Arabidopsis RIN4 is a target of the type III virulence effector AvrRpt2 and modulates RPS2-mediated resistance

A plant effector-triggered immunity signaling sector is inhibited by pattern-triggered immunity

Since signaling machineries for two modes of plant-induced immunity, pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI), extensively overlap, PTI and ETI signaling likely interact. In an Arabidopsis quadruple mutant, in which four major sectors of the signaling network, jasmonate, ethylene, PAD4, and salicylate, are disabled, the hypersensitive response (HR) typical of ETI is abolished when the Pseudomonas syringae effector AvrRpt2 is bacterially delivered but is intact when AvrRpt2 is directly expressed in planta These observations led us to discovery of a network-buffered signaling mechanism that mediates HR signaling and is strongly inhibited by PTI signaling. We named this mechanism the ETI-Mediating and PTI-Inhibited Sector (EMPIS). The signaling kinetics of EMPIS explain apparently different plant genetic requirements for ETI triggered by different effectors without postulating different signaling machineries. The properties of EMPIS suggest that information about efficacy of the early immune response is fed back to the immune signaling network, modulating its activity and limiting the fitness cost of unnecessary immune responses.

What Do We Know About NOD-Like Receptors in Plant Immunity?

The first plant disease resistance (R) genes were identified and cloned more than two decades ago. Since then, many more R genes have been identified and characterized in numerous plant pathosystems. Most of these encode members of the large family of intracellular NLRs (NOD-like receptors), which also includes animal immune receptors. New discoveries in this expanding field of research provide new elements for our understanding of plant NLR function. But what do we know about plant NLR function today? Genetic, structural, and functional analyses have uncovered a number of commonalities and differences in pathogen recognition strategies as well as how NLRs are regulated and activate defense signaling, but many unknowns remain. This review gives an update on the latest discoveries and breakthroughs in this field, with an emphasis on structural findings and some comparison to animal NLRs, which can provide additional insights and paradigms in plant NLR function.

Silencing of AtRAP, a target gene of a bacteria-induced small RNA, triggers antibacterial defense responses through activation of LSU2 and down-regulation of GLK1

Plants fine-tune their sophisticated immunity systems in response to pathogen infections. We previously showed that AtlsiRNA-1, a bacteria-induced plant endogenous small interfering RNA, silences the AtRAP gene, which encodes a putative RNA binding protein. In this study, we demonstrate that AtRAP functions as a negative regulator in plant immunity by characterizing molecular and biological responses of the knockout mutant and overexpression lines of AtRAP upon bacterial infection. AtRAP is localized in chloroplasts and physically interacts with Low Sulfur Upregulated 2 (LSU2), which positively regulates plant defense. Our results suggest that AtRAP negatively regulates defense responses by suppressing LSU2 through physical interaction. We also detected downregulation of the transcription factor GOLDEN2-LIKE 1 (GLK1) in atrap-1 using microarray analysis. The glk1 glk2 double mutant showed enhanced resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, which is consistent with a previous study showing enhanced resistance of a glk1 glk2 double mutant to Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis. Taken together, our data suggest that silencing of AtRAP by AtlsiRNA-1 upon bacterial infection triggers defense responses through regulation of LSU2 and GLK1.

Harnessing Effector-Triggered Immunity for Durable Disease Resistance

Genetic control of plant diseases has traditionally included the deployment of single immune receptors with nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) domain architecture. These NLRs recognize corresponding pathogen effector proteins inside plant cells, resulting in effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Although ETI triggers robust resistance, deployment of single NLRs can be rapidly overcome by pathogen populations within a single or a few growing seasons. In order to generate more durable disease resistance against devastating plant pathogens, a multitiered strategy that incorporates stacked NLRs combined with other sources of disease resistance is necessary. New genetic and genomic technologies have enabled advancements in identifying conserved pathogen effectors, isolating NLR repertoires from diverse plants, and editing plant genomes to enhance resistance. Significant advancements have also been made in understanding plant immune perception at the receptor level, which has promise for engineering new sources of resistance. Here, we discuss how to utilize recent scientific advancements in a multilayered strategy for developing more durable disease resistance.

Endocytosis of AtRGS1 Is Regulated by the Autophagy Pathway after D-Glucose Stimulation

Sugar, as a signal molecule, has significant functions in signal transduction in which the seven-transmembrane regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS1) protein participates. D-Glucose causes endocytosis of the AtRGS1, leading to the physical uncoupling of AtRGS1 from AtGPA1 and thus a release of the GAP activity and concomitant sustained activation of G-protein signaling. Autophagy involves in massive degradation and recycling of cytoplasmic components to survive environmental stresses. The function of autophagy in AtRGS1 endocytosis during D-glucose stimulation has not been elucidated. In this study, we investigate the relationship between autophagy and AtRGS1 in response to D-glucose. Our findings demonstrated that AtRGS1 mediated the activation of autophagy by affecting the activities of the five functional groups of protein complexes and promoted the formation of autophagosomes under D-glucose application. When the autophagy pathway was interrupted, AtRGS1 recovery increased and endocytosis of ATRGS1 was inhibited, indicating that autophagy pathway plays an important role in regulating the endocytosis and recovery of AtRGS1 after D-glucose stimulation.

Differential transcript profiling alters regulatory gene expression during the development of Gossypium arboreum, G.stocksii and somatic hybrids

Polyploidy or genome doubling (i.e., the presence of two or more diploid parental genome sets within an organism) are very important in higher plants. Of particular interest are the mechanisms in the new microenvironment of the common nucleus, where doubled regulatory networks interact to generate a viable genetic system capable of regulating growth, development and responses to the environment. To determine the effects of whole genome merging and doubling on the global gene expression architecture of a new polyploid, derived from protoplast fusion of the A₁A₁ genome of Gossypium arboreum and the E₁E₁ genome of Gossypium stocksii, we monitored gene expression through cDNA-AFLP in the somatic hybrids (G. arboreum + G. stocksii). The genomic expression patterns of the somatic hybrids revealed that changes in expression levels mainly involved regulatory genes (31.8% of the gene expression profiles), and the AA and EE genomes contributed equally to genome-wide expression in the newly formed AAEE genome from additivity and dominance effects. These results provide a novel perspective on polyploid gene regulation and hint at the underlying genetic basis of allopolyploid adaption in the new microenvironmental nucleus.

A Glycine max homolog of NON-RACE SPECIFIC DISEASE RESISTANCE 1 (NDR1) alters defense gene expression while functioning during a resistance response to different root pathogens in different genetic backgrounds

A Glycine max homolog of the Arabidopsis thaliana NON-RACE SPECIFIC DISEASE RESISTANCE 1 (NDR1) coiled-coil nucleotide binding leucine rich repeat (CC-NB-LRR) defense signaling gene (Gm-NDR1-1) is expressed in root cells undergoing a defense response to the root pathogenic nematode, Heterodera glycines. Gm-NDR1-1 overexpression in the H. glycines-susceptible genotype G. max[Williams 82/PI 518671] impairs parasitism. In contrast, Gm-NDR1-1 RNA interference (RNAi) in the H. glycines-resistant genotype G. max[Peking/PI 548402] facilitates parasitism. The broad effectiveness of Gm-NDR1-1 in impairing parasitism has then been examined by engineering its heterologous expression in Gossypium hirsutum which is susceptible to the root pathogenic nematode Meloidogyne incognita. The heterologous expression of Gm-NDR1-1 in G. hirsutum effectively impairs M. incognita parasitism, reducing gall, egg mass, egg and juvenile numbers. In contrast to our prior experiments examining the effectiveness of the heterologous expression of a G. max homolog of the A. thaliana salicyclic acid signaling (SA) gene NONEXPRESSOR OF PR1 (Gm-NPR1-2), no cumulative negative effect on M. incognita parasitism has been observed in G. hirsutum expressing Gm-NDR1-1. The results indicate a common genetic basis exists for plant resistance to parasitic nematodes that involves Gm-NDR1. However, the Gm-NDR1-1 functions in ways that are measurably dissimilar to Gm-NPR1-2. Notably, Gm-NDR1-1 overexpression leads to increased relative transcript levels of its homologs of A. thaliana genes functioning in SA signaling, including NPR1-2, TGA2-1 and LESION SIMULATING DISEASE1 (LSD1-2) that is lost in Gm-NDR1-1 RNAi lines. Similar observations have been made regarding the expression of other defense genes.

The Role of Plant Innate Immunity in the Legume-Rhizobium Symbiosis

A classic view of the evolution of mutualism is that it derives from a pathogenic relationship that attenuated over time to a situation in which both partners can benefit. If this is the case for rhizobia, then one might uncover features of the symbiosis that reflect this earlier pathogenic state. For example, as with plant pathogens, it is now generally assumed that rhizobia actively suppress the host immune response to allow infection and symbiosis establishment. Likewise, the host has retained mechanisms to control the nutrient supply to the symbionts and the number of nodules so that they do not become too burdensome. The open question is whether such events are strictly ancillary to the central symbiotic nodulation factor signaling pathway or are essential for rhizobial host infection. Subsequent to these early infection events, plant immune responses can also be induced inside nodules and likely play a role in, for example, nodule senescence. Thus, a balanced regulation of innate immunity is likely required throughout rhizobial infection, symbiotic establishment, and maintenance. In this review, we discuss the significance of plant immune responses in the regulation of symbiotic associations with rhizobia, as well as rhizobial evasion of the host immune system.

The HopF family of Pseudomonas syringae type III secreted effectors

Pseudomonas syringae is a bacterial phytopathogen that utilizes the type III secretion system to inject effector proteins into plant host cells. Pseudomonas syringae can infect a wide range of plant hosts, including agronomically important crops such as tomatoes and beans. The ability of P. syringae to infect such numerous hosts is caused, in part, by the diversity of effectors employed by this phytopathogen. Over 60 different effector families exist in P. syringae; one such family is HopF, which contains over 100 distinct alleles. Despite this diversity, research has focused on only two members of this family: HopF1 from P. syringae pathovar phaseolicola 1449B and HopF2 from P. syringae pathovar tomato DC3000. In this study, we review the research on HopF family members, including their host targets and molecular mechanisms of immunity suppression, and their enzymatic function. We also provide a phylogenetic analysis of this expanding effector family which provides a basis for a proposed nomenclature to guide future research. The extensive genetic diversity that exists within the HopF family presents a great opportunity to study how functional diversification on an effector family contributes to host specialization.

An Arabidopsis NAC transcription factor NAC4 promotes pathogen-induced cell death under negative regulation by microRNA164

Hypersensitive response (HR) is a form of programmed cell death (PCD) and the primary immune response that prevents pathogen invasion in plants. Here, we show that a microRNAmiR164 and its target gene NAC4 (At5g07680), encoding a NAC transcription factor, play essential roles in the regulation of HR PCD in Arabidopsis thaliana. Cell death symptoms were noticeably enhanced in NAC4-overexpressing (35S:NAC4) and mir164 mutant plants in response to avirulent bacterial pathogens. NAC4 expression was induced by pathogen infection and negatively regulated by miR164 expression. NAC4-binding DNA sequences were determined by in vitro binding site selection using random oligonucleotide sequences. Microarray, chromatin immunoprecipitation and quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analyses, followed by cell death assays in protoplasts, led to the identification of NAC4 target genes LURP1, WRKY40 and WRKY54, which act as negative regulators of cell death. Our results suggest that NAC4 promotes hypersensitive cell death by suppressing its target genes and this immune process is fine-tuned by the negative action of miR164.

De novo computational identification of stress-related sequence motifs and microRNA target sites in untranslated regions of a plant translatome

Gene regulation at the transcriptional and translational level leads to diversity in phenotypes and function in organisms. Regulatory DNA or RNA sequence motifs adjacent to the gene coding sequence act as binding sites for proteins that in turn enable or disable expression of the gene. Whereas the known DNA and RNA binding proteins range in the thousands, only a few motifs have been examined. In this study, we have predicted putative regulatory motifs in groups of untranslated regions from genes regulated at the translational level in Arabidopsis thaliana under normal and stressed conditions. The test group of sequences was divided into random subgroups and subjected to three de novo motif finding algorithms (Seeder, Weeder and MEME). In addition to identifying sequence motifs, using an in silico tool we have predicted microRNA target sites in the 3′ UTRs of the translationally regulated genes, as well as identified upstream open reading frames located in the 5′ UTRs. Our bioinformatics strategy and the knowledge generated contribute to understanding gene regulation during stress, and can be applied to disease and stress resistant plant development.

TIR-only protein RBA1 recognizes a pathogen effector to regulate cell death in Arabidopsis

Detection of pathogens by plants is mediated by intracellular nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat (NLR) receptor proteins. NLR proteins are defined by their stereotypical multidomain structure: an N-terminal Toll-interleukin receptor (TIR) or coiled-coil (CC) domain, a central nucleotide-binding (NB) domain, and a C-terminal leucine-rich repeat (LRR). The plant innate immune system contains a limited NLR repertoire that functions to recognize all potential pathogens. We isolated Response to the bacterial type III effector protein HopBA1 (RBA1), a gene that encodes a TIR-only protein lacking all other canonical NLR domains. RBA1 is sufficient to trigger cell death in response to HopBA1. We generated a crystal structure for HopBA1 and found that it has similarity to a class of proteins that includes esterases, the heme-binding protein ChaN, and an uncharacterized domain of Pasteurella multocida toxin. Self-association, coimmunoprecipitation with HopBA1, and function of RBA1 require two previously identified TIR-TIR dimerization interfaces. Although previously described as distinct in other TIR proteins, in RBA1 neither of these interfaces is sufficient when the other is disrupted. These data suggest that oligomerization of RBA1 is required for function. Our identification of RBA1 demonstrates that "truncated" NLRs can function as pathogen sensors, expanding our understanding of both receptor architecture and the mechanism of activation in the plant immune system.

A paralogous decoy protects Phytophthora sojae apoplastic effector PsXEG1 from a host inhibitor

The extracellular space (apoplast) of plant tissue represents a critical battleground between plants and attacking microbes. Here we show that a pathogen-secreted apoplastic xyloglucan-specific endoglucanase, PsXEG1, is a focus of this struggle in the Phytophthora sojae-soybean interaction. We show that soybean produces an apoplastic glucanase inhibitor protein, GmGIP1, that binds to PsXEG1 to block its contribution to virulence. P. sojae, however, secretes a paralogous PsXEG1-like protein, PsXLP1, that has lost enzyme activity but binds to GmGIP1 more tightly than does PsXEG1, thus freeing PsXEG1 to support P. sojae infection. The gene pair encoding PsXEG1 and PsXLP1 is conserved in many Phytophthora species, and the P. parasitica orthologs PpXEG1 and PpXLP1 have similar functions. Thus, this apoplastic decoy strategy may be widely used in Phytophthora pathosystems.

SPL33, encoding an eEF1A-like protein, negatively regulates cell death and defense responses in rice

Lesion-mimic mutants are useful to dissect programmed cell death and defense-related pathways in plants. Here we identified a new rice lesion-mimic mutant, spotted leaf 33 (spl33) and cloned the causal gene by a map-based cloning strategy. SPL33 encodes a eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 alpha (eEF1A)-like protein consisting of a non-functional zinc finger domain and three functional EF-Tu domains. spl33 exhibited programmed cell death-mediated cell death and early leaf senescence, as evidenced by analyses of four histochemical markers, namely H2O2 accumulation, cell death, callose accumulation and TUNEL-positive nuclei, and by four indicators, namely loss of chlorophyll, breakdown of chloroplasts, down-regulation of photosynthesis-related genes, and up-regulation of senescence-associated genes. Defense responses were induced in the spl33 mutant, as shown by enhanced resistance to both the fungal pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae and the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae and by up-regulation of defense response genes. Transcriptome analysis of the spl33 mutant and its wild type provided further evidence for the biological effects of loss of SPL33 function in cell death, leaf senescence and defense responses in rice. Detailed analyses showed that reactive oxygen species accumulation may be the cause of cell death in the spl33 mutant, whereas uncontrolled activation of multiple innate immunity-related receptor genes and signaling molecules may be responsible for the enhanced disease resistance observed in spl33. Thus, we have demonstrated involvement of an eEF1A-like protein in programmed cell death and provided a link to defense responses in rice.

Programmed cell death as a defence against infection

Eukaryotic cells can die from physical trauma, which results in necrosis. Alternatively, they can die through programmed cell death upon the stimulation of specific signalling pathways. In this Review, we discuss the role of different cell death pathways in innate immune defence against bacterial and viral infection: apoptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis and NETosis. We describe the interactions that interweave different programmed cell death pathways, which create complex signalling networks that cross-guard each other in the evolutionary 'arms race' with pathogens. Finally, we describe how the resulting cell corpses - apoptotic bodies, pore-induced intracellular traps (PITs) and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) - promote the clearance of infection.

The Arabidopsis Cysteine-Rich Receptor-Like Kinase CRK36 Regulates Immunity through Interaction with the Cytoplasmic Kinase BIK1

Receptor-like kinases are important signaling components that regulate a variety of cellular processes. In this study, an Arabidopsis cDNA microarray analysis led to the identification of the cysteine-rich receptor-like kinase CRK36 responsive to the necrotrophic fungal pathogen, Alternaria brassicicola. To determine the function of CRK36 in plant immunity, T-DNA-insertion knockdown (crk36) and overexpressing (CRK36OE) plants were prepared. CRK36OE plants exhibited increased hypersensitive cell death and ROS burst in response to avirulent pathogens. Treatment with a typical pathogen-associated molecular pattern, flg22, markedly induced pattern-triggered immune responses, notably stomatal defense, in CRK36OE plants. The immune responses were weakened in crk36 plants. Protein-protein interaction assays revealed the in vivo association of CRK36, FLS2, and BIK1. CRK36 enhanced flg22-triggered BIK1 phosphorylation, which showed defects with Cys mutations in the DUF26 motifs of CRK36. Disruption of BIK1 and RbohD/RbohF genes further impaired CRK36-mediated stomatal defense. We propose that CRK36, together with BIK1 and NADPH oxidases, may form a positive activation loop that enhances ROS burst and leads to the promotion of stomatal immunity.

BTB-BACK Domain Protein POB1 Suppresses Immune Cell Death by Targeting Ubiquitin E3 ligase PUB17 for Degradation

Hypersensitive response programmed cell death (HR-PCD) is a critical feature in plant immunity required for pathogen restriction and prevention of disease development. The precise control of this process is paramount to cell survival and an effective immune response. The discovery of new components that function to suppress HR-PCD will be instrumental in understanding the regulation of this fundamental mechanism. Here we report the identification and characterisation of a BTB domain E3 ligase protein, POB1, that functions to suppress HR-PCD triggered by evolutionarily diverse pathogens. Nicotiana benthamiana and tobacco plants with reduced POB1 activity show accelerated HR-PCD whilst those with increased POB1 levels show attenuated HR-PCD. We demonstrate that POB1 dimerization and nuclear localization are vital for its function in HR-PCD suppression. Using protein-protein interaction assays, we identify the Plant U-Box E3 ligase PUB17, a well established positive regulator of plant innate immunity, as a target for POB1-mediated proteasomal degradation. Using confocal imaging and in planta immunoprecipitation assays we show that POB1 interacts with PUB17 in the nucleus and stimulates its degradation. Mutated versions of POB1 that show reduced interaction with PUB17 fail to suppress HR-PCD, indicating that POB1-mediated degradation of PUB17 U-box E3 ligase is an important step for negative regulation of specific immune pathways in plants. Our data reveals a new mechanism for BTB domain proteins in suppressing HR-PCD in plant innate immune responses.

The NLR protein SUMM2 senses the disruption of an immune signaling MAP kinase cascade via CRCK3

MAP kinase signaling is an integral part of plant immunity. Disruption of the MEKK1-MKK1/2-MPK4 kinase cascade results in constitutive immune responses mediated by the NLR protein SUMM2, but the molecular mechanism is so far poorly characterized. Here, we report that SUMM2 monitors a substrate protein of MPK4, CALMODULIN-BINDING RECEPTOR-LIKE CYTOPLASMIC KINASE 3 (CRCK3). Similar to SUMM2, CRCK3 was isolated from a suppressor screen of mkk1 mkk2 and is required for the autoimmunity phenotypes in mekk1, mkk1 mkk2, and mpk4 mutants. In wild-type plants, CRCK3 is mostly phosphorylated. MPK4 interacts with CRCK3 and can phosphorylate CRCK3 in vitro In mpk4 mutant plants, phosphorylation of CRCK3 is substantially reduced, suggesting that MPK4 phosphorylates CRCK3 in vivo Further, CRCK3 associates with SUMM2 in planta, suggesting SUMM2 senses the disruption of the MEKK1-MKK1/2-MPK4 kinase cascade through CRCK3. Our study suggests that a MAP kinase substrate is used as a guardee or decoy for monitoring the integrity of MAP kinase signaling.

Teaching an old dog new tricks: Suppressing activation of specific mitogen-activated kinases as a potential virulence function of the bacterial AvrRpt2 effector protein

AvrRpt2 is one of the first Pseudomonas syringae effector proteins demonstrated to be delivered into host cells. It suppresses plant immunity by modulating auxin signaling and cleavage of the membrane-localized defense regulator RIN4. We recently uncovered a novel potential virulence function of AvrRpt2, where it specifically blocked activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, MPK4 and MPK11, but not of MPK3 and MPK6. Putative AvrRpt2 homologs from different phytopathogens and plant-associated bacteria showed distinct activities with respect to MPK4/11 activation suppression and RIN4 cleavage. Apart from differences in sequence similarity, 3 of the analyzed homologs were apparently "truncated." To examine the role of the AvrRpt2 N-terminus, we modeled the structures of these AvrRpt2 homologs and performed deletion and domain swap experiments. Our results strengthen the finding that RIN4 cleavage is irrelevant for the ability to suppress defense-related MPK4/11 activation and indicate that full protease activity or cleavage specificity is affected by the N-terminus.

Constitutive cyclic GMP accumulation in Arabidopsis thaliana compromises systemic acquired resistance induced by an avirulent pathogen by modulating local signals

The infection of Arabidopsis thaliana plants with avirulent pathogens causes the accumulation of cGMP with a biphasic profile downstream of nitric oxide signalling. However, plant enzymes that modulate cGMP levels have yet to be identified, so we generated transgenic A. thaliana plants expressing the rat soluble guanylate cyclase (GC) to increase genetically the level of cGMP and to study the function of cGMP in plant defence responses. Once confirmed that cGMP levels were higher in the GC transgenic lines than in wild-type controls, the GC transgenic plants were then challenged with bacterial pathogens and their defence responses were characterized. Although local resistance was similar in the GC transgenic and wild-type lines, differences in the redox state suggested potential cross-talk between cGMP and the glutathione redox system. Furthermore, large-scale transcriptomic and proteomic analysis highlighted the significant modulation of both gene expression and protein abundance at the infection site, inhibiting the establishment of systemic acquired resistance. Our data indicate that cGMP plays a key role in local responses controlling the induction of systemic acquired resistance in plants challenged with avirulent pathogens.

Modification of Bacterial Effector Proteins Inside Eukaryotic Host Cells

Pathogenic bacteria manipulate their hosts by delivering a number of virulence proteins -called effectors- directly into the plant or animal cells. Recent findings have shown that such effectors can suffer covalent modifications inside the eukaryotic cells. Here, we summarize the recent reports where effector modifications by the eukaryotic machinery have been described. We restrict our focus on proteins secreted by the type III or type IV systems, excluding other bacterial toxins. We describe the known examples of effectors whose enzymatic activity is triggered by interaction with plant and animal cell factors, including GTPases, E2-Ubiquitin conjugates, cyclophilin and thioredoxins. We focus on the structural interactions with these factors and their influence on effector function. We also review the described examples of host-mediated post-translational effector modifications which are required for proper subcellular location and function. These host-specific covalent modifications include phosphorylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, and lipidations such as prenylation, fatty acylation and phospholipid binding.

Post-translational regulation of inflammasomes

Inflammasomes play essential roles in immune protection against microbial infections. However, excessive inflammation is implicated in various human diseases, including autoinflammatory syndromes, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, cardiovascular disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, precise regulation of inflammasome activities is critical for adequate immune protection while limiting collateral tissue damage. In this review, we focus on the emerging roles of post-translational modifications (PTMs) that regulate activation of the NLRP3, NLRP1, NLRC4, AIM2 and IFI16 inflammasomes. We anticipate that these types of PTMs will be identified in other types of and less well-characterized inflammasomes. Because these highly diverse and versatile PTMs shape distinct inflammatory responses in response to infections and tissue damage, targeting the enzymes involved in these PTMs will undoubtedly offer opportunities for precise modulation of inflammasome activities under various pathophysiological conditions.

Innate immune memory in plants

The plant innate immune system comprises local and systemic immune responses. Systemic plant immunity develops after foliar infection by microbial pathogens, upon root colonization by certain microbes, or in response to physical injury. The systemic plant immune response to localized foliar infection is associated with elevated levels of pattern-recognition receptors, accumulation of dormant signaling enzymes, and alterations in chromatin state. Together, these systemic responses provide a memory to the initial infection by priming the remote leaves for enhanced defense and immunity to reinfection. The plant innate immune system thus builds immunological memory by utilizing mechanisms and components that are similar to those employed in the trained innate immune response of jawed vertebrates. Therefore, there seems to be conservation, or convergence, in the evolution of innate immune memory in plants and vertebrates.

A curious case of resistance to a new encounter pathogen: myrtle rust in Australia

Resistance genes (R genes) in plants mediate a highly specific response to microbial pathogens, often culminating in localized cell death. Such resistance is generally pathogen race specific and believed to be the result of evolutionary selection pressure. Where a host and pathogen do not share an evolutionary history, specific resistance is expected to be absent or rare. Puccinia psidii, the causal agent of myrtle rust, was recently introduced to Australia, a continent rich in myrtaceous taxa. Responses within species to this new pathogen range from full susceptibility to resistance. Using the myrtle rust case study, we examine models to account for the presence of resistance to new encounter pathogens, such as the retention of ancient R genes through prolonged 'trench warfare', pairing of resistance gene products and the guarding of host integrity.

An Innate Immunity Pathway in the Moss Physcomitrella patens

MAP kinase (MPK) cascades in Arabidopsis thaliana and other vascular plants are activated by developmental cues, abiotic stress, and pathogen infection. Much less is known of MPK functions in nonvascular land plants such as the moss Physcomitrella patens Here, we provide evidence for a signaling pathway in P. patens required for immunity triggered by pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). This pathway induces rapid growth inhibition, a novel fluorescence burst, cell wall depositions, and accumulation of defense-related transcripts. Two P. patens MPKs (MPK4a and MPK4b) are phosphorylated and activated in response to PAMPs. This activation in response to the fungal PAMP chitin requires a chitin receptor and one or more MAP kinase kinase kinases and MAP kinase kinases. Knockout lines of MPK4a appear wild type but have increased susceptibility to the pathogenic fungi Botrytis cinerea and Alternaria brassisicola Both PAMPs and osmotic stress activate some of the same MPKs in Arabidopsis. In contrast, abscisic acid treatment or osmotic stress of P. patens does not activate MPK4a or any other MPK, but activates at least one SnRK2 kinase. Signaling via MPK4a may therefore be specific to immunity, and the moss relies on other pathways to respond to osmotic stress.

Magnaporthe oryzae Effector AVR-Pii Helps to Establish Compatibility by Inhibition of the Rice NADP-Malic Enzyme Resulting in Disruption of Oxidative Burst and Host Innate Immunity

Plant disease resistance occurs as a hypersensitive response (HR) at the site of attempted pathogen invasion. This specific event is initiated in response to recognition of pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) and subsequent PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Both PTI and ETI mechanisms are tightly connected with reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and disease resistance that involves distinct biphasic ROS production as one of its pivotal plant immune responses. This unique oxidative burst is strongly dependent on the resistant cultivars because a monophasic ROS burst is a hallmark of the susceptible cultivars. However, the cause of the differential ROS burst remains unknown. In the study here, we revealed the plausible underlying mechanism of the differential ROS burst through functional understanding of the Magnaporthe oryzae (M. oryzae) AVR effector, AVR-Pii. We performed yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screening using AVR-Pii as bait and isolated rice NADP-malic enzyme2 (Os-NADP-ME2) as the rice target protein. To our surprise, deletion of the rice Os-NADP-ME2 gene in a resistant rice cultivar disrupted innate immunity against the rice blast fungus. Malic enzyme activity and inhibition studies demonstrated that AVR-Pii proteins specifically inhibit in vitro NADP-ME activity. Overall, we demonstrate that rice blast fungus, M. oryzae attenuates the host ROS burst via AVR-Pii-mediated inhibition of Os-NADP-ME2, which is indispensable in ROS metabolism for the innate immunity of rice. This characterization of the regulation of the host oxidative burst will help to elucidate how the products of AVR genes function associated with virulence of the pathogen.

The μ Subunit of Arabidopsis Adaptor Protein-2 Is Involved in Effector-Triggered Immunity Mediated by Membrane-Localized Resistance Proteins

Endocytosis has been suggested to be important in the cellular processes of plant immune responses. However, our understanding of its role during effector-triggered immunity (ETI) is still limited. We have previously shown that plant endocytosis, especially clathrin-coated vesicle formation at the plasma membrane, is mediated by the adaptor protein-2 (AP-2) complex and that loss of the μ subunit of AP-2 (AP2M) affects plant growth and floral organ development. Here, we report that AP2M is required for full-strength ETI mediated by the disease resistance (R) genes RPM1 and RPS2 in Arabidopsis. Reduced ETI was observed in an ap2m mutant plant, measured by growth of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 strains carrying the corresponding effector genes avrRpm1 or avrRpt2 and by hypersensitive cell death response and defense gene expression triggered by these strains. In contrast, RPS4-mediated ETI and its associated immune responses were not affected by the ap2m mutation. While RPM1 and RPS2 are localized to the plasma membrane, RPS4 is localized to the cytoplasm and nucleus. Our results suggest that AP2M is involved in ETI mediated by plasma membrane-localized R proteins, possibly by mediating endocytosis of the immune receptor complex components from the plasma membrane.

The Pseudomonas syringae type III effectors AvrRpm1 and AvrRpt2 promote virulence dependent on the F-box protein COI1

Type III effectors AvrRpm1 and AvrRpt2 promote bacterial growth dependent on a COI1-mediated pathway in the absence of the RPM1 and RPS2 resistance proteins. The type III effectors, AvrRpm1 and AvrRpt2, promote bacterial virulence by suppressing host defense responses. The defense suppressing activities of AvrRpm1 and AvrRpt2 are best studied in the absence of the resistance proteins RPM1 and RPS2, which induce defense responses to them. We tested whether the type III effectors could modulate a CORONATINE INSENSITIVE1 (COI1)-mediated hormone signaling pathway to promote virulence. COI1 has been demonstrated to contribute in the induction of chlorosis during Pseudomonas syringae infection. By comparing the activity of inducibly expressed AvrRpm1-HA or AvrRpt2-HA in rpm1rps2 and rpm1rps2coi1 backgrounds, we demonstrate that both effectors promote bacterial growth dependent on a COI1-mediated pathway and additively with the action of coronatine (COR) and that AvrRpt2-HA induces COI1-dependent chlorosis. Further, PATHOGENESIS RELATED1 (PR-1) expression resulting from inducible expression of AvrRpm1-HA or AvrRpt2-HA is elevated in coi1 plants consistent with the effectors activating JA-signaling to antagonize SA-signaling. In addition, we found that AvrRpm1-HA or AvrRpt2-HA requires COI1 to promote bacterial growth through suppression of both SA-dependent and SA-independent defense responses. Collectively, these results indicate that type III effectors AvrRpm1 and AvrRpt2 promote bacterial virulence by targeting a COI1-dependent signaling pathway.

Large-Scale Analyses of Angiosperm Nucleotide-Binding Site-Leucine-Rich Repeat Genes Reveal Three Anciently Diverged Classes with Distinct Evolutionary Patterns

Nucleotide-binding site-leucine-rich repeat (NBS-LRR) genes make up the largest plant disease resistance gene family (R genes), with hundreds of copies occurring in individual angiosperm genomes. However, the expansion history of NBS-LRR genes during angiosperm evolution is largely unknown. By identifying more than 6,000 NBS-LRR genes in 22 representative angiosperms and reconstructing their phylogenies, we present a potential framework of NBS-LRR gene evolution in the angiosperm. Three anciently diverged NBS-LRR classes (TNLs, CNLs, and RNLs) were distinguished with unique exon-intron structures and DNA motif sequences. A total of seven ancient TNL, 14 CNL, and two RNL lineages were discovered in the ancestral angiosperm, from which all current NBS-LRR gene repertoires were evolved. A pattern of gradual expansion during the first 100 million years of evolution of the angiosperm clade was observed for CNLs. TNL numbers remained stable during this period but were eventually deleted in three divergent angiosperm lineages. We inferred that an intense expansion of both TNL and CNL genes started from the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Because dramatic environmental changes and an explosion in fungal diversity occurred during this period, the observed expansions of R genes probably reflect convergent adaptive responses of various angiosperm families. An ancient whole-genome duplication event that occurred in an angiosperm ancestor resulted in two RNL lineages, which were conservatively evolved and acted as scaffold proteins for defense signal transduction. Overall, the reconstructed framework of angiosperm NBS-LRR gene evolution in this study may serve as a fundamental reference for better understanding angiosperm NBS-LRR genes.

The E3 Ligase APIP10 Connects the Effector AvrPiz-t to the NLR Receptor Piz-t in Rice

Although nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat (NLR) proteins are the major immune receptors in plants, the mechanism that controls their activation and immune signaling remains elusive. Here, we report that the avirulence effector AvrPiz-t from Magnaporthe oryzae targets the rice E3 ligase APIP10 for degradation, but that APIP10, in return, ubiquitinates AvrPiz-t and thereby causes its degradation. Silencing of APIP10 in the non-Piz-t background compromises the basal defense against M. oryzae. Conversely, silencing of APIP10 in the Piz-t background causes cell death, significant accumulation of Piz-t, and enhanced resistance to M. oryzae, suggesting that APIP10 is a negative regulator of Piz-t. We show that APIP10 promotes degradation of Piz-t via the 26S proteasome system. Furthermore, we demonstrate that AvrPiz-t stabilizes Piz-t during M. oryzae infection. Together, our results show that APIP10 is a novel E3 ligase that functionally connects the fungal effector AvrPiz-t to its NLR receptor Piz-t in rice.

De novo analysis of transcriptome reveals genes associated with leaf abscission in sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.)

Background

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is an important sugar crop which belongs to the grass family and can be used for fuel ethanol production. The growing demands for sugar and biofuel is asking for breeding a sugarcane variety that can shed their leaves during the maturity time due to the increasing cost on sugarcane harvest.

Results

To determine leaf abscission related genes in sugarcane, we generated 524,328,950 paired reads with RNA-Seq and profiled the transcriptome of new born leaves of leaf abscission sugarcane varieties (Q1 and T) and leaf packaging sugarcane varieties (Q2 and B). Initially, 275,018 transcripts were assembled with N50 of 1,177 bp. Next, the transcriptome was annotated by mapping them to NR, UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot, Gene Ontology and KEGG pathway databases. Further, we used TransDecoder and Trinotate to obtain the likely proteins and annotate them in terms of known proteins, protein domains, signal peptides, transmembrane regions and rRNA transcripts. Different expression analysis showed 1,202 transcripts were up regulated in leaf abscission sugarcane varieties, relatively to the leaf packaging sugarcane varieties. Functional analysis told us 62, 38 and 10 upregulated transcripts were involved in plant-pathogen interaction, response to stress and abscisic acid associated pathways, respectively. The upregulation of transcripts encoding 4 disease resistance proteins (RPM1, RPP13, RGA2, and RGA4), 6 ABC transporter G family members and 16 transcription factors including WRK33 and heat stress transcription factors indicate they may be used as candidate genes for sugarcane breeding. The expression levels of transcripts were validated by qRT-PCR. In addition, we characterized 3,722 SNPs between leaf abscission and leaf packaging sugarcane plants.

Conclusion

Our results showed leaf abscission associated genes in sugarcane during the maturity period. The output of this study provides a valuable resource for future genetic and genomic studies in sugarcane.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2552-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Constitutive Negative Regulation of R Proteins in Arabidopsis also via Autophagy Related Pathway?

Even though resistance (R) genes are among the most studied components of the plant immunity, there remain still a lot of aspects to be explained about the regulation of their function. Many gain-of-function mutants of R genes and loss-of-function of their regulators often demonstrate up-regulated defense responses in combination with dwarf stature and/or spontaneous leaf lesions formation. For most of these mutants, phenotypes are a consequence of an ectopic activation of R genes. Based on the compilation and comparison of published results in this field, we have concluded that the constitutively activated defense phenotypes recurrently arise by disruption of tight, constitutive and multilevel negative control of some of R proteins that might involve also their targeting to the autophagy pathway. This mode of R protein regulation is supported also by protein-protein interactions listed in available databases, as well as in silico search for autophagy machinery interacting motifs. The suggested model could resolve some explanatory discrepancies found in the studies of the immunity responses of autophagy mutants.

Using decoys to expand the recognition specificity of a plant disease resistance protein

Maintaining high crop yields in an environmentally sustainable manner requires the development of disease-resistant crop varieties. We describe a method to engineer disease resistance in plants by means of an endogenous disease resistance gene from Arabidopsis thaliana named RPS5, which encodes a nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) protein. RPS5 is normally activated when a second host protein, PBS1, is cleaved by the pathogen-secreted protease AvrPphB. We show that the AvrPphB cleavage site within PBS1 can be substituted with cleavage sites for other pathogen proteases, which then enables RPS5 to be activated by these proteases, thereby conferring resistance to new pathogens. This "decoy" approach may be applicable to other NLR proteins and should enable engineering of resistance in plants to diseases for which we currently lack robust genetic resistance.

Mighty Dwarfs: Arabidopsis Autoimmune Mutants and Their Usages in Genetic Dissection of Plant Immunity

Plants lack the adaptive immune system possessed by mammals. Instead they rely on innate immunity to defend against pathogen attacks. Genomes of higher plants encode a large number of plant immune receptors belonging to different protein families, which are involved in the detection of pathogens and activation of downstream defense pathways. Plant immunity is tightly controlled to avoid activation of defense responses in the absence of pathogens, as failure to do so can lead to autoimmunity that compromises plant growth and development. Many autoimmune mutants have been reported, most of which are associated with dwarfism and often spontaneous cell death. In this review, we summarize previously reported Arabidopsis autoimmune mutants, categorizing them based on their functional groups. We also discuss how their obvious morphological phenotypes make them ideal tools for epistatic analysis and suppressor screens, and summarize genetic screens that have been carried out in various autoimmune mutant backgrounds.

Transcriptional dynamics of Phytophthora infestans during sequential stages of hemibiotrophic infection of tomato

Hemibiotrophic plant pathogens, such as the oomycete Phytophthora infestans, employ a biphasic infection strategy, initially behaving as biotrophs, where minimal symptoms are exhibited by the plant, and subsequently as necrotrophs, feeding on dead plant tissue. The regulation of this transition and the breadth of molecular mechanisms that modulate plant defences are not well understood, although effector proteins secreted by the pathogen are thought to play a key role. We examined the transcriptional dynamics of P. infestans in a compatible interaction with its host tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) at three infection stages: biotrophy; the transition from biotrophy to necrotrophy; and necrotrophy. The expression data suggest a tight temporal regulation of many pathways associated with the suppression of plant defence mechanisms and pathogenicity, including the induction of putative cytoplasmic and apoplastic effectors. Twelve of these were experimentally evaluated to determine their ability to suppress necrosis caused by the P. infestans necrosis-inducing protein PiNPP1.1 in Nicotiana benthamiana. Four effectors suppressed necrosis, suggesting that they might prolong the biotrophic phase. This study suggests that a complex regulation of effector expression modulates the outcome of the interaction.

A quick and robust method for quantification of the hypersensitive response in plants

One of the most studied defense reactions of plants against microbial pathogens is the hypersensitive response (HR). The HR is a complex multicellular process that involves programmed cell death at the site of infection. A standard method to quantify plant defense and the HR is to measure the release of cellular electrolytes into water after infiltration with pathogenic bacteria. In this type of experiment, the bacteria are typically delivered into the plant tissue through syringe infiltration. Here we report the development of a vacuum infiltration protocol that allows multiple plant lines to be infiltrated simultaneously and assayed for defense responses. Vacuum infiltration did not induce more wounding response in Arabidopsis leaf tissue than syringe inoculation, whereas throughput and reproducibility were improved. The method was used to study HR-induced electrolyte loss after treatment with the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 harboring the effector AvrRpm1, AvrRpt2 or AvrRps4. Specifically, the influence of bacterial titer on AvrRpm1-induced HR was investigated. Not only the amplitude, but also the timing of the maximum rate of the HR reaction was found to be dose-dependent. Finally, using vacuum infiltration, we were able quantify induction of phospholipase D activity after AvrRpm1 recognition in leaves labeled with (33)PO4.

Acetylation of an NB-LRR Plant Immune-Effector Complex Suppresses Immunity

Modifications of plant immune complexes by secreted pathogen effectors can trigger strong immune responses mediated by the action of nucleotide binding-leucine-rich repeat immune receptors. Although some strains of the pathogen Pseudomonas syringae harbor effectors that individually can trigger immunity, the plant's response may be suppressed by other virulence factors. This work reveals a robust strategy for immune suppression mediated by HopZ3, an effector in the YopJ family of acetyltransferases. The suppressing HopZ3 effector binds to and can acetylate multiple members of the RPM1 immune complex, as well as two P. syringae effectors that together activate the RPM1 complex. These acetylations modify serine, threonine, lysine, and/or histidine residues in the targets. Through HopZ3-mediated acetylation, it is possible that the whole effector-immune complex is inactivated, leading to increased growth of the pathogen.

Of guards, decoys, baits and traps: pathogen perception in plants by type III effector sensors

Effector-triggered immunity (ETI) is conferred by dominant plant resistance (R) genes, which encode predominantly nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich repeat domain proteins (NLRs), against cognate microbial avirulence (Avr) genes, which include bacterial type III secreted effectors (T3Es). The 'guard model' describes the mechanism of T3E perception by plants, whereby NLRs monitor host proteins ('sensors') for T3E-induced perturbations. This model has provided a molecular framework to understand T3E perception and has rationalized how plants can use a limited number of NLRs (∼160 in Arabidopsis) to contend with a potentially limitless number of evolving effectors. In this review we provide a characteristic overview of plant T3E sensors and discuss how these sensors convey the presence of T3Es to NLR proteins to activate ETI.

Modulation of host cell biology by plant pathogenic microbes

Plant-pathogen interactions can result in dramatic visual changes in the host, such as galls, phyllody, pseudoflowers, and altered root-system architecture, indicating that the invading microbe has perturbed normal plant growth and development. These effects occur on a cellular level but range up to the organ scale, and they commonly involve attenuation of hormone homeostasis and deployment of effector proteins with varying activities to modify host cell processes. This review focuses on the cellular-reprogramming mechanisms of filamentous and bacterial plant pathogens that exhibit a biotrophic lifestyle for part, if not all, of their lifecycle in association with the host. We also highlight strategies for exploiting our growing knowledge of microbial host reprogramming to study plant processes other than immunity and to explore alternative strategies for durable plant resistance.

Regulatory Proteolysis in Arabidopsis-Pathogen Interactions

Approximately two and a half percent of protein coding genes in Arabidopsis encode enzymes with known or putative proteolytic activity. Proteases possess not only common housekeeping functions by recycling nonfunctional proteins. By irreversibly cleaving other proteins, they regulate crucial developmental processes and control responses to environmental changes. Regulatory proteolysis is also indispensable in interactions between plants and their microbial pathogens. Proteolytic cleavage is simultaneously used both by plant cells, to recognize and inactivate invading pathogens, and by microbes, to overcome the immune system of the plant and successfully colonize host cells. In this review, we present available results on the group of proteases in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana whose functions in microbial pathogenesis were confirmed. Pathogen-derived proteolytic factors are also discussed when they are involved in the cleavage of host metabolites. Considering the wealth of review papers available in the field of the ubiquitin-26S proteasome system results on the ubiquitin cascade are not presented. Arabidopsis and its pathogens are conferred with abundant sets of proteases. This review compiles a list of those that are apparently involved in an interaction between the plant and its pathogens, also presenting their molecular partners when available.

Chromatin assembly factor CAF-1 represses priming of plant defence response genes

Plants have evolved efficient defence systems against pathogens that often rely on specific transcriptional responses. Priming is part of the defence syndrome, by establishing a hypersensitive state of defence genes such as after a first encounter with a pathogen. Because activation of defence responses has a fitness cost, priming must be tightly controlled to prevent spurious activation of defence. However, mechanisms that repress defence gene priming are poorly understood. Here, we show that the histone chaperone CAF-1 is required to establish a repressed chromatin state at defence genes. Absence of CAF-1 results in spurious activation of a salicylic acid-dependent pathogen defence response in plants grown under non-sterile conditions. Chromatin at defence response genes in CAF-1 mutants under non-inductive (sterile) conditions is marked by low nucleosome occupancy and high H3K4me3 at transcription start sites, resembling chromatin in primed wild-type plants. We conclude that CAF-1-mediated chromatin assembly prevents the establishment of a primed state that may under standard non-sterile growth conditions result in spurious activation of SA-dependent defence responses and consequential reduction of plant vigour.

Proteomics of effector-triggered immunity (ETI) in plants

Effector-triggered immunity (ETI) was originally termed gene-for-gene resistance and dates back to fundamental observations of flax resistance to rust fungi by Harold Henry Flor in the 1940s. Since then, genetic and biochemical approaches have defined our current understanding of how plant “resistance” proteins recognize microbial effectors. More recently, proteomic approaches have expanded our view of the protein landscape during ETI and contributed significant advances to our mechanistic understanding of ETI signaling. Here we provide an overview of proteomic techniques that have been used to study plant ETI including both global and targeted approaches. We discuss the challenges associated with ETI proteomics and highlight specific examples from the literature, which demonstrate how proteomics is advancing the ETI research field.

Go in for the kill: How plants deploy effector-triggered immunity to combat pathogens. [Corrected]

Plant resistance (R) proteins perceive specific pathogen effectors from diverse plant pathogens to initiate defense responses, designated effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Plant R proteins are mostly nucleotide binding-leucine rich repeat (NB-LRR) proteins, which recognize pathogen effectors directly or indirectly through sophisticated mechanisms. Upon activation by effector proteins, R proteins elicit robust defense responses, including a rapid burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS), induced biosynthesis and accumulation of salicylic acid (SA), a rapid programmed cell death (PCD) called hypersensitive response (HR) at the infection sites, and increased expression of pathogenesis-related (PR) genes. Initiation of ETI is correlated with a complex network of defense signaling pathways, resulting in defensive cellular responses and large-scale transcriptional reprogramming events. In this review, we highlight important recent advances on the recognition of effectors, regulation and activation of plant R proteins, dynamic intracellular trafficking of R proteins, induction of cell death, and transcriptional reprogramming associated with ETI. Current knowledge gaps and future research directions are also discussed in this review.

Dissection of Two Complex Clusters of Resistance Genes in Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)

Of the over 50 phenotypic resistance genes mapped in lettuce, 25 colocalize to three major resistance clusters (MRC) on chromosomes 1, 2, and 4. Similarly, the majority of candidate resistance genes encoding nucleotide binding-leucine rich repeat (NLR) proteins genetically colocalize with phenotypic resistance loci. MRC1 and MRC4 span over 66 and 63 Mb containing 84 and 21 NLR-encoding genes, respectively, as well as 765 and 627 genes that are not related to NLR genes. Forward and reverse genetic approaches were applied to dissect MRC1 and MRC4. Transgenic lines exhibiting silencing were selected using silencing of β-glucuronidase as a reporter. Silencing of two of five NLR-encoding gene families resulted in abrogation of nine of 14 tested resistance phenotypes mapping to these two regions. At MRC1, members of the coiled coil-NLR-encoding RGC1 gene family were implicated in host and nonhost resistance through requirement for Dm5/8- and Dm45-mediated resistance to downy mildew caused by Bremia lactucae as well as the hypersensitive response to effectors AvrB, AvrRpm1, and AvrRpt2 of the nonpathogen Pseudomonas syringae. At MRC4, RGC12 family members, which encode toll interleukin receptor-NLR proteins, were implicated in Dm4-, Dm7-, Dm11-, and Dm44-mediated resistance to B. lactucae. Lesions were identified in the sequence of a candidate gene within dm7 loss-of-resistance mutant lines, confirming that RGC12G confers Dm7.