Cordyceps: a traditional Chinese medicine and another fungal therapeutic biofactory?

Morphological Observations and Fatty Acid Composition of Indoor-Cultivated Cordyceps sinensis at a High-Altitude Laboratory on Sejila Mountain, Tibet

Cordyceps sinensis, a caterpillar entomopathogenic fungus-host larva complex, is a rare medicinal herb found in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding high-altitude areas. The alternation of generations in the life cycle, whatever the fungus or its host insect, requires special growth conditions. However, it is difficult to simulate the growth conditions of C. sinensis, which hinders its artificial cultivation. In this work, the life cycle from the host larva to C. sinensis was observed in an indoor-cultivation laboratory at 4,200 m a.s.l. on Sejila Mountain, Tibet. Comparative examinations between indoor-cultivated and wild C. sinensis demonstrated that the indoor-cultivated C. sinensis preferred to germinate multiple long, slim stromata at diverse positions on dead larvae, including but not limited to their heads. Their fatty acid composition shows a significant difference in the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). In indoor-cultivated C. sinensis, PUFAs constituted 24.59% and 49.43%, respectively, of neutral and polar lipids; meanwhile, in wild C. sinensis, PUFAs represented 34.34% and 61.25% of neutral and polar lipids, respectively. These observations and fatty acid data suggest that environmental factors, particularly temperature, soil pressure and light intensity, strongly affect the growth of C. sinensis. Our new findings may provide important information for improving techniques for the large-scale artificial cultivation of C. sinensis.

The Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Actions of Cordyceps sinensis

Cordyceps sinensis, also called DongChongXiaCao (winter worm, summer grass) in Chinese, is becoming increasingly popular and important in the public and scientific communities. This study summarizes the chemical constituents and their corresponding pharmacological actions of Cordyceps sinensis. Many bioactive components of Cordyceps sinensis have been extracted including nucleoside, polysaccharide, sterol, protein, amino acid, and polypeptide. In addition, these constituents' corresponding pharmacological actions were also shown in the study such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumour, antiapoptosis, and immunomodulatory actions. Therefore can use different effects of C. sinensis against different diseases and provide reference for the study of Cordyceps sinensis in the future.

Osteoprotective effect of cordycepin on estrogen deficiency-induced osteoporosis in vitro and in vivo

The purpose of this study was to verify the effect of cordycepin on ovariectomized osteopenic rats. Fifty Wistar female rats used were divided into 5 groups: (1) sham-operation rats (control), (2) ovariectomized (OVX) rats with osteopenia, and (3) OVX'd rats with osteopenia treated with cordycepin (5 mg, 10 mg, and 20 mg) for 8 weeks. After the rats were treated orally with cordycepin, serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP), tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), serum osteocalcin (OC), homocysteine (HCY) , C-terminal crosslinked telopeptides of collagen type I (CTX) level, and oxidative stress were examined, respectively. The femoral neck was used for mechanical compression testing. At the same time, we further investigated the effect of cordycepin in vitro assay. The beneficial effects of cordycepin on improvement of osteoporosis in rats were attributable mainly to decrease ALP activity, TRAP activity, and CTX level. At the same time, cordycepin also increases the OC level in ovariectomized osteopenic rats. The histological examination clearly showed that dietary cordycepin can prevent bone loss caused by estrogen deficiency. These experimental results suggest that complement cordycepin is protective after ovariectomized osteopenic in specific way.

Cordyceptin induces apoptosis through repressing hTERT expression and inducing extranuclear export of hTERT

Cordycepin is an adenosine analog originally extracted from Cordyceps militaris that possesses many pharmacological effects including immune activation and antioxidant and antitumor effects. However, the underlying relationship between apoptosis and telomerase activity in response to cordycepin exposure has not been investigated. In this study, we found that cordycepin-induced apoptosis of human leukemia cells (H937 and THP-1 cells) was associated with inactivation of telomerase and downregulation of human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) as well as the transcription factors c-Myc and Sp1, which are required for basal transcription from the hTERT gene promoter. Cordycepin also attenuated the activation of phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling, thereby reducing phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of hTERT. We further showed that the PI3K inhibitor LY29004 significantly decreased telomerase activity in cordycepin-treated cells and increased cordycepin-induced cell death. These findings demonstrate that cordycepin is cytotoxic to human leukemia cells and suppresses telomerase activity through transcriptional and post-translational suppression of hTERT by inactivating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Genome sequence, comparative analysis, and evolutionary insights into chitinases of entomopathogenic fungus Hirsutella thompsonii

Hirsutella thompsonii (Ht) is a fungal pathogen of acarines and the primary cause of epizootics among mites. The draft genomes of two isolates of Ht (MTCC 3556: Ht3, 34.6 Mb and MTCC 6686: Ht6, 34.7 Mb) are presented and compared with the genomes of Beauveria bassiana (Bb) ARSEF 2860 and Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Os) CO18. Comparative analysis of carbohydrate active enzymes, pathogen–host interaction genes, metabolism-associated genes, and genes involved in biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in the four genomes was carried out. Reduction in gene family sizes in Ht3 and Os as compared with Ht6 and Bb is observed. Analysis of the mating type genes in Ht reveals the presence of MAT idiomorphs which is suggestive of cryptic sexual traits in Ht. We further identify and classify putative chitinases that may function as virulence factors in fungal entomopathogens due to their role in degradation of arthropod cuticle.

Modulation effects of cordycepin on the skeletal muscle contraction of toad gastrocnemius muscle

Isolated toad gastrocnemius muscle is a typical skeletal muscle tissue that is frequently used to study the motor system because it is an important component of the motor system. This study investigates the effects of cordycepin on the skeletal muscle contractile function of isolated toad gastrocnemius muscles by electrical field stimulation. Results showed that cordycepin (20 mg/l to 100 mg/l) significantly decreased the contractile responses in a concentration-dependent manner. Cordycepin (50 mg/l) also produced a rightward shift of the contractile amplitude-stimulation intensity relationship, as indicated by the increases in the threshold stimulation intensity and the saturation stimulation intensity. However, the most notable result was that the maximum amplitude of the muscle contractile force was significantly increased under cordycepin application (122±3.4% of control). This result suggests that the skeletal muscle contractile function and muscle physical fitness to the external stimulation were improved by the decreased response sensitivity in the presence of cordycepin. Moreover, cordycepin also prevented the repetitive stimulation-induced decrease in muscle contractile force and increased the recovery amplitude and recovery ratio of muscle contraction. However, these anti-fatigue effects of cordycepin on muscle contraction during long-lasting muscle activity were absent in Ca2+-free medium or in the presence of all Ca2+ channels blocker (0.4 mM CdCl2). These results suggest that cordycepin can positively affect muscle performance and provide ergogenic and prophylactic benefits in decreasing skeletal muscle fatigue. The mechanisms involving excitation-coupled Ca2+ influxes are strongly recommended.

Anti-inflammatory effects of Cordyceps mycelium (Paecilomyces hepiali, CBG-CS-2) in Raw264.7 murine macrophages

Cordyceps (CS) is a traditional Chinese herb with various biological effects that include immune modulation. CBG-CS-2 is a strain, Paecilomyces hepiali, of the Cordyceps spp. The anti-inflammatory effects of CBG-CS-2 were investigated. The water-soluble fraction of CBG-CS-2 has high anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-induced Raw264.7 macrophages. We tested the role of CBG-CS-2 on the anti-inflammation cascade in LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 cells. CBG-CS-2 significantly decreased NO production, iNOS expression, and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion in a dose-dependent manner. To investigate the mechanism by which CBG-CS-2 inhibits NO, iNOS, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, we examined the activities of NF-κB and AP-1 in LPS-activated macrophages. The results demonstrate that CBG-CS-2 suppresses the production and expression of NO, iNOS, and pro-inflammatory cytokines in LPS-activated macrophages via inhibition of NF-κB and AP-1, which may play an important role in inflammation. These findings suggest that CBG-CS-2 has modulatory effects on the inflammatory system in macrophages, and that it can serve as a useful anti-inflammatory dietary supplement or drug.

Investigation and analysis of microbiological communities in natural Ophiocordyceps sinensis

Ophiocordyceps sinensis is a fungus that parasitizes caterpillars, and more than 30 species of filamentous fungi have been isolated from its fruiting body. However, its microbiological diversity remains unclear. Based on the clone library and quantitative PCR techniques, the bacterial flora and mycobiota of 3 different samples (larva, stromata/sclerotia, and surface soil) from natural O. sinensis specimens were investigated using primer sets that targeted the 16S rRNA gene and internal transcribed spacer region of ribosomal DNA. The results showed that the abundance of bacterial and fungal communities in the soil attached to the surface of O. sinensis was (6.4 ± 1.4) × 10(6) and (6.0 ± 0.3) × 10(7) copies/g dry matter, respectively, which was the highest compared with that in the larva and stromal samples. The main groups of bacteria in the O. sinensis samples were Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria, while Ascomycota was the most dominant fungal group in the 3 samples. At the genus level, Geomyces, Phoma, and Trichocladium were the dominant genera in the larval sample, while Geomyces and Cladosporium were the dominant genera in the stromal sample. In conclusion, a great number of bacterial and fungal species were present in naturally occurring O. sinensis specimens, and there was a high diversity of bacterial and fungal communities. These findings contribute to the understanding of the bacterial and fungal community structure of this valuable medicinal fungus and lay the foundation for the future discovery of new medicinal microorganism resources.

Purification of polysaccharides from Cordyceps militaris and their anti‑hypoxic effect

Acute mountain sickness, one of the most common altitude diseases, causes lung and brain injury. The present study aimed to investigate the anti‑hypoxic effect of purified polysaccharides extracted from Cordyceps militaris. The aqueous extract of Cordyceps militaris was purified progressively through a DEAE‑52 cellulose anion exchange column and a Sepharose G‑100 column. The fraction CMN1, with a molecular weight of 37842 Da, was the main fraction obtained and its chemical composition and structural characteristics were determined. CMN1 was found to have a monosaccharide composition of L‑rhamnose, L‑arabinose, D‑mannose, D‑galactose. The backbone of CMN1 comprised (1→2) and (1→3) linkages, with branched (1→6) and (1→4) linkages. The anti‑hypoxic effects of CMN1 were determined using a sodium nitrite toxicosis test, acute cerebral ischemic/hypoxic test and normobarie hypoxia test. CMN1 (0.5 g/kg) possessed a similar anti‑hypoxic effect to rhodiola oral liquid. Overall, the Cordyceps militaris polysaccharide, CMN1, was identified as an effective agent against hypoxia.

Anti-inflammatory effects of cordycepin in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages through Toll-like receptor 4-mediated suppression of mitogen-activated protein kinases and NF-κB signaling pathways

Cordycepin is the main functional component of the Cordyceps species, which has been widely used in traditional Oriental medicine. This compound possesses many pharmacological properties, such as an ability to enhance immune function, as well as antioxidant, antiaging, and anticancer effects. In the present study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of cordycepin using a murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cell model. Our data demonstrated that cordycepin suppressed production of proinflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ by inhibiting inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 gene expression. Cordycepin also inhibited the release of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1-beta, through downregulation of respective mRNA expression. In addition, pretreatment with cordycepin significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activating protein kinases and attenuated nuclear translocation of NF-κB by LPS, which was associated with abrogation of inhibitor kappa B-alpha degradation. Furthermore, cordycepin potently inhibited the binding of LPS to macrophages and LPS-induced Toll-like receptor 4 and myeloid differentiation factor 88 expression. Taken together, the results suggest that the inhibitory effects of cordycepin on LPS-stimulated inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 macrophages are associated with suppression of mitogen-activating protein kinases and activation of NF-κB by inhibition of the Toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway.

Isolation and structure characterization of an antioxidative glycopeptide from mycelial culture broth of a medicinal fungus

A novel glycopeptide (Cs-GP1) with an average molecular weight (Mw) of 6.0 kDa was isolated and purified by column chromatography from the lower Mw fraction of exopolysaccharide (EPS) produced by a medicinal fungus Cordyceps sinensis Cs-HK1. Its carbohydrate moiety was mainly composed of glucose and mannose at 3.2:1.0 mole ratio, indicating an O-linked glycopeptide. The peptide chain contained relatively high mole ratios of aspartic acid, glutamic acid and glycine (3.3–3.5 relative to arginine) but relatively low ratios of tyrosine and histidine. The peptide chain sequence analyzed after trypsin digestion by LC-MS was KNGIFQFGEDCAAGSISHELGGFREFREFLKQAGLE. Cs-GP1 exhibited remarkable antioxidant capacity with a Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity of 1183.8 μmol/g and a ferric reducing ability of 611.1 μmol Fe(II)/g, and significant protective effect against H₂O₂-induced PC12 cell injury at a minimum dose of 10 μg/mL. This is the first report on the structure and bioactivity of an extracellular glycopeptide from the Cordyceps species.

Ex vivo and in vivo studies of CME-1, a novel polysaccharide purified from the mycelia of Cordyceps sinensis that inhibits human platelet activation by activating adenylate cyclase/cyclic AMP

INTRODUCTION

CME-1, a novel water-soluble polysaccharide, was purified from the mycelia of Cordyceps sinensis, and its chemical structure was characterized to contain mannose and galactose in a ratio of 4:6 (27.6 kDa). CME-1 was originally observed to exert a potent inhibitory effect on tumor migration and a cytoprotective effect against oxidative stress. Activation of platelets caused by arterial thrombosis is relevant to various cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). However, no data are available concerning the effects of CME-1 on platelet activation. Hence, the purpose of this study was to examine the ex vivo and in vivo antithrombotic effects of CME-1 and its possible mechanisms in platelet activation.

METHODS

The aggregometry, immunoblotting, flow cytometric analysis and platelet functional analysis were used in this study.

RESULTS

CME-1 (2.3-7.6 μM) exhibited highly potent activity in inhibiting human platelet aggregation when stimulated by collagen, thrombin, and arachidonic acid but not by U46619. CME-1 inhibited platelet activation accompanied by inhibiting Akt, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), thromboxane B2 (TxB2) and hydroxyl radical (OH(●)) formation. However, CME-1 interrupted neither FITC-triflavin nor FITC-collagen binding to platelets. CME-1 markedly increased cyclic AMP levels, but not cyclic GMP levels, and stimulated vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) phosphorylation. SQ22536, an inhibitor of adenylate cyclase, but not ODQ, an inhibitor of guanylate cyclase, obviously reversed the CME-1-mediated effects on platelet aggregation and vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP), Akt, p38 MAPK phosphorylation, and TxB2 formation. CME-1 substantially prolonged the closure time of whole blood and the occlusion time of platelet plug formation.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates for the first time that CME-1 exhibits highly potent antiplatelet activity that may initially activate adenylate cyclase/cyclic AMP and, subsequently, inhibit intracellular signals (such as Akt and MAPKs), ultimately inhibiting platelet activation. This novel role of CME-1 indicates that CME-1 exhibits high potential for application in treating and preventing CVDs.

An efficient enzymatic modification of cordycepin in ionic liquids under ultrasonic irradiation

A comparative study of the immobilized Candida antarctica lipase B (Novozym 435)-catalyzed acylation of cordycepin with vinyl acetate in ionic liquids (ILs) under ultrasonic irradiation and shaking was conducted. The application of ultrasonic irradiation instead of shaking during acylation resulted in an enhanced reaction rate and a higher level of substrate conversion. Among the various ILs examined, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluorobrate ([C4MIm][BF4]) was the best medium for the reaction because it produced the highest substrate conversion. In [C4MIm][BF4], the optimal ultrasonic power, water activity, and reaction temperature were 120 W, 0.33, and 50 °C, respectively. The acylation of cordycepin in [C4MIm][BF4] proved to be regioselective under both conditions: the C5'-OH was acylated. Novozym 435 exhibited a much higher operational stability in [C4MIm][BF4], and 58.0% of its original activity was maintained after ten reuse cycles under ultrasonic irradiation. Compared with the cordycepin, the rate of adenosine deaminase-catalyzed deamination was greatly reduced when the 5'-OH was substituted by acetyl group. These results demonstrated that the combined application of ultrasonic irradiation and IL as a medium was an efficient approach for the enzymatic modification of cordycepin.

In vitro evaluation of Cordyceps militaris as a potential radioprotective agent

Radiation is an important component of therapy for a wide range of malignant conditions. However, it triggers DNA damage and cell death in normal cells and results in adverse side-effects. Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris), a traditional medicinal mushroom, produces the bioactive compound, cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine) and has multiple pharmacological activities, such as antitumor, antimetastatic, antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects. The present study was undertaken to investigate whether CM-AE, an extract obtained from C. militaris exerts protective effects against radiation-induced DNA damage. The protective effects of CM-AE were compared with those of cordycepin. CM-AE effectively increased free radical scavenging activity and decreased radiation-induced plasmid DNA strand breaks in in vitro assays. CM-AE significantly inhibited the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cellular DNA damage in 2 Gy irradiated Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)-K1 cells. Moreover, treatment with CM-AE induced similar levels of phosphorylated H2AX in the cells, which reflects the initial DNA double-strand breaks in the irradiated cells compared with the non-irradiated CHO-K1 cells. However, cordycepin did not show free radical scavenging activity and did not protect against radiation-induced plasmid DNA or cellular DNA damage. These results suggest that the free radical scavenging activity of CM-AE contributes towards its DNA radioprotective effects and that the protective effects of CM-AE are much more potent to those of cordycepin. The data presented in this study may provide useful information for the screening of potent radioprotective materials.

Cordycepin induces S phase arrest and apoptosis in human gallbladder cancer cells

Gallbladder cancer is the most common malignant tumor of the biliary tract, and this condition has a rather dismal prognosis, with an extremely low five-year survival rate. To improve the outcome of unresectable and recurrent gallbladder cancer, it is necessary to develop new effective treatments and drugs. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of cordycepin on human gallbladder cells and uncover the molecular mechanisms responsible for these effects. The Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and colony formation assays revealed that cordycepin affected the viability and proliferation of human gallbladder cancer cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Flow cytometric analysis showed that cordycepin induced S phase arrest in human gallbladder cancer cell lines(NOZ and GBC-SD cells). Cordycepin-induced apoptosis was observed using an Annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) double-staining assay, and the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) decreased in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, western blot analysis revealed the upregulation of cleaved-caspase-3, cleaved-caspase-9, cleaved-PARP and Bax and the downregulation of Bcl-2, cyclin A and Cdk-2 in cordycepin-treated cells. Moreover, cordycepin inhibited tumor growth in nude mice bearing NOZ tumors. Our results indicate that this drug may represent an effective treatment for gallbladder carcinoma.

Activators of AMPK: not just for Type II diabetes

Recent discoveries of AMPK activators point to the large number of therapeutic candidates that can be transformed to successful designs of novel drugs. AMPK is a universal energy sensor and influences almost all physiological processes in the cells. Thus, regulation of the cellular energy metabolism can be achieved in selective tissues via the artificial activation of AMPK by small molecules. Recently, special attention has been given to direct activators of AMPK that are regulated by several nonspecific upstream factors. The direct activation of AMPK, by definition, should lead to more specific biological activities and as a result minimize possible side effects.

Mycelia glycoproteins from Cordyceps sobolifera ameliorate cyclosporine-induced renal tubule dysfunction in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cordyceps sorbolifera has been used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for improving the renal function. Cyclosporine A (CsA) is an important immunosuppressive agent in the prevention of renal allograft rejection, but long-term usage of CsA could lead to chronic nephrotoxicity and renal graft failure. The study was aimed to investigate whether the mycelia glycoproteins of Cordyceps sobolifera (CSP) exert prevention effects on CsA-induced nephrotoxicity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly assigned into four groups (n=6 per group): normal saline (control group), CSP group, CsA group, and CSP-CsA group (CsA combined treatment with CSP). Glomerular and tubular functions were assessed and histological studies were performed.

RESULTS

CSP, prepared by hot water extraction, ethanol precipitation and membrane dialysis, was found to be composed of three glycoproteins with average molecular weights of 543, 31, and 6.3 kDa, respectively. CsA impaired urea clearance and creatinine clearance were significantly improved by concomitant administration of CSP. TUNEL histochemical stain revealed that CSP significantly decreased CsA-induced apoptosis in renal tubular cells. The reducing effect of caspase-3 activation by CSP was suggested through the over-expression of the anti-apoptosis protein Bcl-2 in renal tubule cells. In assessment of CSP protection of renal tubule function, we found that CSP restored CsA induced magnesium wasting by increasing the magnesium reabsorption channels TRMP6 and TRMP7.

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that CSP had a significant suppressive activity on CsA-induced apoptosis and protective activity against nephron loss possibly via its restoring activity by increasing the magnesium reabsorption channels TRMP6 and TRMP7 on CsA induced magnesium wasting.

Optimization of fermentation conditions and purification of cordycepin from Cordyceps militaris

The fermentation medium and conditions for the production of cordycepin were optimized in static culture using single-factor experiments, Placket-Burman design, a central composite design, and response surface methodology. Among seven variables including temperature, pH, and the concentrations of glucose, tryptone, yeast extract, KH₂PO₄, and MgSO₄ · 7H₂O, temperature and the concentrations of yeast extract and tryptone were found to be the important factors that significantly affected cordycepin production. The optimized medium consisted of yeast extract 9.00 g/L and tryptone 17.10 g/L, while the optimized culture conditions consisted of seed age 3 days, with an inoculum size of 10% and incubation temperature of 27.1°C. A maximum cordycepin yield of 7.35 g/L was achieved in a 5-L fermenter under the optimized conditions. Next, cordycepin was partially purified and determined. The resulting product showed 90.54% high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-ultraviolet (UV) purity. Therefore, cordycepin was applied to a cell viability assay on SH-SY5Y cells and RM-1 cells. Cordycepin can inhibit the proliferation of RM-1 cells with IC₅₀ of 133 µmol/L, but it has no inhibitory effect on SH-SY5Y cells. Supplemental materials are available for this article.

Cordyceps militaris alleviates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in ob/ob mice

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is becoming an important public health problem as metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes have become epidemic. In this study we investigated the protective effect of Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) against NAFLD in an obese mouse model.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Four-week-old male ob/ob mice were fed an AIN-93G diet or a diet containing 1% C. militaris water extract for 10 weeks after 1 week of adaptation. Serum glucose, insulin, free fatty acid (FFA), alanine transaminase (ALT), and proinflammatory cytokines were measured. Hepatic levels of lipids, glutathione (GSH), and lipid peroxide were determined.

RESULTS

Consumption of C. militaris significantly decreased serum glucose, as well as homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), in ob/ob mice. In addition to lowering serum FFA levels, C. militaris also significantly decreased hepatic total lipids and triglyceride contents. Serum ALT activities and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were reduced by C. militaris. Consumption of C. militaris increased hepatic GSH and reduced lipid peroxide levels.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that C. militaris can exert protective effects against development of NAFLD, partly by reducing inflammatory cytokines and improving hepatic antioxidant status in ob/ob mice.

Studies on the antidiabetic activities of Cordyceps militaris extract in diet-streptozotocin-induced diabetic Sprague-Dawley rats

Due to substantial morbidity and high complications, diabetes mellitus is considered as the third “killer” in the world. A search for alternative antidiabetic drugs from herbs or fungi is highly demanded. Our present study aims to investigate the antidiabetic activities of Cordyceps militaris on diet-streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus in rats. Diabetic rats were orally administered with water extract or alcohol extract at 0.05 g/kg and 2 g/kg for 3 weeks, and then, the factors levels related to blood glucose, lipid, free radicals, and even nephropathy were determined. Pathological alterations on liver and kidney were examined. Data showed that, similar to metformin, Cordyceps militaris extracts displayed a significant reduction in blood glucose levels by promoting glucose metabolism and strongly suppressed total cholesterol and triglycerides concentration in serum. Cordyceps militaris extracts exhibit antioxidative effects indicated by normalized superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase levels. The inhibitory effects on blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, uric acid, and protein revealed the protection of Cordyceps militaris extracts against diabetic nephropathy, which was confirmed by pathological morphology reversion. Collectively, Cordyceps militaris extract, a safe pharmaceutical agent, presents excellent antidiabetic and antinephropathic activities and thus has great potential as a new source for diabetes treatment.

Ergosterol peroxide from Cordyceps cicadae ameliorates TGF-β1-induced activation of kidney fibroblasts

Chronic kidney disease is a growing public health problem with an urgent need for new pharmacological agents. Ergosterol peroxide (EP) is the major sterol produced by Cordyceps cicadae Shing (C. cicadae), a widely used traditional Chinese medicine. C. cicadae has been used to treat many kinds of diseases and has a potential benefit on renoprotection. This study aimed to investigate the anti-fibrotic effects of EP as well as the underlying mechanisms. A normal rat kidney fibroblast cell line (NRK-49F) was stimulated to undergo fibroblast activation by transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and EP treatment was applied to explore its potential anti-fibrotic effects. Cell proliferation was investigated using MTT analysis. Fibrosis-associated protein expression was analyzed using immunohistochemistry and/or Western blotting. EP treatment attenuated TGF-β1-induced renal fibroblast proliferation, expression of cytoskeleton protein and CTGF, as well as ECM production. Additionally, EP blocked TGF-β1-stimulated phosphorylation of ERK1/2, p38 and JNK pathway. Moreover, the TGF-β1-induced expression of fibronectin was attenuated by either inhibition of MAPKs or by EP treatment. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that EP is able to suppress TGF-β1-induced fibroblasts activation in NRK-49F. This new information provides a line of theoretical evidence supporting the use of C. cicadae in the intervention of kidney disease and suggests that EP has the potential to be developed as a therapeutic agent to prevent renal fibrosis.

Pharmacological and therapeutic potential of Cordyceps with special reference to Cordycepin

An entomopathogenic fungus, Cordyceps sp. has been known to have numerous pharmacological and therapeutic implications, especially, in terms of human health making it a suitable candidate for ethno-pharmacological use. Main constituent of the extract derived from this fungus comprises a novel bio-metabolite called as Cordycepin (3′deoxyadenosine) which has a very potent anti-cancer, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. The current review discusses about the broad spectrum potential of Cordycepin including biological and pharmacological actions in immunological, hepatic, renal, cardiovascular systems as well as an anti-cancer agent. The article also reviews the current efforts to delineate the mechanism of action of Cordycepin in various bio-molecular processes. The study will certainly draw the attention of scientific community to improve the bioactivity and production of Cordycepin for its commercial use in pharmacological and medical fields.

Recent advances in Cordyceps sinensis polysaccharides: Mycelial fermentation, isolation, structure, and bioactivities: A review

Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) sinensis, the Chinese caterpillar fungus, is a unique and precious medicinal fungus in traditional Chinese medicine which has been used as a prestigious tonic and therapeutic herb in China for centuries. Polysaccharides are bioactive constituents of C. sinensis, exhibiting several activities such as immunomodulation, antitumour, antioxidant and hypoglycaemic. As natural C. sinensis fruiting body-caterpillar complexes are very rare and expensive, the polysaccharides documented over the last 15-20 years from this fungal species were mostly extracted from cultivated fungal mycelia (intracellular polysaccharides) or from mycelial fermentation broth (exopolysaccharides). Extraction and purification of the polysaccharides is a tedious process involving numerous steps of liquid and solid phase separations. Nevertheless, a large number of polysaccharide structures have been purified and elucidated. However, relationships between the structures and activities of these polysaccharides are not well established. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the most recent developments in various aspects (i.e., production, extraction, structure, and bioactivity) of the intracellular and exopolysaccharides from mycelial fermentation of C. sinensis fungi. The contents and data will serve as useful references for further investigation, production and application of these polysaccharides in functional foods and therapeutic agents.

Enhancement of Neuromuscular Activity by Natural Specimens and Cultured Mycelia of Cordyceps sinensis in Mice

The present study was aimed to evaluate the effect of natural specimen and laboratory cultured mycelia of Cordyceps sinensis on neuromuscular activity in mice. The powder of natural specimen and laboratory cultured Cordyceps sinensis was orally administered at the dose rate of 100, 300 and 500 mg/kg for 30 days. Natural specimen and in vitro propagated Cordyceps sinensis showed significant (P<0.05) enhancement in neuromuscular endurance and antidepressant activity at 300 and 500 mg/kg as compared to the control group. However, the fungus did not proved to be as effective as fluoxetine in exhibiting antidepressant action. Muscular endurance was determined on a Rota rod apparatus while antidepressant (mood elevating) activity was measured on a photoactometer in Swiss albino mice. The effects produced by both natural specimens and laboratory cultured Cordyceps sinensis were comparable and showed almost equal potency.

Immunostimulant Activity of a Novel Polysaccharide Isolated from Lactarius deliciosus (L. ex Fr.) Gray

More and more fungal polysaccharides have been reported to exhibit a variety of biological activities, including antitumor, antioxidant and immunostimulant activity. The non-starch polysaccharides have emerged as an important class of bioactive natural products. In this study, the immune activities of a novel polysaccharide (LDG-A) isolated from Lactarius deliciosus (L. ex Fr.) Gray were investigated at 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg dose levels. The inhibitory rate in mice treated with 80 mg/kg LDG-A can reach 68.422%, being the highest in the three doses, which may be comparable to mannatide. Histology of immune organs showed that the tissues were arranged in more regular and firm pattern, but the tumor tissue arranged looser in LDG-A group than those in control group. Meanwhile, there was no obvious damage to other organs, such as heart, lung, and kidney. The antitumor activity of the LDG-A was usually believed to be a consequence of the stimulation of the cell-mediated immune response because it can significantly promote the lymphocyte and macrophage cells in the dose range of 50-200 μg/ml and 100-400 μg/ml in vitro, respectively. The level of cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, and NO) of macrophage cells induced by LDG-A treatment was similar to lipopolysaccharides at different concentrations. The expression of all these genes studied (TNF-α, IL-6, and iNOS mRNA) in the untreated macrophage was little, but increased dramatically in a dose-dependent manner in the LDG-A-treated cells. The results obtained in the present study indicated that the purified polysaccharide of L. deliciosus (L. ex Fr.) Gray is a potential source of natural immune-stimulating substances.

Stereochemical assignment of the fungal metabolites pestalotiopsones D and E through enantiopure synthesis

The pestalotiopsones are fungal metabolites isolated from an endophytic fungus Pestalotiopsis sp. found in the mangrove Rhizophora mucronata, used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat symptoms of dysentery. The absolute configurations of pestalotiopsones D (4) and E (5) were elucidated through total synthesis of both the R and S enantiomers, allowing for the assignment of the stereochemistry of the natural compounds as the (+)-S enantiomers. The key steps include homologation of a substituted benzoic acid to the appropriate phenylacetate derivative using Birch reductive alkylation, an oxa-Michael cyclization induced by microwave irradiation to form the chromanone substructure, and an IBX-mediated dehydrogenation yielding the chromone skeleton. Assessment of the synthetic compounds against clinical pathogens was performed.

Effect of Cordyceps militaris extract and active constituents on metabolic parameters of obesity induced by high-fat diet in C58BL/6J mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cordyceps species which is well-known as 'winter worm summer grass' has long been used as tonics and stimulants to enhance energy, exhibiting a potential for energy metabolism. Clinical trials have suggested their beneficial effect on lipid metabolic disorders such as hyperlipidemia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of Cordyceps militaris on metabolic parameters was investigated using C58BL/6J mice induced by high-fat diet (HFD). The effect was first determined by assessing the body and organ weight. For further investigation, sections of epididymal adipose tissue were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and the size of epididymal adipocyte was measured by Image analysis system. Fat accumulation in frozen liver sections was assessed by the Oil Red O staining and the plasma biochemical parameters were also assessed. Active constituents were characterized using chromatographic and spectroscopic analysis.

RESULTS

The administration of Cordyceps militaris extract (CE) at the dose of 100mg/kg and 300 mg/kg reduced body weight gain and food efficiency ratio induced by HFD. The amount of epididymal fat and size of adipocytes were also decreased by CE treatment. In addition, liver weight and fat deposition in liver were dramatically reduced in CE-treated group. The treatment of CE also showed beneficial effects on plasma parameters related to lipid profiles. Further study for the characterization of active constituents of Cordyceps resulted in the isolation of two new compounds such as cordyrroles A (1) and B (7) together with 12 known compounds including pyrrole alkaloids and nucleotide derivatives. Among the isolated compounds, cordyrrole A significantly inhibited adipocyte differentiation and pancreatic lipase activity, whereas cordyrrole B was more effective at inhibiting pancreatic lipase. Cordycepin, a characteristic compound of Cordyceps militaris, decreased the rate of adipocyte differentiation.

CONCLUSION

Treatment of CE inhibited HFD-induced metabolic disorders, mainly by improvement in metabolic parameters. As active constituents, pyrrole alkaloids and nucleotide derivatives were characterized. These results suggested that Cordyceps militaris might be beneficial for the treatment of metabolic disorders obesity through the combined actions of diverse constituents.

Anti-fibrotic effect of Cordyceps sinensis polysaccharide: Inhibiting HSC activation, TGF-β1/Smad signalling, MMPs and TIMPs

Cordyceps sinensis has been used to treat liver disease in traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years. Polysaccharide extracted from cultured Cordyceps sinensis mycelia (CS-PS) is the major active components of cordyceps sinensis with anti-liver injury effects. In the present study, the effects of CS-PS on hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)/Smad pathway, as well as matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2, MMP9 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP) 1, TIMP2, were investigated in liver fibrosis in rats induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Colchicine was used as a positive control. The effect of CS-PS inhibition liver injury and fibrosis was confirmed by decreasing serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, total bilirubin, hepatic hydroxyproline and increasing serum albumin, as well as alleviation of histological changes, which was comparable to that of colchicine. With CS-PS treatment, hepatic α-smooth muscle actin, TGF-β1, TGF-β1 receptor (TβR)-I, TβR-II, p-Smad2, p-Smad3 and TIMP2 proteins expression were down-regulated comparing to that in CCl4 group. The activities of MMP2 and MMP9 in liver tissue were also inhibited in CS-PS-treated group. It is indicated that the effects of CS-PS anti-liver fibrosis are probably associated with the inhibition on HSC activation, TGF-β1/Smads signalling pathway, as well as MMP2, MMP9 activity and TIMP2 expression.

Cordycepin regulates GSK-3β/β-catenin signaling in human leukemia cells

BACKGROUND

Leukemia stem cells (LSCs) are a limitless cell source for the initiation and maintenance of leukemia. Activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway is required for the survival and development of LSCs. Therefore, targeting β-catenin is considered a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of leukemia. The goal of this study was to explore whether cordycepin, an active component of the traditional medicine Cordyceps sinensis, regulates β-catenin expression in leukemia cells.

METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In this study, we found that cordycepin significantly suppressed cell proliferation in all malignant cancer cells, including U937, K562, A549, HepG2, SK-Hep1 and MCF7 in a dose-dependent manner. However, cordycepin reduced β-catenin levels in U937, K562 and THP1 leukemia cells and had no effect on other solid cancer cells. In addition, treatment with cordycepin significantly suppressed leukemia colony formation in soft agar assay. Cordycepin enhanced proteasome-dependent degradation and inhibited nuclear translocation of β-catenin in leukemia cells. Cordycepin-reduced β-catenin stability was restored by the addition of a pharmacological inhibitor of GSK-3β, indicating that cordycepin-suppressed β-catenin stability is mediated by the activation of GSK-3β. Furthermore, cordycepin abolished the effect of Wnt3a-induced β-catenin in leukemia cells. In addition, cordycepin-impaired β-catenin is regulated by Akt activation but is not significantly influenced by AMPK or mTOR signal pathways.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings show for the first time that codycepin selectively reduces β-catenin stability in leukemia but not in other solid tumor cells. This suppressive effect is mediated by regulating GSK-3β. A synergistic combination of cordycepin with other treatments should be used as a novel strategy to eradicate leukemia via elimination of LSCs.