Quantitative determination of bovine serum Haptoglobin and its elevation in some inflammatory diseases

Acute phase proteins in cattle: discrimination between acute and chronic inflammation

Acute phase proteins such as serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, and alpha 1-acid glycoprotein have been identified as markers of inflammation in cattle because they are produced by the liver in response to pro-inflammatory cytokines. This study was designed to assess whether they could be used to discriminate between acute and chronic inflammation. Their concentrations were measured in serum samples from 81 cattle in which inflammation was classified by thorough clinical examination, supported by postmortem findings, as being acute in severity in 31 and chronic in 50. The classical haematological markers of inflammation were also determined in blood from the animals. Serum amyloid A had a maximum (100 per cent) clinical sensitivity in discriminating between the acute and chronic cases, and haptoglobin had the highest clinical specificity of 76 per cent; counts of neutrophils and band neutrophils had sensitivities of 71 per cent and 42 per cent and specificities of 30 per cent and 72 per cent, respectively. It was concluded that serum amyloid A and haptoglobin may be used to discriminate between acute and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Acute-phase response in dairy cows with acute postpartum metritis

The diagnostic value of 2 plasma acute-phase proteins, haptoglobin and alpha1-acid glycoprotein, and plasma N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase enzyme activity were studied in 29 newly calved dairy cows. Nineteen had developed acute metritis with putrid vaginal discharge within 2 wk after calving; 10 were clinically healthy controls. Plasma haptoglobin concentration remained low in most cows with acute postpartum metritis. Only the 3 most severely affected cows exhibited a strong haptoglobin response. These were later culled due to poor condition and reduced fertility. This suggests that in acute uterine infection a highly increased haptoglobin concentration indicates poor prognosis for repeat conception. Plasma alpha1-acid glycoprotein concentration increased in acute postpartum metritis, the response pattern being less prominent than that for haptoglobin. The alpha1-acid glycoprotein concentrations did not correlate with severity of disease, and, consequently, the capacity of alpha1-acid glycoprotein in differentiating genital infections was relatively poor. The highest alpha1-acid glycoprotein concentrations were detected in cows with retained placenta and/or dystocia. Plasma N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase activity levels did not differ between the cows with acute postpartum metritis and healthy control cows.

Detection of haptoglobin in the high-density lipoprotein and the very high-density lipoprotein fractions from sera of calves with experimental pneumonia and cows with naturally occurring fatty liver

In addition to the lipoprotein-deficient d > 1.25 fraction, haptoglobin was detected in the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and the very high-density lipoprotein (VHDL) fractions from sera of calves with experimental pneumonia and cows with naturally occurring fatty liver. It was not found in the chylomicrons, very low-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein fractions. Washing of the HDL fraction did not decrease the haptoglobin concentration. Transferrin and immunoglobulin G were immunoblotted to examine the possibility of contamination of the lipoprotein fractions by the d > 1.25 fraction. The two serum proteins were detected only in the d > 1.25 fraction, not in any lipoprotein fractions. The distribution pattern of haptoglobin in the lipoprotein fractions was distinct from that of serum albumin. Concentrations of haptoglobin in the HDL fractions from pneumonic sera were largely proportional to those in whole sera. Cholesteryl ester concentrations were decreased in sera from calves with pneumonia, as in cows with fatty liver. A protein immunologically related to hemoglobin was also detected in particular in the VHDL fractions from sera of both groups. These results suggest that haptoglobin or a complex with the hemoglobin-like protein may have a role or roles related to the lipid metabolism.

Comparison of various antibiotic treatments for cows diagnosed with toxic puerperal metritis

Holstein cows (n = 51) that had been diagnosed with toxic puerperal metritis were used to determine the treatment efficacy of various antibiotics. On the day of diagnosis, cows affected with toxic puerperal metritis were assigned randomly to three treatment groups. Cows in groups 1 and 2 received 22,000 IU/kg of procaine penicillin G i.m. for 5 d. In addition, cows in group 2 received an intrauterine infusion of 6 g of oxytetracycline on d 1, 3, and 5. Cows in group 3 received 2.2 mg/kg of ceftiofur sodium i.m. for 5 d. Dependent variables used to determine antibiotic efficacy included milk yield on d 1 through 12, rectal temperature on d 1 through 5, and serum haptoglobin concentration on d 1, 3, and 5. No difference was observed among groups for milk yield on d 1 and 12 or for temperature on d 1 and 5. Serum haptoglobin was elevated to > 10 mg/dl for cows in all groups; however, no difference was observed among groups on d 1 and 5. Because all groups showed a favorable response, this study suggests that there is no difference in treatment efficacy among antibiotics used to treat cows affected with toxic puerperal metritis.

Serum haptoglobin concentrations in Holstein dairy cattle with toxic puerperal metritis

The serum concentration of haptoglobin was measured in 51 cows with toxic puerperal metritis which were being treated with one of three different antimicrobial regimens. The mean concentration of haptoglobin was 19.0 mg/dl on the day that the treatments began and declined steadily during the five day treatment period to a mean concentration of 7.35 mg/dl. There was no correlation between the serum haptoglobin concentrations and the rectal temperatures of the cows during the five days.

Acute-phase response in dairy cows with surgically-treated abdominal disorders

Ninety-seven dairy cows suffering from traumatic reticuloperitonitis, abomasal displacement, and other gastrointestinal disorders or dystocia were referred for abdominal surgery. Plasma protein concentrations, including plasma fibrinogen and haptoglobin, and conventional haematological variables were determined both pre- and postoperatively. The examined variables were not of value in predicting the outcome of the abdominal disorders in general, but fibrinogen concentrations may be helpful in postoperative monitoring of infectious complications, such as peritonitis. Fifty-five per cent of the cows had increased haptoglobin concentrations preoperatively and abdominal surgery led to an additional haptoglobin increase for a further 2-3 days. It is recommended that pre- and postoperative haptoglobin values should be compared when monitoring infectious complications. Non-parametric receiver operating characteristics (ROC) analysis suggested that plasma haptoglobin concentration was the most accurate parameter for differentiating traumatic reticuloperitonitis from other gastrointestinal disorders, but plasma fibrinogen and globulin concentrations were also of value in this respect.

Salmonella infection increases porcine antibacterial peptide concentrations in serum

PR-39 is a multifunctional neutrophil peptide involved in host defense and inflammation. To investigate the involvement of PR-39 in a Salmonella choleraesuis infection, a PR-39 enzyme immunoassay was developed. The concentrations of PR-39 in serum were 13.6 +/- 1.9 ng/ml before challenge and increased (P < 0.01) threefold by 10 to 14 days postinfection. Peripheral blood neutrophil counts paralleled the changes in the concentrations of PR-39 in serum, both returned to basal values by 4 weeks postinfection. These findings suggest that the concentrations of serum PR-39 reflect the involvement of this antibacterial peptide in the host's response to an S. choleraesuis infection.

Value of alpha 1-acid glycoprotein in the diagnosis of feline infectious peritonitis

Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) is notoriously difficult to differentiate from the many other diseases with similar clinical signs and at present the only conclusive diagnostic test is the histopathological examination of a biopsy. The potential value of raised levels of the acute phase reactants, alpha 1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) and haptoglobin in the diagnosis of the disease was investigated. The concentrations of the two proteins were determined in serum samples from healthy cats and gave reference ranges of 0.1 to 0.48 g/litre and 0.04 to 3.84 g/litre, respectively. Levels of AGP greater than 1.5 g/litre in serum, plasma or effusion samples were found to be of value in distinguishing field cases of FIP from cats with similar clinical signs and differentiated these two groups of cats more effectively than the albumin:globulin ratio. The concentration of haptoglobin was higher in cats with FIP than in the group of healthy cats, but this protein was not of value in the diagnosis of FIP. Serum samples from feline immunodeficiency virus-infected cats were also analysed for these proteins and their concentrations were significantly elevated, illustrating that raised levels of AGP and haptoglobin are not pathognomonic for FIP.

Evaluation of a competitive immunoassay for the detection of bovine haptoglobin

A competitive immunoassay to quantify the serum concentration of bovine haptoglobin (hp) using time resolved fluorescence was compared with an indirect method of hp assay (haemoglobin binding assay), using sera taken from healthy animals (n = 158), animals experimentally infected with Haemophilus somnus (n = 10) and from sick animals requiring veterinary treatment (n = 440). Upper limits of normality (for normal animals) were tentatively established for the immunoassay (2.1 micrograms ml-1) and for the haemoglobin binding assay (103 micrograms ml-1). The competitive immunoassay detected elevated hp in 62.5 per cent of field sera by comparison with only 19.2 per cent using the conventional haemoglobin binding assay. Serum albumin concentration did not correlate with hp although concentrations of globulins and copper did correlate. However, these parameters (serum globulin and copper) were found to be insensitive markers of inflammatory disease.

Detection of serum haptoglobin by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in cows with fatty liver

Haptoglobin cannot be detected in the serum of healthy cattle by the haemoglobin-binding assay or single radial immunodiffusion. The present study was designed to examine whether an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay could be applied to measure serum haptoglobin concentrations in healthy cows and in cows with fatty liver. When either purified cow haptoglobin or haptoglobin-positive serum were used as the antigen in the assay, the standard curves obtained were distinctly different, and haptoglobin in serum was detected more sensitively than the purified protein. The addition of bovine serum albumin to purified haptoglobin shifted the curve towards that obtained with haptoglobin-positive serum, suggesting that an interaction with serum albumin was partly responsible for the different standard curves. By use of the standard curve for haptoglobin in serum, the mean (SEM) concentration of haptoglobin in samples from four cows with fatty liver was 466 (147) micrograms ml-1, but the sera from four apparently healthy cows contained less than 0.01 microgram ml-1 haptoglobin.

Serum haptoglobin as an indicator of the acute phase response in bovine respiratory disease

The early stages of the host response to infectious agents include a number of physiologic changes, collectively known as the acute phase response. The acute phase response is comprised of reactions localized at the site of infection, as well as the initiation of systemic responses, which include a rapid increase in the serum concentration of some proteins, known as acute phase proteins (APP). Using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, we detected two APP of approximately 22 and 37 kDa molecular weight in sera obtained from cattle with bovine respiratory disease (BRD). Based on their presence in the sera of sick, but not normal animals, the molecular weights, N-terminal amino acid sequence analysis, and the ability to bind hemoglobin, we identified these proteins as the alpha and beta subunits of haptoglobin. The haptoglobin molecule and the alpha subunit were isolated from serum, purified, and used to produce monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies. With these reagents, an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay was developed to measure the concentration of haptoglobin in bovine serum. Using an experimental model of BRD induced by a sequential challenge of calves with bovine herpesvirus type-1 and Pasteurella haemolytica, we observed a temporal relationship between the increase in haptoglobin concentration in serum and the onset of bacterial infection. The haptoglobin concentration ranged from undetectable in the serum of most calves prior to challenge, to greater than 1 mg ml(-1) in over one-third of the calves at the height of disease. Furthermore, the concentration of haptoglobin was associated significantly with other measures of the severity of disease. Together, these results indicate that quantification of acute phase proteins in animals with BRD could be a valuable diagnostic and prognostic aid.

Quantitative determination of bovine serum haptoglobin in experimentally induced Escherichia coli mastitis

A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed, validated and used to analyse haptoglobin concentrations in serum samples taken from eight cows which had been challenged twice intramammarily with Escherichia coli. The results of the HPLC were compared with those from a photometric assay. The kinetics of the haptoglobin response were analysed with pharmacokinetic computer software. In contrast with the photometric assay, the HPLC was sufficiently sensitive to detect normal background levels of bovine serum haptoglobin. The serum haptoglobin concentrations of healthy cows ranged from 22 to 47 mg litre-1. As the concentration of haptoglobin increased, the results of the two methods correlated well (r = 0.96). A 52-fold increase in serum haptoglobin was detected after the first challenge with E coli. The mean pharmacokinetic parameters of the response after the first challenge were: lag phase 12 hours, t2/1increase 20 hours, tmax 72 hours, t1/2decrease 46 hours, and mean residence time 112 hours. The second challenge three weeks later resulted in a significantly lower haptoglobin response, the area under curve being 35 per cent of that after the first challenge. The clinical signs and inflammatory changes in the milk did not differ significantly between the challenges.

Validation of immunoassays for bovine haptoglobin

Haptoglobin (Hp) is an acute phase protein. The plasma concentration of Hp increases rapidly following tissue damage associated with infection and inflammation. Thus Hp levels could be used as a screening test for organic disease, an objective index of disease activity and response to therapy, or as a sign of microbial infection. Recently, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for bovine Hp was described. We have now developed three different immunoassay formats for bovine Hp and report on their validation and relative value to the diagnosis of bovine disease. Hp levels measured using these three immunoassays were compared and contrasted with results obtained for Hp estimation as measured by the increase in the protection of peroxidase activity against acid inactivation following binding with bovine haemoglobin. The quantitative Hp immunoassays evaluated in the present study are simple, rapid, inexpensive, reproducible, and well suited for both field and laboratory use.

Development of a sensitive and specific time resolved fluorimetric immunoassay for the bovine acute phase protein haptoglobin (Hp)

Haptoglobin (Hp) is recognised as a major acute phase protein in the bovidae and its presence in serum is used as an indicator of inflammation. A mouse monoclonal antibody (1D9) specific for bovine Hp was labelled with a lanthanide (Eu) chelate and used to develop a competitive immunoassay. This competitive immunoassay allowed direct measurement of Hp in serum and was validated for intra- and interassay coefficients of variation (below 8%). Cross-reactivity with other serum proteins was measured (less than 0.1%) and limits of detection for Hp in serum were established for adult male (0.344 microgram/ml) and adult female cattle (1.589 micrograms/ml). The immunoassay was compared with an established haptoglobin-haemoglobin binding assay.

Influence of physical stress on the plasma concentration of serum amyloid-A (SAA) and haptoglobin (Hp) in calves

The influence of physical stress on the plasma concentration of the acute-phase proteins serum amyloid-A (SAA) and haptoglobin (Hp) was studied in 10 calves. Two different stress levels were created by housing two groups of five calves, each on different types of floor. The stress level was assessed by studying videotapes of the animals, and, subsequently, by quantifying the problems related with moving across the pens and the time the calves spent lying down and standing. Plasma concentrations of Hp, SAA, aldolase, and cortisol were measured in blood samples obtained by jugular venepuncture. Plasma SAA concentrations were significantly (p < 0.001) elevated in animals housed on the floor type associated with the highest level of physical stress, although the concentrations were within the normal range for healthy adult cattle. Hp concentrations were not elevated. The floor type did not alter the stress related biochemical variables aldolase and cortisol. It is concluded that plasma SAA concentrations rise upon physical stress, whereas Hp concentrations do not change. The absence of a significant difference in aldolase or cortisol concentrations indicates that the difference in the level of neuro-endocrine stress between the animals housed on the two floor types is only minimal. Consequently, SAA is suggested to be a sensitive variable to assess physical welfare in calves.

Production and characterization of a monoclonal antibody against bovine haptoglobin and its use in an ELISA

Haptoglobin (Hp) is the major acute phase reactant found in cattle. As such, it is an excellent indicator of early disease processes and could be used as a marker for pre-clinical illness in cattle. The production of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) directed against bovine Hp and bovine hemoglobin is described. The anti-haptoglobin mAbs (Hap1, Hap2, Hap3) and the anti-bovine hemoglobin (Hb) mAb (BoHem1) were characterized and tested for cross-reactivity by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblotting analyses. Additionally, the development of an ELISA based on an anti-haptoglobin mAb is discussed.

Haptoglobin response of cattle infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus

Haptoglobin, a major bovine acute phase protein, was evaluated as a marker of the primary replication of foot-and-mouth disease virus in 12 naturally infected cattle from which blood was collected daily. An acute phase response, as measured by an increase in serum haptoglobin concentration and the presence of fever, was not detected during the previraemic stage of disease, but there was a significant increase in serum haptoglobin after the onset of viraemia. It occurred on the same day as the first appearance of clinical signs in three of the cattle, one day later in four and two days later in the other five cattle.

Concentrations of serum amyloid-A (SAA) and haptoglobin (HP) as parameters of inflammatory diseases in cattle

The concentrations of the acute-phase proteins, serum amyloid-A (SAA) and haptoglobin (Hp), were determined in the plasma of healthy cows (n = 25) and cows with spontaneous acute (n = 6), subacute (n = 37), or chronic (n = 7) inflammatory diseases. The plasma concentration of SAA alone, Hp alone, and the Hp/SAA ratio, differed significantly (p < 0.001) between healthy animals and animals with inflammatory diseases. Plasma Hp concentrations in the group of cows with acute inflammatory diseases were significantly (p < 0.01) different from those in the group with chronic inflammatory diseases. Moreover, the Hp/SAA ratio in chronic inflammatory diseases was significantly different from this ratio in acute (p < 0.01) and subacute (p < 0.05) inflammatory diseases. It is therefore concluded that the plasma concentrations of SAA and Hp and the Hp/SAA ratio are useful parameters to distinguish healthy animals from animals with inflammation and can be helpful in distinguishing between acute and chronic of inflammatory diseases.

Acute phase response to Salmonella in a pig liver perfusion model

Livers from 7- to 14-day old pigs were maintained on a perfusion apparatus for 3 h. The perfused livers maintained physiologic and immunologic functions during perfusion. The perfused livers retained 78-94% of a non-recirculating inoculum of approximately 1-5 x 10(8) Salmonella choleraesuis (Scs), and cleared 94.9 +/- 1.7% of the retained (Scs) during the 3-h perfusion period. When the acute phase response (APR) was induced in liver donor pigs 24 h before liver perfusion, the perfused livers had diminished capability to retain, and greatly diminished capability to clear Scs. When sterile, filtered, and concentrated liver perfusate (LP) from previous, LPS-perfused livers was added to the perfusion fluid (PF) at 50 min of Scs perfusion (passive APR), Scs clearance was inhibited. When sterile, filtered LP from previously Scs perfused livers was added to the system, liver clearance was abolished, and Scs always grew in such livers during the 3 h perfusion period. The LP of livers perfused with Scs enhanced growth of Scs in an in vitro assay. These observations suggest that products of the acute phase response favor growth of Scs in vitro and in vivo.

Bovine haptoglobin as a possible immunomodulator in the sera of transported calves

Bovine haptoglobin, which has been recognized as an acute phase protein following tissue injury and inflammation, was detected as a 33 k + 20 k Dalton fraction in the sera from calves transported by road for 2 days. The sera also possessed suppressive activity on lymphocyte proliferative response to concanavalin A. A significant correlation (r = 0.57, P < 0.05) was observed between haptoglobin concentrations and lymphocyte suppression in the sera. Furthermore, the haptoglobin fraction obtained from acute phase sera exerted dose-dependent suppression on lymphocyte blastogenesis. These circumstantial data suggest the possible involvement of bovine haptoglobin, at least in part, as an immunomodulator in serum suppression of lymphocyte blastogenesis in transported calves.

Serum concentrations of copper, iron, and zinc during Escherichia coli-induced mastitis

Six Holstein cows were intracisternally challenged with 50 cfu of Escherichia coli to induce acute mastitis. Clinical status, milk concentrations of bacteria, and serum albumin concentration were determined to monitor the progress and severity of infection for 72 h after bacterial challenge. Blood samples were also collected throughout infection to determine serum concentrations of Zn, Fe, and Cu. Experimental E. coli mastitis resulted in mean serum concentrations of Zn, Fe, and Cu of 28, 35, and 52% of prechallenge concentrations. These decreases first occurred 4 to 12 h after peak bacterial concentration in milk. Changes in serum trace elements may occur too late in the pathogenesis of infection to decrease peak bacterial numbers in milk. However, mediation of infection and inflammation may occur in later stages of the infection process.

Bovine haptoglobin: single radial immunodiffusion assay of its polymeric forms and dramatic rise in acute-phase sera

Using purified bovine haptoglobin (Hp) and specific antisera, a single radial immunodiffusion (SRID) assay method has been developed to measure the serum Hp level in cattle. Bovine Hp is a highly polymerized protein showing heterogeneous molecular forms in serum. After treatment with cysteine or glutathione, Hp was partially reduced to a homogeneous form, suitable for SRID assay. This method gives values comparable to those obtained by hemoglobin-binding capacity assay, and has the advantage of being simple and convenient. Although serum Hp was not detectable in healthy cattle, it was found more than 50-fold after invasive surgery, indicating that Hp is a characteristic acute-phase protein in cattle.

Elevation of the concentration of acute phase proteins in dogs infected with Trypanosoma brucei

Plasma concentrations of the acute phase proteins (APP), C-reactive protein (CRP) and haptoglobin (Hp), increased markedly following experimental infection of dogs with Trypanosoma brucei. The highest concentrations of CRP were observed immediately after peaks of parasitaemia. Treatment with curative doses of the trypanocidal drug suramin caused a rapid decrease in CRP. Relapse infections after subcurative treatment were followed by a reappearance of high plasma CRP concentrations. Haptoglobin remained elevated during the course of the disease. Curative treatment with suramin caused a gradual but slow decrease in Hp while subcurative treatment caused no significant changes. Thus, the estimation of CRP was useful in determining the presence of active infection and the success of chemotherapy. High Hp levels in severely anaemic dogs indicated that intravascular haemolysis does not contribute significantly to the anaemia associated with T. brucei infections in dogs. These conclusions need confirmation from a larger experiment.

Isometamidium in pigs: disposition kinetics, tissue residues and adverse reactions

The disposition and adverse effects of the anti-trypanosomal drug isometamidium in pigs were evaluated. Following intramuscular administration of the drug at doses of 0.5, 15 and 35 mg kg-1, the drug was rapidly absorbed within 15 to 30 minutes to reach maximum plasma concentrations of 12 to 477 (n = 6), 302 to 655 (n = 4) and 1620 (n = 1) ng ml-1, respectively. No drug was detectable in plasma (less than 5 ng ml-1) 24 hours after drug administration at the three doses used. The half-lives of disappearance of the drug from plasma during the terminal phase were 7.12 h for the pigs given a dose of 15 mg kg-1, and 7.20 h for the pig which received a dose of 35 mg kg-1. At all the intramuscular injection sites, high drug concentrations were found six weeks after administration. The most dramatic adverse reactions observed were: one death after intramuscular administration at a dose of 35 mg kg-1 to two animals, and two deaths after intravenous administration at a dose of 2 mg kg-1 to two animals. For all these cases, the immediate cause of death was acute cardiovascular collapse. Biochemical analyses and gross and histological examinations showed that the animals that tolerated the high doses of 15 and 35 mg kg-1 given intramuscularly had extensive and severe tissue damage at the injection sites. Significant increases in plasma gamma-glutamyltransferase and alanine aminotransferase following drug administration suggested a degree of hepatobiliary damage.

Plasma haptoglobin in cattle (Bos taurus) exists as polymers in association with albumin

1. Plasma haptoglobin (Hp) in cattle (Bos taurus) has a molecular mass so large that it is virtually unable to penetrate 4% polyacrylamide gels and is excluded from gel filtration media with an upper exclusion limit of greater than 1000 kDa. 2. In most species, apart from ruminants, Hp has a molecular mass of 100 kDa, consisting of two subunits of 40 kDa and two subunits of 9 kDa, although in a few species, such as man, a genetic variant of Hp forms polymers of higher mass. 3. Bovine Hp was purified by (i) salt precipitation, gel filtration and ion exchange chromatography and (ii) by affinity chromatography and gel filtration, with final purification by (iii) preparative electrophoresis. 4. Bovine Hp could only penetrate sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gels following denaturation with mercaptoethanol, when it was shown to be composed of subunits of 40 and 16 kDa, but a protein of 67 kDa was consistently present. 5. Western blotting identified the 67 kDa protein as bovine serum albumin. 6. The polymeric form of Hp found in bovine plasma is formed by association of 40 and 16 kDa subunits with albumin.

Bovine and canine acute phase proteins

Acute phase proteins are serum proteins which increase in concentration during the acute phase response to inflammation or infection. The response occurs in all animals, but in different species the response of individual proteins can be significantly different. Of the numerous acute phase proteins which have been identified in humans, a number have been examined in cattle and dogs but usually on an individual basis with little reference to their part in the acute phase response. Biochemical, physiological and clinical investigations into haptoglobin, fibrinogen, alpha 1-proteinase inhibitor, ceruloplasmin, seromucoid and C-reactive protein of cattle and dogs have therefore been reviewed with the emphasis on their role in this response to tissue damage.