Is CREB a key to neuronal survival?

The presence and activation of two essential transcription factors (cAMP response element-binding protein and cAMP-dependent transcription factor ATF1) in the two-cell mouse embryo

The expression of two members of an important family of transcription factors, cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and cAMP-dependent transcription factor ATF1 (ATF1), is essential for normal preimplantation development. There is a high degree of functional similarity between these two transcription factors, and they can both homodimerize and heterodimerize with each other to form active transcription factors. CREB is present in all stages of mouse preimplantation embryo, and we show here that ATF1 is localized to the nucleus in all preimplantation stages. Activation of these transcription factors requires their phosphorylation, and this was only observed to occur for both transcription factors (serine 133 phosphorylation of CREB and serine 63 phosphorylation of ATF1) at the two-cell stage. Nuclear localization and phosphorylation of ATF1 were constitutive. The nuclear localization and phosphorylation of CREB showed a constitutive component that was further induced by the autocrine embryotropin Paf (1-o-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine). Activation of CREB by Paf was independent of cAMP but was dependent on calcium, calmodulin, and calmodulin-dependent kinase activity. ATF1 nuclear localization was unaffected by inhibition of the calcium/calmodulin pathway. A complex pattern of expression of calmodulin-dependent kinases was observed throughout preimplantation development. At the two-cell stage, only mRNAs coding for calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase beta, calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II gamma, and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV were detected. A selective antagonist for calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase (STO-609) and calmodulin-dependent protein kinases I, II, and IV (KN-62) blocked the Paf-induced phosphorylation of CREB. The study demonstrates a role for trophic signaling and constitutive activation of two essential transcription factors at the time of zygotic genome activation.

Acid-sensing by the T cell death-associated gene 8 (TDAG8) receptor cloned from rat brain

The T cell death-associated gene 8 (TDAG8) is a pH-sensing GPCR with a reported immune-specific expression profile. Here, we demonstrate pH-induced activation of TDAG8 receptor cloned from rodent brain (rTDAG8). Cloned rTDAG8 transcript showed 88-95% homology with human and mouse transcripts of lymphoid origin. RT-PCR revealed high expression of TDAG8 in forebrain limbic regions. Extracellular acidification induced significantly elevated intracellular cyclic AMP, and phosphorylated CREB in TDAG8 expressing cells. Acidification-induced LDH release was significantly attenuated in cells expressing TDAG8, suggesting neuroprotective potential against acidosis-related cell injury. Our results open up new areas of investigation into the relevance of TDAG8 in pH homeostasis and pathological states associated with acid-base dys-regulation in the brain such as ischemia and panic disorder.

Mechanisms of Panax ginseng in preventing rat pheochromocytoma cells from apoptosis

AIMS OF THE STUDY

Although ginseng root possesses dominant central therapeutic effects and has recently undergone investigations for treating different neuronal diseases, most of its mechanisms are still unknown. Therefore, the neuroprotective mechanisms of ginseng were studied.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The protection afforded by different methanol extracts of Panax ginseng (PG) was tested in a serum deprivation-induced apoptotic model using neuronal-like pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells. An MTT assay, annexin V-FITC staining, and Western blots were, respectively, applied to identify the viability of cells, the apoptotic form of cell death, and the activity of antiapoptotic signaling.

RESULTS

The known antiapoptotic PI3-K/Akt and MEK/ERK pathways in this system were ruled out due to failure of LY 294002 and PD 98059 to block the protection by PG. A protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor was found to block the protection by PG and PG-induced CREB phosphorylation, suggesting that the PKA/CREB pathway mediates the protective effect of PG. Downregulation of classical and novel PKCs failed to block the protection by PG, while an atypical PKC inhibitor blocked protection by PG.

CONCLUSIONS

PKA and atypical PKC are important for the protection afforded by PG in preventing serum deprivation-induced PC12 cell apoptosis.

Role of protein phosphatases and mitochondria in the neuroprotective effects of estrogens

In the present treatise, we provide evidence that the neuroprotective and mito-protective effects of estrogens are inexorably linked and involve the ability of estrogens to maintain mitochondrial function during neurotoxic stress. This is achieved by the induction of nuclear and mitochondrial gene expression, the maintenance of protein phosphatases levels in a manner that likely involves modulation of the phosphorylation state of signaling kinases and mitochondrial pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins, and the potent redox/antioxidant activity of estrogens. These estrogen actions are mediated through a combination of estrogens receptor (ER)-mediated effects on nuclear and mitochondrial transcription of protein vital to mitochondrial function, ER-mediated, non-genomic signaling and non-ER-mediated effects of estrogens on signaling and oxidative stress. Collectively, these multifaceted, coordinated action of estrogens leads to their potency in protecting neurons from a wide variety of acute insults as well as chronic neurodegenerative processes.

Prenatal auditory stimulation alters the levels of CREB mRNA, p-CREB and BDNF expression in chick hippocampus

Prenatal auditory stimulation influences the development of the chick auditory pathway and the hippocampus showing an increase in various morphological parameters as well as expression of calcium-binding proteins. Calcium regulates the activity of cyclic adenosine monophosphate-response element binding (CREB) protein. CREB is known to play a role in development, undergo phosphorylation with neural activity as well as regulate transcription of BDNF. BDNF is important for the survival of neurons and regulates synaptic strength. Hence in the present study, we have evaluated the levels of CREB mRNA and protein along with p-CREB protein as well as BDNF mRNA and protein levels in the chick hippocampus at embryonic days (E) 12, E16, E20 and post-hatch day (PH) 1 following activation by prenatal auditory stimulation. Fertilized eggs were exposed to species-specific sound or sitar music (frequency range: 100-6300Hz) at 65dB levels for 15min/h over 24h from E10 till hatching. The control chick hippocampus showed higher CREB mRNA and p-CREB protein in the early embryonic stages, which later decline whereas BDNF mRNA and BDNF protein levels increase until PH1. The CREB mRNA and p-CREB protein were significantly increased at E12, E16 and PH1 in the auditory stimulated groups as compared to control group. A significant increase in the level of BDNF mRNA was observed from E12 and the protein expression from E16 onwards in both auditory stimulated groups. Therefore, enhanced phosphorylation of CREB during development following prenatal sound stimulation may be responsible for cell survival. Increased levels of p-CREB again at PH1 may trigger synthesis of proteins necessary for synaptic plasticity. Further, the increased levels of BDNF may also help in regulating synaptic plasticity.

Phosphodiesterase type IV inhibition prevents sequestration of CREB binding protein, protects striatal parvalbumin interneurons and rescues motor deficits in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington's disease

The phosphodiesterase type IV inhibitor rolipram increases cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation and exerts neuroprotective effects in both the quinolinic acid rat model of Huntington's disease (DeMarch et al., 2007) and the R6/2 mouse including sparing of striatal neurons, prevention of neuronal intranuclear inclusion formation and attenuation of microglial reaction (DeMarch et al., 2008). In this study, we sought to determine if rolipram has a beneficial role in the altered distribution of CREB binding protein in striatal spiny neurons and in the motor impairments shown by R6/2 mutants. Moreover, we investigated whether rolipram treatment altered the degeneration of parvalbuminergic interneurons typical of Huntington's disease (Fusco et al., 1999). Transgenic mice and their wild-type controls from a stable colony maintained in our laboratory were treated with rolipram (1.5 mg/kg) or saline daily starting from 4 weeks of age. The cellular distribution of CREB binding protein in striatal spiny neurons was assessed by immunofluorescence, whereas parvalbuminergic neuron degeneration was evaluated by cell counts of immunohistochemically labeled tissue. Motor coordination and motor activity were also examined. We found that rolipram was effective in preventing CREB binding protein sequestration into striatal neuronal intranuclear inclusions, sparing parvalbuminergic interneurons of R6/2 mice, and rescuing their motor coordination and motor activity deficits. Our findings demonstrate the possibility of reversing pharmacologically the behavioral and neuropathological abnormalities of symptomatic R6/2 mice and underline the potential therapeutic value of phosphodiesterase type IV inhibitors in Huntington's disease.

CREB activation in the rapid, intermediate, and delayed ischemic preconditioning against hypoxic-ischemia in neonatal rat

Ischemic preconditioning (IP) is a defense program in which exposure to sublethal ischemia followed by a period of reperfusion results in subsequent resistance to severe ischemic insults. Very few in vivo IP models have been established for neonatal brain. We examined whether rapid, intermediate, and delayed IP against hypoxic-ischemia (HI) could be induced in neonatal brain, and if so, whether the IP involved phosphorylation of cAMP response element-binding protein (pCREB) after HI. Postnatal day 7 rat pups were subjected to HI at 2 h (2-h IP), 6 h (6-h IP), or 22 h (22-h IP) after IP. We found all three IP groups had significantly reduced neuronal damage and TUNEL-(+) cells 24 h post-HI than no-IP group. Compared with control, the no-IP group had significant decreases of pCREB and mitochondria Bcl-2 levels in the ipsilateral cortex 24 h post-HI. In contrast, the three IP groups had increased pCREB and mitochondria Bcl-2 levels, and significant differences were found between three IP and no-IP groups. The increases of cleavage of caspase-3 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and of cells with nuclear apoptosis inducing factor post-HI in no-IP group were all significantly reduced in three IP groups. The increases of caspase-3 and calpain-mediated proteolysis of a-spectrin post-HI were significantly reduced only in 22-h IP group. Furthermore, all three IP groups had long-term neuroprotection at behavioral and pathological levels compared with no-IP group. In conclusion, IP, rapid, intermediate, or delayed, in neonatal rat brain activates CREB, up-regulates Bcl-2, induces extensive brakes on caspase-dependent and -independent apoptosis after HI, and provides long-term neuroprotection.

VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 signaling leading to cAMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation is a shared pathway underlying the protective effect of preconditioning on neurons and endothelial cells

Preconditioning protects endothelial cells as well as neurons from ischemic injury. In 7-d-old rat pups, ligating the carotid artery 1 h before hypoxia damaged the ipsilateral cerebral hemisphere; in contrast, ligating the artery 24 h before hypoxia provided complete neuroprotection. The protective effect of the 24 h artery ligation preconditioning model requires the activation of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB). We tested the hypothesis that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A/VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) signaling that leads to CREB activation is the shared pathway underlying the protective effect of preconditioning in neurons and endothelial cells. VEGF-A, VEGFR-1, or VEGFR-2 was inhibited by antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) in vivo and by a VEGF-A neutralizing antibody or VEGFR-2 inhibitor in vitro. CREB phosphorylation (pCREB) and VEGF-A and VEGFR-2 expression were increased and colocalized in vascular endothelial cells and neurons in the ipsilateral cerebral cortex 24 h after ligation. The antisense ODN blockades of VEGF-A and VEGFR-2 decreased pCREB and reduced the protection of 24 h ligation preconditioning. Furthermore, oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) preconditioning upregulated VEGF-A, VEGFR-2, and pCREB levels and protected immortalized H19-7 neuronal cells and b.End3 vascular endothelial cells against 24 h OGD cell death. Blocking VEGF-A or VEGFR-2 reduced CREB activation and the effects of OGD preconditioning in neuronal cells and endothelial cells. Transfecting a serine-133 phosphorylation mutant CREB also inhibited the protective effect of OGD preconditioning. We conclude that VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 signaling leading to CREB phosphorylation is the shared pathway underlying the preconditioning-induced protective effect in neurons and vascular endothelial cells in the developing brain.

The CREB/CRE transcriptional pathway: protection against oxidative stress-mediated neuronal cell death

Formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species is a precipitating event in an array of neuropathological conditions. In response to excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, transcriptionally dependent mechanisms drive the up-regulation of ROS scavenging proteins which, in turn, limit the extent of brain damage. Here, we employed a transgenic approach in which cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB)-mediated transcription is repressed (via A-CREB) to examine the contribution of the CREB/cAMP response element pathway to neuroprotection and its potential role in limiting ROS toxicity. Using the pilocarpine-evoked repetitive seizure model, we detected a marked enhancement of cell death in A-CREB transgenic mice. Paralleling this, there was a dramatic increase in tyrosine nitration (a marker of reactive species formation) in A-CREB transgenic mice. In addition, inducible expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1alpha was diminished in A-CREB transgenic mice, as was activity of complex I of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Finally, the neuroprotective effect of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) against ROS-mediated cell death was abrogated by disruption of CREB-mediated transcription. Together, these data both extend our understanding of CREB functionality and provide in vivo validation for a model in which CREB functions as a pivotal upstream integrator of neuroprotective signaling against ROS-mediated cell death.

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding protein phosphorylation and neuroprotection by 4-phenyl-1-(4-phenylbutyl) piperidine (PPBP)

BACKGROUND

Previous studies show that the potent, prototypical sigma(1)-receptor agonist 4-phenyl-1-(4-phenylbutyl) piperidine (PPBP) prevents cell death after oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) in primary cortical neuronal cultures. We tested the hypothesis that PPBP protects neurons by a mechanism involving activation of the transcription factor cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding protein (CREB).

METHODS

Primary cultured cortical neurons were exposed to 2 h of OGD and allowed to recover for 24 h, and PPBP treatment was initiated 15 min before the insult in the presence and absence of the sigma(1)-receptor antagonist rimcazole and inhibitors against protein kinases known to activate signal transduction cascades that result in CREB phosphorylation, such as H89 (protein kinase A inhibitor), LY294002 (PI3K inhibitor), U0126 (MEK1/2 inhibitor), or KN62 calmodulin kinase II inhibitor). Neuronal cell death was assayed by lactate dehydrogenase measurement 24 h after OGD. CREB phosphorylation was measured by immunoblot analysis at 30 min, 1 h, and 3 h of reoxygenation. Blots were quantitatively analyzed using Quantity One image analysis software.

RESULTS

PPBP increased CREB phosphorylation at 1 h after recovery from OGD, which was abolished by rimcazole (1.7 +/- 0.2 in PPBP and 0.8 +/- 0.1 in PPBP plus rimcazole with OGD compared with 0.9 +/- 0.1 in OGD alone, p-CREB/CREB). The PPBP-induced increase in CREB phosphorylation was blocked by H89 (0.5 +/- 0.07) but not U0126, KN62, or LY294002. PPBP treatment prevented OGD-induced cell death and pretreatment with H89 blocked this protection (0.18 +/- 0.02 in PPBP and 0.27 +/- 0.03 in PPBP plus H89 with OGD compared with 0.33 +/- 0.02 in OGD alone, lactate dehydrogenase assay). Pretreatment with LY294002, UO126, or KN62 had no effect on neuronal protection by PPBP.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that the mechanism of neuroprotection by PPBP may be linked to CREB phosphorylation.

Biochemical and neurotransmitter changes implicated in alcohol-induced brain damage in chronic or 'binge drinking' alcohol abuse

The brain damage, which occurs after either chronic alcoholization or binge drinking regimes, shows distinct biochemical and neurotransmitter differences. An excessive amount of glutamate is released into specific brain regions during binge drinking (in excess of 4- to 5-fold of the normal basal concentration) that is not evident during periods of excessive alcohol consumption in chronic alcohol abusers. Increases in glutamate release are only observed during the initial stages of withdrawal from chronic alcoholism ( approximately 2- to 3-fold) due to alterations in the sensitivities of the NMDA receptors. Such changes in either density or sensitivity of these receptors are reported to be unaltered by binge drinking. When such excesses of glutamate are released in these two different models of alcohol abuse, a wide range of biochemical changes occur, mediated in part by increased fluxes of calcium ions and/or activation of various G-protein-associated signalling pathways. Cellular studies of alveolar macrophages isolated from these two animal models of alcohol abuse showed enhanced (binge drinking) or reduced (chronic alcoholization) lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated NO release. Such studies could suggest that neuroadaptation occurs with the development of tolerance to alcohol's effects in both neurotransmitter function and cellular processes during chronic alcoholization that delay the occurrence of brain damage. In contrast, 'binge drinking' induces immediate and toxic effects and there is no evidence of an increased preference for alcohol as seen after withdrawal from chronic alcoholization.

Riluzole in the treatment of mood and anxiety disorders

Recent advances implicate amino acid neurotransmission in the pathophysiology and treatment of mood and anxiety disorders. Riluzole, which is approved and marketed for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, is thought to be neuroprotective through its modulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission. Riluzole has multiple molecular actions in vitro; the two that have been documented to occur at physiologically realistic drug concentrations and are therefore most likely to be clinically relevant are inhibition of certain voltage-gated sodium channels, which can lead to reduced neurotransmitter release, and enhanced astrocytic uptake of extracellular glutamate.Although double-blind, placebo-controlled trials are lacking, several open-label trials have suggested that riluzole, either as monotherapy or as augmentation of standard therapy, reduces symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder, unipolar and bipolar depression, and generalized anxiety disorder. In studies of psychiatrically ill patients conducted to date, the drug has been quite well tolerated; common adverse effects include nausea and sedation. Elevation of liver function tests is common and necessitates periodic monitoring, but has been without clinical consequence in studies conducted to date in psychiatric populations. Case reports suggest utility in other conditions, including trichotillomania and self-injurious behaviour associated with borderline personality disorder. Riluzole may hold promise for the treatment of several psychiatric conditions, possibly through its ability to modulate pathologically dysregulated glutamate levels, and merits further investigation.

Mechanisms of neurodegeneration and regeneration in alcoholism

AIMS

This is a review of preclinical studies covering alcohol-induced brain neuronal death and loss of neurogenesis as well as abstinence-induced brain cell genesis, e.g. brain regeneration. Efforts are made to relate preclinical studies to human studies.

METHODS

The studies described are preclinical rat experiments using a 4-day binge ethanol treatment known to induce physical dependence to ethanol. Neurodegeneration and cognitive deficits following binge treatment mimic the mild degeneration and cognitive deficits found in humans. Various histological methods are used to follow brain regional degeneration and regeneration.

RESULTS

Alcohol-induced degeneration occurs due to neuronal death during alcohol intoxication. Neuronal death is related to increases in oxidative stress in brain that coincide with the induction of proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative enzymes that insult brain. Degeneration is associated with increased NF-kappaB proinflammatory transcription and decreased CREB transcription. Corticolimbic brain regions are most sensitive to binge-induced degeneration and induce relearning deficits. Drugs that block oxidative stress and NF-kappaB transcription or increase CREB transcription block binge-induced neurodegeneration, inhibition of neurogenesis and proinflammatory enzyme induction. Regeneration of brain occurs during abstinence following binge ethanol treatment. Bursts of proliferating cells occur across multiple brain regions, with many new microglia across brain after months of abstinence and many new neurons in neurogenic hippocampal dentate gyrus. Brain regeneration may be important to sustain abstinence in humans.

CONCLUSIONS

Alcohol-induced neurodegeneration occurs primarily during intoxication and is related to increased oxidative stress and proinflammatory proteins that are neurotoxic. Abstinence after binge ethanol intoxication results in brain cell genesis that could contribute to the return of brain function and structure found in abstinent humans.

Protective effects of cilostazol against transient focal cerebral ischemia and chronic cerebral hypoperfusion injury

Cilostazol increases intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP) levels by inhibiting type III phosphodiesterase. It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of intermittent claudication. Its principal actions include inhibition of platelet aggregation, antithrombotic action in cerebral ischemia, and vasodilation, mediated by increased cyclic AMP levels. In a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial, cilostazol has been shown to protect patients from recurrent cerebral infarction. It has been recently suggested that cilastozol could be useful in the treatment of transient focal cerebral ischemic injury. Beneficial effects of cilostazol in cerebral ischemic infarction and edema formation has been confirmed in rats by the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The preventive effect was ascribed to cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA)-coupled maxi-K channel activation with additional antioxidant and poly(adenosine diphosphate [ADP]-ribose) polymerase inhibitory actions. Most recently, cilostazol has been shown to prevent vacuolation and rarefaction in the white matter of the rats subjected to chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in association with suppression of astrocyte and microglial activation. Taken together, recent experimental studies with cilostazol showed promising results in cerebral ischemia and chronic cerebral hypoperfusion.

Molecular and cell-based approaches for neuroprotection in glaucoma

A hallmark of glaucomatous optic nerve damage is retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death. RGCs, like other central nervous system neurons, have a limited capacity to survive or regenerate an axon after injury. Strategies that prevent or slow down RGC degeneration, in combination with intraocular pressure management, may be beneficial to preserve vision in glaucoma. Recent progress in neurobiological research has led to a better understanding of the molecular pathways that regulate the survival of injured RGCs. Here we discuss a variety of experimental strategies including intraocular delivery of neuroprotective molecules, viral-mediated gene transfer, cell implants and stem cell therapies, which share the ultimate goal of promoting RGC survival after optic nerve damage. The challenge now is to assess how this wealth of knowledge can be translated into viable therapies for the treatment of glaucoma and other optic neuropathies.

Functional interference between glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta and the transcription factor Nrf2 in protection against kainate-induced hippocampal cell death

Excitotoxicity mediated by glutamate receptors may underlay the pathology of several neurologic diseases. Considering that oxidative stress is central to excitotoxic damage, in this study we sought to analyze if the transcription factor Nrf2, guardian of redox homeostasis, might be targeted to prevent kainate-induced neuron death. Hippocampal slices from Nrf2 knockout mice exhibited increased oxidative stress and cell death compared to those of control mice in response to kainate, as determined with the redox sensitive probes 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H(2)DCFAC) and propidium iodide and lactate dehydrogenase release, respectively, therefore demonstrating a role of Nrf2 in antioxidant protection against excitotoxicity. In the hippocampus of mice intraperitoneally injected with kainate we observed a rapid activation of Akt, inhibition of GSK-3beta and translocation of Nrf2 to the nucleus, but after 4 h Akt was inactive, GSK-3beta was active and Nrf2 was mostly cytosolic, therefore extending our previous studies which indicate that GSK-3beta excludes Nrf2 from the nucleus. Lithium, a GSK-3beta inhibitor, promoted Nrf2 transcriptional activity towards an Antioxidant-Response-Element (ARE) luciferase reporter and cooperated with sulforaphane (SFN) to induce this reporter and to increase the protein levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), coded by a representative ARE-containing gene. Conversely, ARE activation by SFN was attenuated by over-expression of active GSK-3beta. Finally, combined treatment with SFN and lithium attenuated oxidative stress and cell death in kainate-treated hippocampal slices of wild type mice but not Nrf2 null littermates. Our findings identify the axis GSK-3beta/Nrf2 as a pharmacological target in prevention of excitotoxic neuronal death.

Preconditioning induces prolonged expression of transcription factors pCREB and NF-kappa B in the neocortex of rats before and following severe hypobaric hypoxia

Preconditioning using mild repetitive hypobaric hypoxia is known to increase a tolerance of brain neurons to severe hypoxia and other injurious exposures. In the present study, the effects of mild hypoxic preconditioning on the expression of transcription factors NF-kappaB and phosphorylated CREB (pCREB) has been studied in the neocortex of rats exposed to severe hypobaric hypoxia. As revealed by quantitative immunocytochemistry, the injurious severe hypobaric hypoxia (180 Torr, 3 h) remarkably reduced the neocortical levels of pCREB and NF-kappaB. The three-trial hypoxic preconditioning (360 Torr, 2 h, 3 days) induced persistent up-regulation of pCREB and NF-kappaB expression in the neocortex of rats 3-24 h following the severe hypoxia. In addition, the preconditioning alone which was not followed by the severe hypoxia, considerably increased neocortical pCREB and NF-kappaB levels. The findings suggest a role for transcription factors cAMP response element-binding protein and NF-kappaB in the neuroprotective mechanisms activated by the hypoxic preconditioning.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling in mammalian preimplantation embryo development

The development of the preimplantation mammalian embryo is an autopoietic process; once initiated development proceeds without an absolute requirement for external information or growth cues. This developmental autonomy is partly explained by the generation of autocrine trophic ligands that are released and act back on the embryo via specific receptors. Several embryotrophic ligands cause receptor-dependent activation of 1-o-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. This enzyme phosphorylates phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate to form phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate. Genetic or pharmacological ablation of this enzyme activity disrupts normal development of preimplantation embryos. Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate is a membrane lipid that acts as a docking site for a wide range of proteins possessing the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain. Such proteins are important regulators of cell survival, proliferation, and differentiation. RAC-alpha serine/threonine protein kinase is an important PH domain protein and its activity is required for normal preimplantation embryo development and survival. The activity of a range of PH domain proteins is also implicated in the normal development of the embryo. This review critically examines the evidence for the activation of 1-o-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in the generation of pleiotypic trophic response to embryotrophins in the autopoietic development of the preimplantation embryo.

Beneficial effects of rolipram in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington's disease

We have previously showed that rolipram, a phosphodiesterase type IV inhibitor, displays a neuroprotective effect in a rat quinolinic acid model of HD [DeMarch Z., Giampa C., Patassini S., Martorana A., Bernardi G. and Fusco F.R., (2007) Beneficial effects of rolipram in a quinolinic acid model of striatal excitotoxicity. Neurobiol. Dis. 25:266-273.]. In this study, we sought to determine if rolipram exerts a neuroprotective effect in R6/2 mutant mice, which recapitulates, in many aspects, human HD [Mangiarini L., Sathasivam K., Seller M., Cozens B., Harper A., Hetherington C., Lawton M., Trottier Y., Lehrach H., Davies S.W. and Bates G.P. (1996) Exon 1 of the HD gene with an expanded CAG repeat is sufficient to cause a progressive neurological phenotype in transgenic mice. Cell. 87:493-506]. Transgenic mice were treated with rolipram 1.5 mg/kg daily starting from 4 weeks of age. After transcardial perfusion, histological and immunohistochemical studies were performed. We found that rolipram-treated R6/2 mice survived longer and displayed less severe signs of neurological dysfunction than the vehicle treated ones. Primary outcome measures such as brain volume, striatal atrophy, size and morphology of striatal neurons, neuronal intranuclear inclusions and microglial reaction confirmed a neuroprotective effect of the compound. Rolipram was effective in increasing significantly the levels of activated CREB and of BDNF the striatal spiny neurons, which might account for the beneficial effects observed in this model. Our findings show that rolipram could be considered as a valid therapeutic approach for HD.

Neuroregulation of nonexercise activity thermogenesis and obesity resistance

High levels of spontaneous physical activity in lean people and the nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT) derived from that activity appear to protect lean people from obesity during caloric challenge, while obesity in humans is characterized by dramatically reduced spontaneous physical activity. We have similarly demonstrated that obesity-resistant rats have significantly greater spontaneous physical activity than obesity-prone rats, and that spontaneous physical activity predicts body weight gain. Although the energetic cost of activity varies between types of activity and may be regulated, individual level of spontaneous physical activity is important in determining propensity for obesity. We review the current status of knowledge about the brain mechanisms involved in controlling the level of spontaneous physical activity and the NEAT so generated. Focus is on potential neural mediators of spontaneous physical activity and NEAT, including orexin A (also known as hypocretin 1), agouti-related protein, ghrelin, and neuromedin U, in addition to brief mention of neuropeptide Y, corticotrophin releasing hormone, cholecystokinin, estrogen, leptin, and dopamine effects on spontaneous physical activity. We further review evidence that strain differences in orexin stimulation pathways for spontaneous physical activity and NEAT appear to track with the body weight phenotype, thus providing a potential mechanistic explanation for reduced activity and weight gain.

Contribuição na prevenção da isquemia cerebral pelo cilostazol, um inibidor da fosfodiesterase III: revisão de literatura

Esta revisão bibliográfica objetiva expor estas pesquisas sobre as ações do cilostazol no sistema nervoso central. O cilostazol é uma droga que demonstrou exercer inibição seletiva e potente da fosfodiesterase tipo III, ocasionando o aumento de adenosina cíclica -3',5'-monofosfato nas plaquetas, nas células endoteliais e nas células musculares lisas, sendo classificado como vasodilatador, antiagregante plaquetário e antitrombótico. É o fármaco de primeira escolha na claudicação intermitente devido à doença arterial obstrutiva periférica. Além disso, há evidências de que o cilostazol é eficaz no processo aterosclerótico cerebral, promovendo aumento do fluxo e volume sangüíneos e prevenindo infartos, especialmente lacunares e recorrentes, por diminuir a morte celular devido à apoptose e ao estresse oxidativo nas substâncias branca e parda.

Adenylyl cyclase-cyclicAMP signaling in mood disorders: role of the crucial phosphorylating enzyme protein kinase A

Mood disorders are among the most prevalent and recurrent forms of psychiatric illnesses. In the last decade, there has been increased understanding of the biological basis of mood disorders. In fact, novel mechanistic concepts of the neurobiology of unipolar and bipolar disorders are evolving based on recent pre-clinical and clinical studies, most of which now focus on the role of signal transduction mechanisms in these psychiatric illnesses. Particular investigative emphasis has been given to the role of phosphorylating enzymes, which are crucial in regulating gene expression and neuronal and synaptic plasticity. Among the most important phosphorylating enzyme is protein kinase A (PKA), a component of adenylyl cyclase-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (AC-cAMP) signaling system. In this review, we critically and comprehensively discuss the role of various components of AC-cAMP signaling in mood disorders, with a special focus on PKA, because of the interesting observation that have been made about its involvement in unipolar and bipolar disorders. We also discuss the functional significance of the findings regarding PKA by discussing the role of important PKA substrates, namely, Rap-1, cyclicAMP-response element binding protein, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. These studies suggest the interesting possibility that PKA and related signaling molecules may serve as important neurobiological factors in mood disorders and may be relevant in target-specific therapeutic interventions for these disorders.

Hormesis: a promising strategy to sustain endogenous neuronal survival pathways against neurodegenerative disorders

The brain developed adaptive mechanisms in the face of changing environments and stresses imposed on the nervous system. The addition of glutamate as the major excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter to the brain's complement of amino acids and peptides dictated a coordinated transcriptional and translational program to meet the demands of excitatory neurotransmission. One such program is the ability of neurons to sustain and maintain their survival given the nature of glutamate-mediated receptor activation. The unique development of endogenous neuronal pathways activated by glutamate receptors transformed neurons and allowed them to survive under conditions of high energy demands. These same endogenous survival pathways also mediate plastic responses to meet another demand of the brain, adaptation. An endogenous protein that plays a central role in glutamate receptor-mediated survival pathways is brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Intermittent but frequent synaptic ionotropic glutamate receptor activation ensures neuronal survival through a BDNF autocrine loop. In sharp contrast, overactivation of ionotropic glutamate receptors leads to neuronal cell death. Thus, innovative strategies that induce endogenous neuronal survival pathways through low-level activation of ionotropic glutamate receptors or those that bypass receptor activation but upregulate endogenous survival pathways may not only prevent neurodegenerative disorders that involve glutamate as a final common pathway that kills neurons, but may also provide treatment alternatives critical for neurons to survive stressful conditions such as stroke, status epilepticus and hypoglycemic-induced neuronal cell death.

Basic fibroblast growth factor-induced protection from light damage in the mouse retina in vivo

Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) has proven neuroprotective efficacy in the rodent retina against a diverse array of injurious stimuli. However, there is no consensus to date as to the molecular mechanisms underlying this neuroprotection. The study presented herein demonstrates increased expression of endogenous bFGF in the albino mouse retina in response to acute exposure to sublethal levels of light stress. The increased expression correlates with significant photoreceptor protection from light damage. The neuroprotection is likely to be mediated by bFGF as we demonstrate that a shorter exposure to bright light stress that does not up-regulate bFGF fails to protect photoreceptors from light damage. Furthermore, intravitreal bFGF injection into the retina of mice 3 h prior to light damage affords almost complete photoreceptor protection from light-induced degeneration. In addition, injected bFGF induces the activation of protein kinase B and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 signalling which correlate directly with the pathways we find to be activated in response to light stress and up-regulated bFGF. Moreover, we demonstrate that both bright light pre-conditioning and intravitreal bFGF injection result in dramatic increases in levels of inactive glycogen synthase kinase 3beta and cyclic AMP response element binding protein phosphorylation indicating a potential mechanism by which bFGF promotes survival of photoreceptors in vivo.

The dichotomy of NMDA receptor signaling

The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of ionotropic glutamate receptors plays a Jekyll and Hyde role in the mammalian central nervous system. In pathological scenarios such as ischemia, Ca2+ influx through the NMDA receptor is a key mediator of cell death. However, physiological levels of NMDA-receptor activity can promote neuronal survival and resistance to trauma and play important roles in synaptic plasticity and transmission. This dichotomy may explain the poor tolerance and efficacy of NMDA-receptor antagonists in clinical trials for excitotoxic trauma. There is a growing understanding of the signaling events that mediate the opposing effects of NMDA-receptor activity and the factors that determine whether an episode of NMDA-receptor activity will promote survival or death. This knowledge may lead to therapeutic strategies that enable the selective blockade of prodeath signaling cassettes while sparing physiological signaling to survival and plasticity.

Genome-wide mapping and analysis of active promoters in mouse embryonic stem cells and adult organs

By integrating genome-wide maps of RNA polymerase II (Polr2a) binding with gene expression data and H3ac and H3K4me3 profiles, we characterized promoters with enriched activity in mouse embryonic stem cells (mES) as well as adult brain, heart, kidney, and liver. We identified approximately 24,000 promoters across these samples, including 16,976 annotated mRNA 5' ends and 5153 additional sites validating cap-analysis of gene expression (CAGE) 5' end data. We showed that promoters with CpG islands are typically non-tissue specific, with the majority associated with Polr2a and the active chromatin modifications in nearly all the tissues examined. By contrast, the promoters without CpG islands are generally associated with Polr2a and the active chromatin marks in a tissue-dependent way. We defined 4396 tissue-specific promoters by adapting a quantitative index of tissue-specificity based on Polr2a occupancy. While there is a general correspondence between Polr2a occupancy and active chromatin modifications at the tissue-specific promoters, a subset of them appear to be persistently marked by active chromatin modifications in the absence of detectable Polr2a binding, highlighting the complexity of the functional relationship between chromatin modification and gene expression. Our results provide a resource for exploring promoter Polr2a binding and epigenetic states across pluripotent and differentiated cell types in mammals.

System x(c)- activity and astrocytes are necessary for interleukin-1 beta-mediated hypoxic neuronal injury

The purpose of this study was to elucidate the cellular/biochemical pathway(s) by which interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) contributes to the pathogenesis of hypoxic-ischemic brain damage. In vivo, IL-1 receptor type I (IL-1RI)-deficient mice showed smaller infarcts and less neurological deficits than wild-type animals after a 90 min reversible middle cerebral artery occlusion. In vitro, IL-1beta mediated an enhancement of hypoxic neuronal injury in murine cortical cultures that was lacking in cultures derived from IL-1RI null mutant animals and was blocked by the IL-1 receptor antagonist or an IL-1RI blocking antibody. This IL-1beta-mediated potentiation of hypoxic neuronal injury was associated with an increase in both cellular cystine uptake ([cystine]i) and extracellular glutamate levels ([glutamate]e) and was prevented by either ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonism or removal of L-cystine, suggesting a role for the cystine/glutamate antiporter (System x(c)-). Indeed, dual System x(c)-/metabotropic glutamate receptor subunit 1 (mGluR1) antagonism but not selective mGluR1 antagonism prevented neuronal injury. Additionally, cultures derived from mGluR1-deficient mice exhibited the same potentiation in injury after treatment with IL-1beta as wild-type cultures, an effect prevented by System x(c)-/mGluR1 antagonism. Finally, assessment of System x(c)- function and kinetics in IL-1beta-treated cultures revealed an increase in velocity of cystine transport (Vmax), in the absence of a change in affinity (Km). Neither the enhancement in [cystine]i, [glutamate]e, or neuronal injury were observed in chimeric cultures consisting of IL-1RI(+/+) neurons plated on top of IL-1RI(-/-) astrocytes, highlighting the importance of astrocyte-mediated alterations in System x(c)- as a novel contributor to the development and progression of hypoxic neuronal injury.

GM-CSF enhances neural differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells

Recent reports suggest that bone marrow stromal cells may be induced into neural cells both in vivo and in vitro. The factors that regulate the neural differentiation and the mechanism involved, however, remains unclear. Here we demonstrated that granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), a potent hematopoietic factor, was able to enhance the neural differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells. Moreover, we found that GM-CSF receptors are abundantly distributed in the bone marrow stromal cells and GM-CSF significantly upregulated the phosphorylation of cAMP-responsive element binding protein in bone marrow stromal cells. These findings suggest that GM-CSF may activate its receptor and then enhance neural differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells by upregulating phosphorylation of cAMP-responsive element binding protein.

Cyclic AMP response element-binding protein in post-mortem brain of teenage suicide victims: specific decrease in the prefrontal cortex but not the hippocampus

Abnormalities in both adenylyl cyclase (AC) and phosphoinositide (PI) signalling systems have been observed in the post-mortem brain of suicide victims. Cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) is a transcription factor that is activated by phosphorylating enzymes such as protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC), which suggests that both AC and PI signalling systems converge at the level of CREB. CREB is involved in the transcription of many neuronally expressed genes that have been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression and suicide. Since we observed abnormalities of both PKA and PKC in the post-mortem brain of teenage suicide victims, we examined if these abnormalities are also associated with abnormalities of CREB, which is activated by these phosphorylating enzymes. We determined CRE-DNA binding using the gel shift assay, as well as protein expression of CREB using the Western blot technique, and the mRNA expression of CREB using a quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), and hippocampus obtained from 17 teenage suicide victims and 17 matched normal control subjects. We observed that the CRE-DNA binding and the protein expression of CREB were significantly decreased in the PFC of teenage suicide victims compared with controls. There was also a significant decrease in mRNA expression of CREB in the PFC of teenage suicide victims compared with control subjects. However, there were no significant differences in CRE-DNA binding or the protein and mRNA expression of CREB in the hippocampus of teenage suicide victims compared with control subjects. These results suggest that the abnormalities of PKA, and of PKC, observed in teenage suicide victims are also associated with abnormalities of the transcription factor CREB, and that this may also cause alterations of important neuronally expressed genes, and provide further support of the signal transduction of abnormalities in suicide.

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II regulates the phosphorylation of CREB in NMDA-induced retinal neurotoxicity

We examined the role of the phosphorylation of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and cyclic AMP-response element binding protein (CREB) in N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-induced neurotoxicity in the rat retina. Western blot analysis showed early elevation of phosphorylated CaMKII (p-CaMKII) protein levels and subsequential elevation of phosphorylated CREB (p-CREB) protein after NMDA injection. Immunohistochemistry showed that p-CaMKII was colocalized with Thy-1-positive retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) after NMDA injection. The increase in the p-CaMKII protein level was significantly inhibited by the preinjection of CaMKII small interfering RNA (siRNA), whereas negative control siRNA did not affect. Moreover, the increase in the p-CREB protein level after NMDA injection was also prevented by preinjection of CaMKII siRNA. In addition, our morphometric study of neurotracer retrograde labeling and Thy-1-positive cells showed that CaMKII siRNA significantly accelerated NMDA-induced RGC loss. Furthermore, the prevention of CREB binding by CRE decoy oligonucleotide also exacerbated RGC loss. These results suggest that the activation of CaMKII may regulate CREB phosphorylation and that the transient phosphorylation of CaMKII and CREB may be a neuroprotective response against NMDA-induced neurotoxicity.

Leptin protects against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced dopaminergic cell death via mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling

The death of midbrain dopaminergic neurons in sporadic Parkinson disease is of unknown etiology but may involve altered growth factor signaling. The present study showed that leptin, a centrally acting hormone secreted by adipocytes, rescued dopaminergic neurons, reversed behavioral asymmetry, and restored striatal catecholamine levels in the unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) mouse model of dopaminergic cell death. In vitro studies using the murine dopaminergic cell line MN9D showed that leptin attenuated 6-OHDA-induced apoptotic markers, including caspase-9 and caspase-3 activation, internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, and cytochrome c release. ERK1/2 phosphorylation (pERK1/2) was found to be critical for mediating leptin-induced neuroprotection, because inhibition of the MEK pathway blocked both the pERK1/2 response and the pro-survival effect of leptin in cultures. Knockdown of the downstream messengers JAK2 or GRB2 precluded leptin-induced pERK1/2 activation and neuroprotection. Leptin/pERK1/2 signaling involved phosphorylation and nuclear localization of CREB (pCREB), a well known survival factor for dopaminergic neurons. Leptin induced a marked MEK-dependent increase in pCREB that was essential for neuroprotection following 6-OHDA toxicity. Transfection of a dominant negative MEK protein abolished leptin-enhanced pCREB formation, whereas a dominant negative CREB or decoy oligonucleotide diminished both pCREB binding to its target DNA sequence and MN9D survival against 6-OHDA toxicity. Moreover, in the substantia nigra of mice, leptin treatment increased the levels of pERK1/2, pCREB, and the downstream gene product BDNF, which were reversed by the MEK inhibitor PD98059. Collectively, these data provide evidence that leptin prevents the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons by 6-OHDA and may prove useful in the treatment of Parkinson disease.

D-serine regulates CREB phosphorylation induced by NMDA receptor activation in Müller glia from the retina

D-serine is an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor coagonist predominantly produced by glial cells in the brain and the retina. Whereas a role for D-serine as a modulator of NMDA receptors in neurons has been suggested, its function in glial cells has not been analyzed. We here show that D-serine modulates gene expression in Müller glial cells from the retina through the induction of transcription factor CREB phosphorylation and the expression of the immediate-early gene c-fos. Pharmacological analysis indicates that D-serine effect involves NMDA receptor activation. Comparison of the effect of D-serine in Müller cells, hippocampal astrocytes and hippocampal neurons suggests that D-serine could function as a retinal NMDA receptor coagonist activating functionally relevant transcription factor pathways in glial cells.

RSK2 enzymatic assay as a second level diagnostic tool in Coffin-Lowry syndrome

BACKGROUND

Coffin-Lowry syndrome is a semi-dominant condition characterized by severe psychomotor retardation with facial, hand and skeletal malformations resulting from mutations in RSK2 gene, encoding for a serine/threonine kinase. More than 100 different mutations have been identified to date; however, about 50% of clinically diagnosed patients apparently do not have mutations. In order to exclude that these patients have RSK2 mutations missed by standard mutation detection techniques, a rapid and sensitive assay allowing evaluation of RSK2 activity was needed.

METHODS

RSK2 capacity to phosphorylate a synthetic CREB-peptide in basal and PMA-stimulated conditions was evaluated in lymphoblasts from 3 patients with RSK2 mutations and normal controls.

RESULTS

Patients RSK2 activity is normal in nonstimulated conditions but fails to grow following stimulation. The evaluation of the stimulated/non-stimulated activity ratio demonstrated a statistically significant impairment in patients.

CONCLUSIONS

We have set up an assay which allows the identification of even partial alterations of RSK2 activity and seems to give good results also in females with a balanced X-chromosome inactivation and thus with a presumably normal enzymatic activity in about 50% of cells. Moreover, our data seem to confirm previous reports of a potential direct correlation between the level of RSK2 activity and the severity of cognitive impairment.

Expression of transcription factors CREB and c-Fos in the brains of terminal Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease cases

Expression levels and localization of transcription factors cAMP response element binding protein (CREB(1) and CREB(2)) and c-Fos, as well as levels of up-stream mitogen-activated protein kinases/extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK-1 and ERK-2) and p38 kinase, were examined in the brains (frontal cortex) of eleven cases with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) and five age-matched controls. Preserved expression levels of ERK-1-P, ERK-2-P and p38-P were observed in CJD. However, significantly reduced levels, as revealed by gel electrophoresis and Western blotting, and reduced numbers of immunoreactive nuclei, as seen by immunohistochemistry, to CREB, CREB-P, c-Fos and c-Fos-P were found in CJD when compared with controls. These observations point to exhausted CREB and c-Fos brain responses, in spite of preserved up-stream signaling kinases, thus favoring cell death in terminal stages of CJD.

Transcriptional regulation of neurogenesis: potential mechanisms in cerebral ischemia

Recent data provides evidence that new neurons are born in cerebral ischemia. Although ultimate evidence for their functional importance is lacking, correlational data suggest that they contribute to recovery. Therefore, the underlying mechanisms of neurogenesis are interesting as a basis for pharmacological enhancement of the phenomenon. Neurogenesis is a multistep process that includes proliferation of precursor cells, migration of the newborn cells to the site of lesion, differentiation, integration into neuronal circuits, and survival. All these steps rely on gene transcription. However, only preliminary data about the specific transcriptional control of neurogenesis in cerebral ischemia have been obtained so far. To promote this investigation, we review currently available information on six pathways (Notch, Wnt/beta-catenin, NF-kappaB, signal transducers and activators of transcription (STA) 3, HIF-1, and cyclic AMP response element-binding protein [CREB]) that have been shown to regulate transcription in neurogenesis and that have been implicated in cerebral ischemia. With the exception of CREB, direct involvement in postischemic neurogenesis is quite conjectural and much more must be learned to draw practical conclusions.

Astrocytic Expressions of Phosphorylated Akt, GSK3β and CREB Following an Excitotoxic Lesion in the Mouse Hippocampus

Glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3beta) is believed to play important roles in the regulation of synaptic plasticity, cell survival and circadian rhythms in the mature CNS. However, although several studies have been focused on the GSK3beta, little is known about GSK3beta changes in glial cells under neuropathological conditions. In this study, we evaluated the expressions of molecules associated with the GSK3beta signaling pathway, following the induction of an excitotoxic lesion in mouse brain by kainic acid (KA) injection, which caused pyramidal cell degeneration in the hippocampal CA3 region. In injured hippocampi, Ser47-Akt (protein kinase B, PKB) phosphorylation increased from 4 h until 1 day post-injection (PI). Ser9-GSK3beta and Ser133-cAMP responsive element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylations showed similar spatiotemporal patterns in hippocampi at 1 day until 3 days PI. Double immunohistochemistry also showed that these phosphorylated forms of Akt, GSK3beta and CREB were expressed in astrocytes. For the first time, our data demonstrate the injury-induced astrocytic changes in the levels of phosphorylation of Akt, -GSK3beta and -CREB in vivo, which may reflect mechanisms of glial cells protection or adaptive response to damage.

Erythropoietin attenuates neuronal injury and potentiates the expression of pCREB in anterior horn after transient spinal cord ischemia in rats

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have suggested that EPO activates the CREB transcription pathway and increases BDNF expression and production, which contributes to EPO-mediated neuroprotection. We investigated whether EPO has a neuroprotective effect against ISCI in rats and examined the involvement of CREB protein phosphorylation in this process.

METHODS

Spinal cord ischemia was produced by balloon occlusion of the abdominal aorta below the branching point of the left subclavian artery for 5 minutes, and rHu-EPO (1000 U/kg BW) was administered intravenously after the onset of the reperfusion. Neurologic status was assessed at 1, 24, and, 48 hours. After the end of 48 hours, spinal cords were harvested for histopathologic analysis and immunohistochemistry for pCREB.

RESULTS

All sham-operated rats had a normal neurologic outcome, whereas all ischemic rats suffered severe neurologic deficits after ISCI. Erythropoietin treatment was found to accelerate recovery of motor deficits and prevent the loss of motoneurons in the spinal cord after transient ischemia. Ischemic spinal cord injury induced the phosphorylation of pCREB at the anterior horn of the spinal cord, and EPO treatment significantly potentiated expression of pCREB increase at the anterior horn of the spinal cord.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that a single dose of EPO given before ISCI provides significant neuroprotection and potentiates the expression of pCREB in this region.

Ligusticum chuanxiong prevents rat pheochromocytoma cells from serum deprivation-induced apoptosis through a protein kinase A-dependent pathway

Ligusticum chuanxiong (LC) is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine used to treat various cardiovascular diseases. In this study, the butanol extract of LC was found to protect neuronal-like pheochromocytoma cells from serum deprivation-induced apoptosis. Both a serine/threonine kinase inhibitor and a specific protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor blocked the protective effect of LC. A transcription inhibitor (actinomycin D) and a protein synthesis inhibitor (cyclohexamide) also attenuated the protective effect of LC, suggesting the requirement of gene expression for the protection of LC. On the other hand, LC increased both the formation of cyclic-AMP and the phosphorylation of the cyclic-AMP response element-binding protein (CREB), a downstream target of PKA and a nuclear transcription factor known for neuroprotective mechanism. Furthermore, LC-induced CREB phosphorylation and protective effect could be blocked by a PKA inhibitor and overexpression of the dominant negative CREB, respectively. Taken together, the protective mechanism of LC in antagonizing serum deprivation-induced PC12 cell apoptosis might be mediated through a PKA/CREB-dependent pathway.

Induction of Bcl-2 by functional regulation of G-protein coupled receptors protects from oxidative glutamate toxicity by increasing glutathione

Glutamate treatment depletes hippocampal HT22 cells of glutathione, which renders the cells incapable to reduce reactive oxygen species and ultimately cumulates in cell death by oxidative stress. HT22 cells resistant to glutamate displayed increased phosphorylation of cAMP-response-element binding (CREB) and decreased ERK1/2 suggestive of differences in signal transmission. We investigated the amount of candidate G-protein-coupled receptors involved in this resistance and found an increase in mRNA for receptors activated by the vasoactive intestinal peptide VIP (VPAC2, 12.6-fold) and glutamate like the metabotropic glutamate receptor mGlu1 (5.3-fold). Treating cells with VIP and glutamate led to the same changes in protein phosphorylation observed in resistant cells and induced the proto-oncogene Bcl-2. Bcl-2 overexpression protected by increasing the amount of intracellular glutathione and Bcl-2 knockdown by small interfering RNAs (siRNA) increased glutamate susceptibility of resistant cells. Other receptors upregulated in this paradigm might represent useful targets in the treatment of neurological diseases associated with oxidative stress.

Decoding NMDA Receptor Signaling: Identification of Genomic Programs Specifying Neuronal Survival and Death

NMDA receptors promote neuronal survival but also cause cell degeneration and neuron loss. The mechanisms underlying these opposite effects on neuronal fate are unknown. Whole-genome expression profiling revealed that NMDA receptor signaling is decoded at the genomic level through activation of two distinct, largely nonoverlapping gene-expression programs. The location of the NMDA receptor activated specifies the transcriptional response: synaptic NMDA receptors induce a coordinate upregulation of newly identified pro-survival genes and downregulation of pro-death genes. Extrasynaptic NMDA receptors fail to activate this neuroprotective program, but instead induce expression of Clca1, a putative calcium-activated chloride channel that kills neurons. These results help explain the opposing roles of synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDA receptors on neuronal fate. They also demonstrate that the survival function is implemented in neurons through a multicomponent system of functionally related genes, whose coordinate expression is controlled by specific calcium signal initiation sites.

Lovastatin inhibits the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase pathway in immortalized rat brain neuroblasts

We have shown previously that lovastatin, a 3-hydroxy-3-methyl- glutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, induces apoptosis in spontaneously immortalized rat brain neuroblasts. In the present study, we analysed the intracellular signal transduction pathways by which lovastatin induces neuroblast apoptosis. We showed that lovastatin efficiently inhibited Ras activation, which was associated with a significant decrease in ERK1/2 (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2) phosphorylation. Lovastatin also decreased CREB phosphorylation and CREB-mediated gene expression. The effects of lovastatin on the Ras/ERK1/2/CREB pathway were time- and concentration-dependent and fully prevented by mevalonate. In addition, we showed that two MEK [MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)/ERK kinase] inhibitors, PD98059 and PD184352, were poor inducers of apoptosis in serum-treated neuroblasts. However, these inhibitors significantly increased apoptosis induced by lovastatin treatment. Furthermore, we showed that pharmacological inhibition of both MEK and phosphoinositide 3-kinase activities was able to induce neuroblast apoptosis with similar efficacy as lovastatin. Our results suggest that lovastatin triggers neuroblast apoptosis by regulating several signalling pathways, including the Ras/ERK1/2 pathway. These findings might also contribute to elucidate the intracellular mechanisms involved in the central nervous system side effects associated with statin therapy.

Stimulation of the cAMP pathway protects cultured cerebellar granule neurons against alcohol-induced cell death by activating the neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) gene

Neuronal loss is a key component of fetal alcohol syndrome pathophysiology. Therefore, identification of molecules and signaling pathways that ameliorate alcohol-induced neuronal death is important. We have previously reported that neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) can protect developing cerebellar granule neurons (CGN) against alcohol-induced death both in vitro and in vivo. However, the upstream signal controlling nNOS expression in CGN is unknown. Activated cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) has been strongly linked to the survival of multiple cell types, including CGN. Furthermore, the promoter of the nNOS gene contains two cAMP response elements (CRE). Using cultures of CGN, we tested the hypothesis that cAMP mediates nNOS activation and the protective effect of nNOS against alcohol-induced cell death. Forskolin, an activator of the cAMP pathway, stimulated expression of a reporter gene under the control of the nNOS promoter, and this stimulation was substantially reduced when the two CREs were mutated. Forskolin increased nNOS mRNA levels several fold, increased production of nitric oxide, and abolished alcohol's toxic effect in wild type CGN. Furthermore, forskolin's protective effect was substantially reduced in CGN cultures genetically deficient for nNOS (from nNOS-/- mice). Delivery of nNOS cDNA using a replication-deficient adenoviral vector into nNOS-/- CGN abolished alcohol-induced neuronal death. In addition, overexpression of nNOS in wild type CGN ameliorated alcohol-induced cell death. These results indicate that the neuroprotective effect of the cAMP pathway is mediated, in part, by the pathway's downstream target, the nNOS gene.

Molecular targets in cerebral ischemia for developing novel therapeutics

Cerebral ischemia (stroke) triggers a complex series of biochemical and molecular mechanisms that impairs the neurologic functions through breakdown of cellular integrity mediated by excitotoxic glutamatergic signalling, ionic imbalance, free-radical reactions, etc. These intricate processes lead to activation of signalling mechanisms involving calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinases (CaMKs) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). The distribution of these transducers bring them in contact with appropriate molecular targets leading to altered gene expression, e.g. ERK and JNK mediated early gene induction, responsible for activation of cell survival/damaging mechanisms. Moreover, inflammatory reactions initiated at the neurovascular interface and alterations in the dynamic communication between the endothelial cells, astrocytes and neurons are thought to substantially contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease. The damaging mechanisms may proceed through rapid nonspecific cell lysis (necrosis) or by active form of cell demise (apoptosis or necroptosis), depending upon the severity and duration of the ischemic insult. A systematic understanding of these molecular mechanisms with prospect of modulating the chain of events leading to cellular survival/damage may help to generate the potential strategies for neuroprotection. This review briefly covers the current status on the molecular mechanisms of stroke pathophysiology with an endeavour to identify potential molecular targets such as targeting postsynaptic density-95 (PSD-95)/N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor interaction, certain key proteins involved in oxidative stress, CaMKs and MAPKs (ERK, p38 and JNK) signalling, inflammation (cytokines, adhesion molecules, etc.) and cell death pathways (caspases, Bcl-2 family proteins, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1), apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), receptor interacting protein (RIP), etc., besides targeting directly the genes itself. However, selecting promising targets from various signalling cascades, for drug discovery and development is very challenging, nevertheless such novel approaches may lead to the emergence of new avenues for therapeutic intervention in cerebral ischemia.