during preparation. The droplet size of lipid nanocarriers emulsified with only polysorbate 80 increased and its PDI became larger than 0.3 after autoclave treatment. Moreover, 30.9% and 49.4% of cholecalciferol and menaquinone, respectively, were lost. In turbidimetric analysis, the destabilization by creaming formation in the upper layer of the lipid nanocarriers emulsified with a high polysorbate ratio was observed. However, the use of combination of both emulsifiers inhibited destabilization by flocculation as well as retained the cholecalciferol and menaquinone after all heat treatments.

Improving the bioavailability of oil-soluble vitamins by optimizing food matrix effects: A review

The potency of oil-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) in fortified foods can be improved by understanding how food matrices impact their bioavailability. In this review, the major food matrix effects influencing the bioavailability of oil-soluble vitamins are highlighted: oil content, oil composition, particle size, interfacial properties, and food additives. Droplet size and aggregation state in the human gut impact vitamin bioavailability by modulating lipid digestion, vitamin release, and vitamin solubilization. Vitamins in small isolated oil droplets typically have a higher bioavailability than those in large or aggregated ones. Emulsifiers, stabilizers, or texture modifiers can therefore affect bioavailability by influencing droplet size or aggregation. The dimensions of the hydrophobic domains in mixed micelles depends on lipid type: if the domains are too small, vitamin bioavailability is low. Overall, this review highlights the importance of carefully designing food matrices to improve vitamin bioavailability.

The colorful world of carotenoids: a profound insight on therapeutics and recent trends in nano delivery systems

The therapeutic effects of carotenoids as dietary supplements to control or even treat some specific diseases including diabetic retinopathy, cardiovascular diseases, bacterial infections, as well as breast, prostate, and skin cancer are discussed in this review and also thoughts on future research for their widespread use are emphasized. From the stability standpoint, carotenoids have low bioavailability and bioaccessibility owing to their poor water solubility, deterioration in the presence of environmental stresses such as oxygen, light, and high heat as well as rapid degradation during digestion. Nanoencapsulation technologies as wall or encapsulation materials have been increasingly used for improving food product functionality. Nanoencapsulation is a versatile process employed for the protection, entrapment, and the delivery of food bioactive products including carotenoids from diverse environmental conditions for extended shelf lives and for providing controlled release. Therefore, we present here, recent (mostly during the last five years) nanoencapsulation methods of carotenoids with various nanocarriers. To us, this review can be considered as the first highlighting not only the potential therapeutic effects of carotenoids on various diseases but also their most effective nanodelivery systems.HighlightsBioactive compounds are of deep interest to improve food properties.Carotenoids (such as β-carotene and xanthophylls) play indispensable roles in maintaining human health and well-being.A substantial research effort has been carried out on developing beneficial nanodelivery systems for various carotenoids.Nanoencapsulation of carotenoids can enhance their functional properties.Stable nanoencapsulated carotenoids could be utilized in food products.

Fractionation of Flaxseed-Derived Bioactive Peptides and Their Influence on Nanoliposomal Carriers

This study addressed the extraction, enzymatic hydrolysis, and production of peptide fractions (PF) from defatted flaxseed meal and their loading into nanoliposomes. Enzymatic hydrolysis significantly increased the free hydrophobic (from 19 to 134 mg/g) and antioxidant (from 8 to 46 mg/g) amino acids. The PF with lower molecular weights (MW < 10 kDa) had the highest scavenging capacity of DPPH^- free radicals (61.82%), ABTS⁺ (86.37%), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, TEAC (2.34 mM), hydroxyl (61.91%), reducing power (0.94 Abs₇₀₀), total antioxidant activity (1.76 Abs₆₉₅), nitric oxide (49.9%), iron (69.34%), and copper (24.58%) chelating activities compared with other fractions. The physical properties (such as particle size and polydispersity index), stability, and encapsulation efficiency of nanoliposomes were affected by temperature, stress type (freeze and thaw tension), MW, and in vitro conditions (release of PF in simulated biological fluids at different times). Besides, the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) results showed the placement of peptides inside the polar regions and the bilayer membrane. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of nanocarriers indicated agglomerated and relatively spherical structures. Our findings revealed the efficiency of nanoliposomes as appropriate carriers for the delivery of peptide fractions with the highest antioxidant activity.

Development and Study of Nanoemulsions and Nanoemulsion-Based Hydrogels for the Encapsulation of Lipophilic Compounds

Biocompatible nanoemulsions and nanoemulsion-based hydrogels were formulated for the encapsulation and delivery of vitamin D₃ and curcumin. The aforementioned systems were structurally studied applying dynamic light scattering (DLS), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and viscometry. In vitro studies were conducted using Franz diffusion cells to investigate the release of the bioactive compounds from the nanocarriers. The cytotoxicity of the nanoemulsions was investigated using the thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide (MTT) cell proliferation assay and RPMI 2650 nasal epithelial cells as in vitro model. DLS measurements showed that vitamin D₃ and curcumin addition in the dispersed phase of the nanoemulsions caused an increase in the size of the oil droplets from 78.6 ± 0.2 nm to 83.6 ± 0.3 nm and from 78.6 ± 0.2 nm to 165.6 ± 1.0 nm, respectively. Loaded nanoemulsions, in both cases, were stable for 60 days of storage at 25 °C. EPR spectroscopy revealed participation of vitamin D₃ and curcumin in the surfactants monolayer. In vitro release rates of both lipophilic compounds from the nanoemulsions were comparable to the corresponding ones from the nanoemulsion-based hydrogels. The developed o/w nanoemulsions did not exhibit cytotoxic effect up to the concentration threshold of 1 mg/mL in the cell culture medium.

Plant-Derived Natural Products in Cancer Research: Extraction, Mechanism of Action, and Drug Formulation

Cancer is one of the main causes of death globally and considered as a major challenge for the public health system. The high toxicity and the lack of selectivity of conventional anticancer therapies make the search for alternative treatments a priority. In this review, we describe the main plant-derived natural products used as anticancer agents. Natural sources, extraction methods, anticancer mechanisms, clinical studies, and pharmaceutical formulation are discussed in this review. Studies covered by this review should provide a solid foundation for researchers and physicians to enhance basic and clinical research on developing alternative anticancer therapies.

Nanoformulations to Enhance the Bioavailability and Physiological Functions of Polyphenols

Polyphenols are micronutrients that are widely present in human daily diets. Numerous studies have demonstrated their potential as antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents, and for cancer prevention, heart protection and the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. However, due to their vulnerability to environmental conditions and low bioavailability, their application in the food and medical fields is greatly limited. Nanoformulations, as excellent drug delivery systems, can overcome these limitations and maximize the pharmacological effects of polyphenols. In this review, we summarize the biological activities of polyphenols, together with systems for their delivery, including phospholipid complexes, lipid-based nanoparticles, protein-based nanoparticles, niosomes, polymers, micelles, emulsions and metal nanoparticles. The application of polyphenol nanoparticles in food and medicine is also discussed. Although loading into nanoparticles solves the main limitation to application of polyphenolic compounds, there are some concerns about their toxicological safety after entry into the human body. It is therefore necessary to conduct toxicity studies and residue analysis on the carrier.

Characterization and analysis of an oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by rapeseed protein isolate under pH and ionic stress

BACKGROUND

Presently, identifying natural compounds as emulsifiers is a popular topic in the food industry. Rapeseed protein isolate (RPI) is a natural plant protein with excellent emulsifying properties, but it has not been systematically developed and utilized.

RESULTS

This study investigated the surface hydrophobicity, wettability, and protein solubility of RPI to further explain its emulsifying behavior in emulsion systems. Nanoemulsions stabilized by RPI at varying protein concentration, pH, and ionic strength were prepared. The size distribution, zeta potential, flocculation index, creaming index, microstructure, rheology, and protein secondary structure of emulsions were measured. The emulsion stabilized by 20 g L^-1 RPI at pH 10.0, 200 mmol L^-1 ionic strength revealed an appropriate droplet size of 555 nm and the most internal gel strength without creaming phenomenon. Circular dichroism spectroscopy showed a positive correlation between emulsion stability and α-helix ratio, indicating the environment factors affected emulsion stability by acting on its hydrogen bonds.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that RPI is a practical emulsifier for stabilizing nanoemulsions. About 20 g L^-1 RPI can stabilize 100 mL L^-1 oil in water; stable emulsions can be formed at most pH conditions (except 7.0); ion addition will aggravate the emulsion flocculation, but also increase the internal gel strength. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Nanoliposomal encapsulation of saffron bioactive compounds; characterization and optimization

Nanoliposomes are among the most important lipid-based nanocarriers for both hydrophilic and hydrophobic bioactives. In this study, saffron-loaded nanoliposomes were produced by evaluating the influence of lecithin (0.5, 1.0, 1.5% w/w), saffron extract (0.15, 0.33, 0.50% w/w), and sunflower oil (25, 30, 35% w/w) on encapsulation efficiency, creaming stability, size and color indices of nanoliposomes. For each response, a second-order polynomial model with a high R² value (0.950-0.989) was obtained using multiple linear regression analysis. The creaming stability revealed that when oil and saffron contents are enhanced, lecithin level was not enough for the formation of a stable network (reduction of surface tension) and thus stability was lowered. Dynamic light scattering results demonstrated nanoliposomal size of around 100 nm and polydispersity index (PDI) of 98.12 ± 0.11. Moreover, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images illustrated spherical particles with a homogenous distribution and smooth surfaces. Also, lecithin level (P < 0.01), and saffron concentration (P < 0.05) significantly influenced the color indices, while sunflower oil content had no significant effect. Overall, the optimization results revealed that 0.15% saffron, 35% sunflower oil, and 1% lecithin was the optimum sample in terms of encapsulation efficiency, size and color indices.

Microemulsions as nano-reactors for the solubilization, separation, purification and encapsulation of bioactive compounds

Bioactive components possess various functionalities and are most interested for different food, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical formulations. The current review will discuss the preparation methods and fabrication techniques to design microemulsions (MEs) for the solubilization, separation, encapsulation and purification of various agro-food bioactive compounds. ME systems have shown suitable potential in enhancing oil recovery, protein extraction, and isolation of bioactive compounds. Moreover, the capability of ME based systems as drug and nutraceutical delivery cargos, and synthesis of various organic and inorganic nanoparticles, especially using biopolymers, will be investigated. ME liquid membranes are also developed as nano-extractor/nano-reactor vehicles, capable of simultaneous extraction, encapsulation or even synthesis of hydrophilic and lipophilic bioactive compounds for food, nutraceutical and drug applications.

Introducing nano/microencapsulated bioactive ingredients for extending the shelf-life of food products

The shelf-life of foods is affected by several aspects, mainly chemical and microbial events, resulting in a considerable decline in consumer's acceptance. There is an increasing interest to substitute synthetic preservatives with the plant-based bioactive ingredients which are safe and natural. However, full implementation of this replacement is postponed by some challenges associated with bioactive ingredients, including their low chemical stability, off-flavor, low solubility, and short-term effectiveness. Encapsulation could overcome these limitations. The present review explains current trends in applying natural encapsulated ingredients for food preservation based on a classified description including essential oils, plant extracts, phenolics, carotenoids, etc. and their application for extending food shelf-life mostly dealing with antimicrobial, ant-browning and antioxidant properties. Encapsulation techniques, especially nanoencapsulation, is a promising strategy to overcome their limitations. Moreover, better results are obtained using a combination of proteins and polysaccharides as wall materials than single polymers. The encapsulation method and type of encapsulants highly influences the releasing mechanism and physicochemical properties of bioactive ingredients. These factors together with optimizing the conditions of encapsulation process leads to a cost-effective and well encapsulated ingredient which is more efficient than its free form in shelf-life improvement. It has been shown that the well-designed encapsulation systems, finally, boost the shelf-life-promoting functions of the bioactive ingredients, mostly due to enhancing their solubility, homogeneity in food matrices and contact surface with deteriorative agents, and providing their prolonged presence over food storage and processing via increasing the thermal and processing stability of bioactive compounds, as well as controlling their release on food surfaces, or/and within food packages. To this end and given the numerous wall and bioactive core substances available, further studies are needed to evaluate the efficiency of many encapsulated forms of both conventional and novel bioactive ingredients in food shelf-life extending since the interactions and anti-spoiling behaviors of the ingredients in various encapsulation systems and foodstuffs are highly variable that should be optimized and characterized before any industrial application.

Nutraceutical nanodelivery; an insight into the bioaccessibility/bioavailability of different bioactive compounds loaded within nanocarriers

Nanofoods is a current concept that is based on the application of nanotechnologies in the preparation of safe foods, with superior nutritional and sensory characteristics, and capable of providing multiple health benefits. In line with the principles of this concept, food scientists have focused on developing new types of nano biosystems that can contribute to increasing the bioavailability of bioactive compounds used in food fortification. Numerous research teams have investigated the main factors limiting oral bioavailability including: bioaccessibility, absorption and transformation of bioactive compounds and bioactive-loaded nanocarriers. The physicochemical processes involved in the factors limiting oral bioavailability have been extensively studied, such asthe release, solubility and interaction of bioactive compounds and nanocarriers during food digestion, transport mechanisms of bioactive compounds and nanoparticles through intestinal epithelial cells as well as the chemical and biochemical transformations in phase I and phase II reactions. In this comprehensive review, the physicochemical processes involved in the bioaccessibility/bioavailability of different encapsulated bioactive compounds, that play an important role in human health, will be explained including polyphenols, phytosterols, carotenoids, vitamins and minerals. In particular, the mechanisms involved in the cellular uptake of bioactive-loaded nanocarriers including transcellular transport (diffusion, endocytosis, pinocytosis, transcytosis, phagocytosis), paracellular transport (through the "tight junctions" between epithelial cells), and the active transport of bioactive compounds under the action of membrane transporters are highlighted.

Antioxidant Activity in Supramolecular Carotenoid Complexes Favored by Nonpolar Environment and Disfavored by Hydrogen Bonding

Carotenoids are well-known antioxidants. They have the ability to quench singlet oxygen and scavenge toxic free radicals preventing or reducing damage to living cells. We have found that carotenoids exhibit scavenging ability towards free radicals that increases nearly exponentially with increasing the carotenoid oxidation potential. With the oxidation potential being an important parameter in predicting antioxidant activity, we focus here on the different factors affecting it. This paper examines how the chain length and donor/acceptor substituents of carotenoids affect their oxidation potentials but, most importantly, presents the recent progress on the effect of polarity of the environment and orientation of the carotenoids on the oxidation potential in supramolecular complexes. The oxidation potential of a carotenoid in a nonpolar environment was found to be higher than in a polar environment. Moreover, in order to increase the photostability of the carotenoids in supramolecular complexes, a nonpolar environment is desired and the formation of hydrogen bonds should be avoided.

Formulation and Application of Nanoemulsions for Nutraceuticals and Phytochemicals

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Recent trends in research and investigation on nanoemulsion based products is the result of many reasons such as food security as a global concern, increasing demand for highly efficient food and agricultural products and technological need for products with the ability of manipulation and optimization in their properties. Nanoemulsions are defined as emulsions made up of nano sized droplets dispersed in another immiscible liquid which exhibit properties distinguishing them from conventional emulsions and making them suitable for encapsulation, delivery and formulations of bioactive ingredients in different fields including drugs, food and agriculture. The objective of this paper is to present a general overview of nanoemulsions definition, their preparation methods, properties and applications in food and agricultural sectors. Due to physicochemical properties of the nanoemulsion composition, creating nanosized droplets requires high/low energy methods that can be supplied by special devices or techniques. An overview about the mechanisms of these methods is also presented in this paper which are commonly used to prepare nanoemulsions. Finally, some recent works about the application of nanoemulsions in food and agricultural sectors along with challenges and legislations restricting their applications is discussed in the last sections of the current study.

Advances in Nanoliposomes Production for Ferrous Sulfate Delivery

In this study, a continuous bench scale apparatus based on microfluidic fluid dynamic principles was used in the production of ferrous sulfate-nanoliposomes for pharmaceutical/nutraceutical applications, optimizing their formulation with respect to the products already present on the market. After an evaluation of its fluid dynamic nature, the simil-microfluidic (SMF) apparatus was first used to study the effects of the adopted process parameters on vesicles dimensional features by using ultrasonic energy to enhance liposomes homogenization. Subsequently, iron-nanoliposomes were produced at different weight ratios of ferrous sulfate to the total formulation components (0.06, 0.035, 0.02, and 0.01 w/w) achieving, by using the 0.01 w/w, vesicles of about 80 nm, with an encapsulation efficiency higher than 97%, an optimal short- and long-term stability, and an excellent bioavailability in Caco-2 cell line. Moreover, a comparison realized between the SMF method and two more conventional production techniques showed that by using the SMF setup the process time was drastically reduced, and the process yield increased, achieving a massive nanoliposomes production. Finally, duty-cycle sonication was detected to be a scalable technique for vesicles homogenization.

Micro/nanoencapsulation strategy to improve the efficiency of natural antimicrobials against Listeria monocytogenes in food products

Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), the etiological agent of listeriosis diseases in humans, is a serious pathogenic microorganism threatening the food safety especially in ready-to-eat food products. Adhesion on both biotic and abiotic surfaces is making it a potential source of contamination by Lm. Also, this bacterium has become more tolerant in food processing conditions, including in the presence of adverse conditions such as cold and dehydration. One of the attractive and effective methods to inhibit the growth of Lm in the food products is using natural antimicrobial agents, which can be a suitable alternative to synthetic preservatives for producing organic food products. The use of pure natural antimicrobials has some limitations including low stability against harsh conditions, low solubility and absorption, and un-controlled release, which can decrease their functions. These limitations have been overcome by using new advanced encapsulation techniques, which have boosted the anti-listerial activity of natural agents. Therefore, the current paper is aiming to review the results of recent studies conducted on using natural antimicrobials added directly or as encapsulated forms into the food formulation to control the growth of Lm. The information of current study can be used by the researchers as well as the food companies for the optimization of food formulations through encapsulation strategies to control Lm and potentially produce safe foods for the consumers.

Dendrimers as efficient nanocarriers for the protection and delivery of bioactive phytochemicals

The genesis of dendrimers can be considered as a revolution in nano-scaled bioactive delivery systems. These structures possess a unique potential in encapsulating/entrapping bioactive ingredients due to their tree-like nature. Therefore, they could swiftly obtain a valuable statue in nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and medical sciences. Phytochemicals, as a large proportion of bioactives, have been studied and used by scholars in several fields of pharmacology, medical, food, and cosmetic for many years. But, the solubility, stability, and bioavailability issues have always been recognized as limiting factors in their application. Therefore, the main aim of this study is representing the use of dendrimers as novel nanocarriers for phytochemical bioactive compounds to deal with these problems. Hence, after a brief review of phytochemical ingredients, the text is commenced with a detailed explanation of dendrimers, including definitions, types, generations, synthesizing methods, and safety issues; then is continued with demonstration of their applications in encapsulation of phytochemical bioactive compounds and their active/passive delivery by dendrimers. Dendrimers provide a vast and appropriate surface to entrap the targeted phytochemical bioactive ingredients. Several parameters can affect the yield of nanoencapsulation by dendrimers, including their generation, type of end groups, surface charge, core structure, pH, and ambient factors. Another important issue of dendrimers is related to their toxicity. Cationic dendrimers, particularly PAMAM can be toxic to body cells through attaching to the cell membranes and disturbing their functions. However, a number of solutions have been suggested to decrease their toxicity.

Antimicrobial-loaded nanocarriers for food packaging applications

Increasing the demands of consumers for organic and safer foods has led to applying new technologies for food preservation. Active packaging (AP) containing natural antimicrobial agents is a good candidate for promoting the shelf life of food products. The efficiency of AP has been enhanced through nanoencapsulation methods, in which antimicrobial-loaded nanocarriers could provide a controlled release of antimicrobial active packaging for keeping the quality of foods during storage. The main objective of this review is to introduce common methods for designing novel encapsulation delivery systems offering controlled release of antimicrobials in the AP systems. The common nanocarriers for enveloping antimicrobial agents are described and the current state of art in the application of nanoencapsulated antimicrobials in development of antimicrobial APs have been summarized and tabulated. Incorporation of a carrier loaded with natural antimicrobial agents is the most effective method for developing AP in the food packaging sector which has become possible by using nanoencapsulated antimicrobials in films or coating structures, instead of using their free form. Nanoencapsulation approaches provide many advantages including protection against environmental stresses, release control, and improving the solubility and absorption of natural antimicrobials in AP, which are the main achievements overcoming the barriers for using natural antimicrobials in food packaging.

Improving the efficiency of natural antioxidant compounds via different nanocarriers

Encapsulation technology, as a promising approach, has been employed for the protection and controlled release of different bioactive compounds including natural antioxidants; there are restrictions for applying these valuable ingredients in real food products, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics such as low solubility, low shelf life, difficultly in their packaging and handling, losses due to environmental stresses and food processes, undesirable flavors and odors, untargeted release and instability in various conditions during digestion in gastrointestinal tract. Nanocarriers can be employed to overcome these challenges. There are five groups of nanocarriers based on the principal mechanism/ingredient used to make them for the encapsulation of natural antioxidants titled biopolymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based and surfactant-based nanocarriers, nanocarriers made with specially designed equipment, nature-inspired nanocarriers, and miscellaneous ones. The main goal of this study is to have an overview of role of different nanocarriers in improving the efficiency of natural antioxidant compounds for different purposes. It has been verified that antioxidant-loaded nanocarriers can be applied in many formulations with a higher and controlled release antioxidant activity, which would meet the current needs of consumers' expectations towards clean label products.

The formation, stability of DHA/EPA nanoemulsion prepared by emulsion phase inversion method and its application in apple juice

This study prepared edible docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) nanoemulsion using EPI (emulsion phase inversion) method. The method for preparing DHA and EPA nanoemulsions is safe, convenient, low in energy consumption and can be used for food production. Factors affecting particle size and stability during preparation were investigated. Based on the optimal particle size combination, stability studies including particle size and residual rates of DHA and EPA at different temperature, pH and metal ions. The results showed that the nanoemulsion had good stability at low temperature storage, near neutral pH and in the absence of transition metal ions such as Fe³⁺, Cu²⁺, Al³⁺. The experiment initially studied the effect of nanoemulsion on apple juice beverage on the basic properties of juice itself. It was feasible in practical application of edible nanoemulsion.

Advances in research on preparation, characterization, interaction with proteins, digestion and delivery systems of starch-based nanoparticles

Starch-based nanoparticles (SNPs) have attracted great interest for their ability to encapsulate, protect, and orally deliver bioactive components because of their diverse functionality, high biocompatibility, and environmental friendliness. SNPs can be synthesized with a broad range of particle sizes, ranging from a few nanometers to a few hundred nanometers (approximately 8-448 nm), which is comparable to the dimensions of proteins (1-10 nm), nucleic acids (2 nm wide, 5-100 nm long), viruses (10-500 nm), and cell organelles (5-100 mm). The ability to tune the dimensions and properties of SNPs allows them to be used to construct complexes with various biological entities, thereby altering their functional performance. SNPs can also be used to enhance the solubility of hydrophobic substances and to improve the nutritional attributes of bioactives. For instance, SNPs can be designed to increase the bioavailability of bioactives or to target their delivery to specific regions of the gastrointestinal tract. In this review, we provide an overview of the methods available for preparing SNPs, the application of SNPs for encapsulating and delivering bioactives, and the potential gastrointestinal fate of SNPs.

Carotenoid-loaded nanocarriers: A comprehensive review

Carotenoids retain plenty of health benefits and attracting much attention recently, but they have less resistance to processing stresses, easily oxidized and chemically unstable. Additionally, their application in food and pharmaceuticals are restricted due to some limitations such as poor bioavailability, less solubility and quick release. Nanoencapsulation techniques can be used to protect the carotenoids and to uphold their original characteristics during processing, storage and digestion, improve their physiochemical properties and enhance their health promoting effects. The importance of nanocarriers in foods and pharmaceuticals cannot be denied. This review comprehensively covers recent advances in nanoencapsulation of carotenoids with biopolymeric nanocarriers (polysaccharides and proteins), and lipid-based nanocarriers, their functionalities, aptness and innovative developments in preparation strategies. Furthermore, the present state of the art encapsulation of different carotenoids via biopolymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers have been enclosed and tabulated well. Nanoencapsulation has a vast range of applications for protection of carotenoids. Polysaccharides in combination with different proteins can offer a great avenue to achieve the desired formulation for encapsulation of carotenoids by using different nanoencapsulation strategies. In terms of lipid based nanocarriers, solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructure lipid carriers are proving as the encouraging candidates for entrapment of carotenoids. Additionally, nanoliposomes and nanoemulsion are also promising and novel-vehicles for the protection of carotenoids against challenging aspects as well as offering an effectual controlled release on the targeted sites. In the future, further studies could be conducted for exploring the application of nanoencapsulated systems in food and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) for industrial applications.

Parent and nano-encapsulated ytterbium(iii) complex toward binding with biological macromolecules, in vitro cytotoxicity, cleavage and antimicrobial activity studies

To determine the chemotherapeutic and pharmacokinetic aspects of an ytterbium complex containing 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline (Me₂Phen), in vitro binding studies were carried out with FS-DNA/BSA by employing multiple biophysical methods and a molecular modeling study. There are different techniques including absorption spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism studies, viscosity experiments (only in the case of DNA), and competitive experiments used to determine the interaction mode between DNA/BSA and the ytterbium-complex. The results showed that the Yb-complex exhibited a high propensity for the interaction of BSA and DNA via hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals forces. Further, a competitive examination and docking study showed that the interaction site of the ytterbium complex on BSA is site III. The results of docking calculations for DNA/BSA were in good agreement with experimental findings. The complex displays efficient DNA cleavage in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. Moreover, antimicrobial studies of different bacteria and fungi indicated its promising antibacterial activity. In vitro cytotoxicity studies of the Yb-complex, starch nano-encapsulated, and lipid nano-encapsulated were carried out in MCF-7 and A-549 cell lines, which revealed significantly good activity. The results of anticancer activity studies showed that the cytotoxic activity of the Yb-complex was increased when encapsulated with nanocarriers. Based on biological applications of the Yb-complex, it can be concluded that this complex and its nanocarriers can act as novel anticancer and antimicrobial candidates.

The biological applications of Yb-complexes including anticancer, antimicrobial and DNA cleavage ability, and their interaction with FS-DNA and BSA were examined.