Shared human T cell receptor V beta usage to immunodominant regions of myelin basic protein

T cell receptor peptide therapy for autoimmune disease

Synthetic peptides corresponding to germline T cell receptor (TCR) V beta sequences shared by encephalitogenic T cells can prevent and treat experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in rats. The operative mechanism apparently involves boosting of anti-TCR immunity that develops during the course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), leading to the induction of autoregulatory T cells and antibodies. Striking parallels are present between patients with multiple sclerosis and animals with EAE in the T cell frequency and TCR V gene bias of BP reactive T cells, suggesting the involvement of an encephalitogenic process in multiple sclerosis. Preliminary trials with the appropriate human TCR peptides indicate that anti-TCR immunity can be boosted efficiently and safely, with concomitant loss of BP response, thus providing an effective strategy for selective regulation of autoimmunity in man.

Interaction of the pertussis toxin peptide containing residues 30-42 with DR1 and the T-cell receptors of 12 human T-cell clones

The interaction of the immunodominant pertussis toxin peptide containing residues 30-42 (p30-42) with soluble DR1 molecules and the T-cell receptor (TCR) of 12 DR1-restricted human T-cell clones has been analyzed. Peptide analogues of p30-42 containing single alanine substitutions were used in DR1-binding and T-cell proliferation assays to identify the major histocompatibility complex and TCR contact residues. Each T-cell clone was found to recognize p30-42 with a different fine specificity. However, a common core comprising amino acids 33-39 was found to be important for stimulation of all T-cell clones. Within this core two residues, Leu33 and Leu36, interact with the DR1 molecule, whereas Asp34, His35, Thr37, and Arg39 are important for TCR recognition in most of the clones. Computer modeling of the structure of p30-42 showed that an alpha-helical conformation is compatible with the experimental data. The analysis of TCR rearrangement revealed that the peptide was recognized by T-cell clones expressing different variable region alpha (V alpha) and variable region beta (V beta) chains, although a preferential use of V alpha 8-V beta 13 and V alpha 11-V beta 18 combinations was found in clones from the same donor. Understanding the details of the interaction of antigenic peptides with the major histocompatibility complex and TCR molecules should provide the theoretical basis to design T-cell epitopes and obtain more immunogenic vaccines.

Increased numbers of T cells recognizing multiple myelin basic protein epitopes in multiple sclerosis

Myelin basic protein (MBP)-autoreactive T cells have a crucial pathogenetic role in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) and certain MBP epitopes may be immunodominantly recognized. The heterogeneity and quantity of the T cell response to different epitopes of MBP in multiple sclerosis (MS) and non-MS controls is not so clearly defined. We now study T cell reactivity to six different peptides of MBP in MS compared to controls in short-term cultures of blood mononuclear cells by measuring numbers of T cells that secrete interferon-gamma in response to antigen. In comparison with controls, MS patients showed dramatically increased numbers of MBP peptide-reactive T cells with mean values varying between 10.4 and 22.5 per 10(5) blood mononuclear cells. Among those MBP peptides examined (amino acid 1-20, 63-88, 89-101, 96-118, 110-128 and 148-165), no single peptide is preferentially recognized. Neither is any preferential response apparent after subdivision of the MS patients according to their HLA-DR genotype. Our findings suggest that a quantitative increase of a broad repertoire of myelin-autoreactive T cells with capacity to secrete IFN-gamma can be important for the pathogenesis of MS.

Clonal heterogeneity of synovial fluid T lymphocytes in inflammatory synovitis

Several studies have examined patients with rheumatoid arthritis for the presence of oligoclonal populations of synovial T lymphocytes. The results of these studies have been conflicting. In this study one patient with rheumatoid arthritis and two with other forms of inflammatory synovitis were examined by Southern blot analysis of T cell clones generated from synovial fluid by primary limiting dilution. Evidence of oligoclonality was documented only in a patient with psoriatic arthritis. The distinguishing characteristics of this patient, in addition to the diagnosis, included the fact that only one joint was involved, the synovitis in the affected joint was of recent onset, and the synovial fluid lymphocytes from which the T cells were cloned responded strongly to soluble antigens. Because of the association with the strong response to soluble antigens, synovial fluid T lymphocytes from another patient with rheumatoid arthritis were cloned in response to a crude mycobacterial antigenic mixture. Three of the seven clones examined were identical by Southern blot analysis. These observations suggest that the presence of oligoclonality is limited in patients with inflammatory arthritis. The relationship of a specific antigen-driven response within the joint to the detection of oligoclonal T cells within that joint remains to be determined.

The polymerase chain reaction for detection of T-cell antigen receptor expression

Applications of the polymerase chain reaction have revolutionized the field of immunogenetics, particularly in studies of human leukocyte antigen class II polymorphism, and more recently in the analysis of T-cell receptor usage. However, the enormous diversity and variability of the T-cell receptor complex have made the amplification of the complete repertoire difficult. Several methods have been devised to address this problem. Each system is described with recent examples of its use and an assessment of its advantages and disadvantages. The use of quantitative polymerase chain reaction in T-cell receptor analysis is also discussed. The elucidation of the T-cell repertoire involved in a pathogenic process can have therapeutic implications, given the success of reversing experimental autoimmune disorders by directing specific forms of immunotherapy against V region gene products.

Preferential V beta gene usage and lack of junctional sequence conservation among human T cell receptors specific for a tetanus toxin-derived peptide: evidence for a dominant role of a germline-encoded V region in antigen/major histocompatibility complex recognition

To investigate the structural and genetic basis of the T cell response to defined peptide/major histocompatibility (MHC) class II complexes in humans, we established a large panel of T cell clones (61) from donors of different HLA-DR haplotypes and reactive with a tetanus toxin-derived peptide (tt830-844) recognized in association with most DR molecules (universal peptide). By using a bacterial enterotoxin-based proliferation assay and cDNA sequencing, we found preferential use of a particular V beta region gene segment, V beta 2.1, in three of the individuals studied (64%, n = 58), irrespective of whether the peptide was presented by the DR6wcI, DR4w4, or DRw11.1 and DRw11.2 alleles, demonstrating that shared MHC class II antigens are not required for shared V beta gene use by T cell receptors (TCRs) specific for this peptide. V alpha gene use was more heterogeneous, with at least seven different V alpha segments derived from five distinct families encoding alpha chains able to pair with V beta 2.1 chains to form a tt830-844/DR-specific binding site. Several cases were found of clones restricted to different DR alleles that expressed identical V beta and (or very closely related) V alpha gene segments and that differed only in their junctional sequences. Thus, changes in the putative complementary determining region 3 (CDR3) of the TCR may, in certain cases, alter MHC specificity and maintain peptide reactivity. Finally, in contrast to what has been observed in other defined peptide/MHC systems, a striking heterogeneity was found in the junctional regions of both alpha and beta chains, even for TCRs with identical V alpha and/or V beta gene segments and the same restriction. Among 14 anti-tt830-844 clones using the V beta 2.1 gene segment, 14 unique V beta-D-J beta junctions were found, with no evident conservation in length and/or amino acid composition. One interpretation for this apparent lack of coselection of specific junctional sequences in the context of a common V element, V beta 2.1, is that this V region plays a dominant role in the recognition of the tt830-844/DR complex.

Control of experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis by low dose T cell vaccination

Autoimmune T lymphocytes can be used under appropriate conditions to induce resistance to the specific autoimmune disease that they usually produce. This practice, termed T cell vaccination, was found to be effective with the injection of a low (subpathogenic) number of autoaggressive T line lymphocytes. We report here that T cell vaccination produced marked resistance to the expression of experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis (EAU) in Lewis rats. In addition, vaccination led to the appearance of lymphoid cells in the vaccinated rats that demonstrated proliferative responses against idiotypic and ergotypic specificities of the injected T cells. This is the first report demonstrating the effector T lymphocytes specific for ocular antigens may be used as agents to modulate immunopathogenic responses responsible for EAU.

T cells in the spinal cord in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis are matrix adherent and secrete tumor necrosis factor alpha

We examined T cells isolated from an autoimmune tissue lesion and from lymphoid organs for their ability to secrete tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and to adhere to extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. CD4+ T cells were obtained from spleens, popliteal lymph nodes, and spinal cords of Lewis rats that had been immunized with myelin basic protein (MBP) to induce experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). We now report that, irrespective of whether or not the T cells were activated with MBP or the T cell mitogen concanavalin A (ConA), the T cells isolated from the spinal cord lesions secreted greater amounts of TNF-alpha and adhered better to ECM than did T cells from the draining lymph node. Thus, the lesions of EAE concentrate a subpopulation of CD4+ T cells with enhanced ability to interact with blood vessel wall components and to secrete TNF-alpha.

Diversity of T cell receptor α and β chain genes expressed by human T cells specific for similar myelin basic protein peptide/major histocompatibility complexes

T cell receptor (TcR) alpha and beta nucleotide sequences involved in the human autoreactivity to myelin basic protein (MBP) were studied by screening cDNA libraries derived from 11 independent T lymphocyte clones (TCC) established from multiple sclerosis patients and healthy donors. The TCC with defined MBP peptide specificity and HLA-DR restriction expressed multiple TcR. Even TCC recognizing the same human MBP peptide [amino acids (aa) 139-153] in identical or very similar HLA-DR context expressed diverse TcR. Two TCC which recognized peptide aa 139-153 equally well in the context of both HLA-DR2a and -DR1 molecules used distinct TcR alpha but identical beta chains. The knowledge of TcR beta and TcR alpha chain sequences of human MBP-specific T cells will allow studies correlating structure and function of TcR and their targets in MBP autoreactivity. This may have an impact on the development of immunotherapies in multiple sclerosis.

T cell vaccination in multiple sclerosis: a preliminary report

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a presumed autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. Inoculation of attenuated T cell clones recognizing immunodominant regions of myelin autoantigens can protect animals from the induction of experimental autoimmune diseases. In this phase one trial, we investigated whether inoculations with attenuated T cell clones are feasible in humans for eventual trials with autoreactive clones and whether there are any associated immunologic effects. A total of seven inoculations with attenuated, autologous T cell clones isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid in four subjects with progressive MS was performed. No untoward side effects were observed. Immunologic studies suggested that the inoculation of autologous activated T cell clones followed by partial, short-term, immunosuppression as evidenced by a decrease of subsequent responses to stimulation via the CD2 pathway and increases in the autologous mixed lymphocyte response. We conclude that the use of attenuated autoreactive T cell clones appears feasible for further clinical trials in humans with autoimmune diseases.

Characterization of rat encephalitogenic T cells bearing non-Vβ8 T cell recepotors

In this study, we demonstrate that T cell lines specific for a synthetic peptide representing sequence 87 to 99 of myelin basic protein (MBP) are encephalitogenic in Lewis rats. However, unlike syngeneic T cells specific for MBP residues 68 to 88 which exclusively use V beta 8 in their antigen receptors, these cells do not. None of the 10 T cell lines and T hybridomas specific for MBP (87-99) used V beta 8 in their T cell receptors. Our results document for the first time that rat encephalitogenic T cells do not exclusively use V beta 8 in T cell receptors that rat encephalitogenic T cells specific for MBP (87-99) are heterogeneous and that MBP (87-99) contains at least two epitopes for rat T cells.

Characterization of T-cell receptor alpha beta repertoire in synovial tissue from different temporal phases of rheumatoid arthritis

With the aim of investigating the distribution of T cells expressing different T-cell receptors (TCR) in the inflamed synovial tissue of rheumatoid arthritis patients, we have used the polymerase chain reaction to amplify TCR V alpha and V beta transcripts from synovial biopsies obtained by arthroscopy from patients with arthritis of variable duration. From each of nine patients a single biopsy was taken. Southern hybridization analysis of amplified products revealed extensive heterogeneity of TCR V beta in most patients. On the other hand, restriction in V alpha gene expression was seen in several patients. A highly restricted V alpha repertoire was observed in all cases with arthritis of short duration. In addition, two of three samples of short duration yielded a more limited number of V beta transcripts than the others. No conformity was, however, seen in usage of individual V alpha and V beta transcripts among the investigated patients. The present data thus demonstrate variability in synovial TCR expression between rheumatoid arthritis patients, but they also indicate a development towards greater diversity with increasing disease duration, implicating the necessity for careful choice of cases, preferentially selecting for early stages of disease, when further analysing rheumatoid synovial T cells for TCR usage as well as for antigen specificity.

HTLV-I infection and neurological disease in Rio de Janeiro

Fifty patients with chronic neurological diseases attending a clinic in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, were examined for evidence of HTLV-I infection. Fifteen of 27 with progressive paraparesis of obscure origin had antibodies to HTLV-I in high titre in their serum samples, and 10 of 13 studied had antibodies in their cerebrospinal fluid. The clinical features of the antibody positive patients were similar to those of patients with HTLV-I associated myelopathy from other countries except that half of the Brazilian patients were white. Seven patients had multiple sclerosis and one of these had antibodies to HTLV-I in the serum. None of the eight patients with motor neuron disease and four with polymyositis had HTLV-I antibodies in their serum samples.

T cell receptor repertoire of infiltrating T cells in lips of Sjögren's syndrome patients

Infiltrating T cells around salivary glands in the lips of Sjögren's syndrome (SjS) patients are crucial in the pathogenesis of this disease. To analyze the nature of infiltrating T cells, their T cell receptor repertoire was examined with quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The repertoire of V beta transcripts in lips of SjS was not restricted; however, the V beta 2 and V beta 13 genes were predominantly expressed on the T cells of lip specimens in six and four of seven lips, respectively. Predominance of these genes was specific in lips because no predominant V beta transcripts were found in lips from healthy subjects and PBLs from SjS patients. These results indicated that the V beta 2- and V beta 13-positive T cells expanded specifically and preferentially in SjS lips, thereby suggesting the possible role in triggering the autoimmunity of this disease.

A specific T-cell receptor genotype preference in the immune response to a synthetic Plasmodium falciparum malaria vaccine

In recent studies with 63 and 122 volunteers vaccinated with the SPf 66 synthetic malaria vaccine, specific antibody patterns were classified as high or low responders. Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), a specific and selective preference was shown for the V beta arrangement of the T-cell receptor in the high responder group involving the V beta-8 gene. The low responder group showed the rearrangement of a different set of genes, and a particular association with V beta-10.

T-cell receptor V beta selectivity in T-cell clones alloreactive to HLA-Dw14

The HLA-DR4 subtypes Dw14 and Dw4 are T-cell-defined allospecificities encoded by the DRB1*0404 and DRB1*0401 genes, respectively. Although these allelic subtypes differ in only two amino acids, allorecognition between Dw14 and Dw4-positive individuals is brisk. This provides an opportunity to analyze T-cell receptor (TCR) usage in a very limited and specifically targeted case, namely the Dw4 anti-Dw14 allogeneic T-cell response. The variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) region sequences of the TCR beta chain from two different Dw14-specific alloreactive T-cell clones derived from a Dw4 donor were examined. Clone EMO25 recognized the Dw14.1, Dw14.2, and Dw15 subtypes, which share a DRB1 polymorphism at codon 71 on a DR4 background, while clone EMO36 reacted with only the Dw14.1 subtype associated with polymorphisms at codons 71 and 86. TCR beta cDNA from each clone was amplified using an anchored polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and subsequently expanded with V beta- and C beta-specific primers for asymmetric PCR and direct DNA sequencing. Both clones were found to express the same TCR V beta 8.2 gene segment; however, they have several different residues within the V beta-D beta-J beta junctional regions. V beta 8 usage was also enriched in polyclonal cells obtained from mixed lymphocyte cultures performed between the Dw4 and Dw14 responder-stimulator combination from which EMO25 and EMO36 were derived.

Antigen-specific tolerance as a therapy for experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

The effects of neuroantigen-specific tolerance on the induction and effector stages of EAE were examined. Tolerance induced by the i.v. injection of syngeneic splenocytes coupled with purified neuroantigens or encephalitogenic peptides of MBP and PLP using ethylene carbodiimide was extremely effective in both prevention and treatment of acute and relapsing forms of EAE in Lewis rats and SJL/J mice. The unresponsiveness is rapidly-induced, dose-dependent, long-lasting, efficient, MHC class II-restricted, and exquisitely antigen-specific. This procedure targets only effector cells bearing clonotypic receptors specific for the autoantigen/autoepitope and thus does not depend upon the autoimmune response being dominated by a restricted T cell repertoire. Moreover, it does not require that the response to the autoantigen be dominated by recognition of a specific epitope(s) within a particular autoantigen, or even the identification of the specific autoantigen. The results also demonstrate the usefulness of peripheral tolerance induced by antigen-coupled syngeneic splenocytes for identifying the fine specificity of autoimmune T cell responses which appear to change during the progression of relapsing EAE. Thus, this technique offers major advantages over many other currently employed immunoregulatory strategies and is therefore relevant for establishment of therapeutic protocols for the antigen-specific treatment of human T cell-dependent autoimmune disorders.

Evidence for selective accumulation of intrathyroidal T lymphocytes in human autoimmune thyroid disease based on T cell receptor V gene usage

We have investigated the T cell receptor V alpha and V beta gene family usage by T lymphocytes infiltrating affected thyroids in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. We show that the intrathyroidal T lymphocytes from patients (n = 6) with autoimmune thyroid disease display a widespread usage of V beta gene families with an average of 14.4/19 V beta gene families similar to the peripheral T lymphocytes of the same patients. Because we recently reported that the utilization of V alpha gene families is markedly reduced within these mitogen-stimulated intrathyroidal T cell populations, as well as within intact tissue from similar patients (n = 4) (overall mean of 4.0/18 families detected), these results indicate that in thyroids of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease the lymphocytes are selectively accumulating based on their V alpha rather than V beta elements. This preferential hTcR V alpha and widespread V beta gene usage was not mimicked in most 7-d autologous mixed lymphocyte reactions using non-T cell stimulators (n = 6) or EB-virus immortalized autologous B cell lines (n = 3). Hence, the selective V gene utilization by intrathyroidal T cells is likely to be secondary to multiepitopic thyroidal autoantigens activating thyroid infiltrating T cells or to the presence of a superantigenlike thyroidal self-antigen, capable of determining a selective infiltration or activation of a variety of T lymphocytes on the basis of their V alpha gene usage.

Preferential use of T-cell receptor V genes in human autoimmune thyroid disease

We review here our analyses of hTcR V gene activity within the thyroid glands of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. Our data, based on thyroid aspiration specimens, indicate that early in the onset of Graves' disease there is a marked restriction in both hTcR V alpha and V beta gene families utilized by intrathyroidal T-cells. Later, however, and as seen in surgical thyroid specimens from patients with long term disease, there appears to be a loss of V beta restriction for unclear reasons. In contrast, patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis are usually diagnosed later in the natural history of the disease and appear to show much less hTcR V gene family restriction. The mechanisms driving the use of few and many hTcR V genes within the thyroid gland are likely to be complex and may reveal important insights into disease pathogenesis.

T cell receptors, immunoregulation, and autoimmunity

T cell receptor (TCR) peptide vaccines have proven useful in the prevention and treatment of autoimmune disease in animal models. Prospects for developing TCR peptide vaccines for human autoimmune disease are only now being explored. Preliminary indications provide cause for optimism that immunization with TCR peptides eventually will be a viable treatment option for autoimmune pathologies in humans. In the long term, development of this technology may permit reliable manipulation of T cell immunity, leading to treatments for autoimmunity, T lymphoproliferative disorders, and, in the broadest interpretation, any pathogenesis mediated by oligoclonal T cell populations.

Immunoregulation of autoimmune disease by vaccination with T cell receptor peptides

Restricted TCR gene usage in animal models of autoimmune disease has led to strategies for control of these diseases by targeting the idiotypic determinants within the TCR sequence. Rats can be rendered resistant to EAE by immunization with synthetic peptides representing sequences contained within the V beta, J alpha and VDJ beta regions of the TCR that are conserved among encephalitogenic T cells. We propose that the mechanism of immunoregulation thus produced results from the stimulation of an anticlonotypic response directed at endogenously synthesized TCR peptides presented by Class I MHC on the surface of the autoreactive T cell, and that this mechanism may be part of the natural immunoregulation of T cell responses. The experimental data demonstrate the utility of this therapeutic approach and its potential for treatment of any pathogenic condition mediated by specific, oligoclonal T cell populations.

Junctional region sequences of T-cell receptor beta-chain genes expressed by pathogenic anti-DNA autoantibody-inducing helper T cells from lupus mice: possible selection by cationic autoantigens

We rescued from the spleens of 10 (SWR x NZB)F1 (SNF1) mice with lupus nephritis the T cells that were activated in vivo and cloned 268 T-cell lines and hybridomas. Only 12% of these T-cell clones had the functional ability to preferentially augment the production of pathogenic anti-DNA autoantibodies. Among these, 16 helper T-cell (Th-cell) clones that were mostly CD4+ and had the strongest autoantibody-inducing ability were analyzed for T-cell receptor (TCR) beta-chain gene usage. Seven of the 16 Th-cell clones expressed beta-chain variable region (V beta) V beta 8 (8.2 or 8.3) genes and three expressed V beta 4, whereas two clones each used a V beta 1 or V beta 2 or V beta 14 gene, suggesting some restriction in TCR gene usage. Although heterogeneous, the V-D-J junctional region sequences of TCR beta-chain genes used by these Th-cell clones invariably encoded one or more negatively charged residues (aspartic or glutamic acid) that had been generated in most cases by unspecified nucleotide (N) additions. Representative pathogenic autoantibody-inducing Th-cell clones could rapidly induce the development of lupus nephritis when injected into young prenephritic SNF1 mice. The pathogenic autoantibody-inducing Th cells expressing the anionic residues in their TCR beta-chain junctions (complementarity-determining region CDR3) were probably selected by some cationic autoantigenic peptide presented by the anti-DNA B cells they preferentially helped. These results offer a clue regarding the nature of the primary autoantigen that may drive the pathogenic autoimmune response in lupus.

Immunotherapy in autoimmune diseases

Over the past decade, much progress has been made in our understanding of immunological tolerance of self-antigens and the genetic and molecular basis of T-cell recognition and activation that involves a ternary interaction of foreign or self-antigens with major histocompatibility complex molecules and T-cell antigen receptor gene products. Using this trimolecular complex as a target for immune intervention, animal models of spontaneously occurring and experimentally induced autoimmune diseases have provided opportunities for new immunomodulatory therapeutic approaches. Some of these have encouraging potential and are currently being applied in the immunotherapy of human autoimmune diseases.

Peripheral blood gamma-delta T cells lyse fresh human brain-derived oligodendrocytes

T cells are postulated to contribute to the injury of the oligodendrocyte-myelin complex underlying the demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS). The apparent lack of class I or II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) expression in situ on human oligodendrocytes and the consistent failure to identify a universal myelin antigen in MS suggest that the immune damage might be mediated by effector T cells that are capable of reacting in an antigen-nonspecific and possibly MHC-unrestricted manner, such as T cells expressing the gamma-delta T-cell receptor. Since gamma-delta T cells are reported to be present in MS plaques and an increased number are found in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with MS, we directly examined whether gamma-delta T cells are capable of inducing injury to human oligodendrocytes. We found, using a 6-hour 51Cr release assay, that oligodendrocytes cultured from surgically resected human brain specimens were effectively lysed in a dose-dependent manner by human gamma-delta T cells (28 +/- 5% mean specific lysis, n = 6, at an effector-target ratio of 20:1). Although heat shock protein HSP72, a putative gamma-delta T-cell recognition molecule, could be induced in vitro in our oligodendrocytes, an antibody to HSP72 did not inhibit gamma-delta T cell-mediated lysis of oligodendrocytes. These results suggest that gamma-delta T cells gaining entry into the central nervous system may be deleterious to oligodendrocytes and thus may contribute to the pathogenesis of MS.

Neurological diseases

Recent advances have improved our understanding of the T-cell recognition process in neuroimmunological autoimmune disease as well as the involvement of major histocompatibility complex molecules and cell adhesion molecules in the autoimmune attack.

Immune responses to 18.6 and 30-kDa mycobacterial antigens in rheumatoid patients, and V beta usage by specific synovial T-cell lines and fresh T cells

We have investigated both the humoral and the cellular immune responses of patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) to mycobacterial antigens. The JRA group was not Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) vaccinated whilst the majority of the RA group was. As determined by immunoblotting, 79% of sera from patients with JRA reacted mainly with a 18.6-kDa protein (P18.6), whilst 70% of sera from patients with RA reacted mainly with a 30-kDa protein (P30) of BCG, M. tuberculosis and M. kansasii. In contrast, only a moderate proportion of the control sera (25% of adult and 20% of children) showed reactivity to P30, and none of the samples had significant reactivity with the P18.6 antigen. Furthermore, T-cell proliferation to the P18.6 and P30 antigens was detected in the majority of JRA and RA patients, and was nearly always higher in synovial fluid (SF) than in the peripheral blood (PB). We also investigated the usage of V beta family genes in P18.6 and P30 antigen-specific T-cell lines established from the SF of one patient with active RA. We showed that V beta 2, -4, -5, -6, -7, -14, -17, -18 and V beta 19 were over-represented compared with other known V beta families. We also noted that the proportion of V beta 14 was higher in freshly isolated SF mononuclear cells compared with the blood in this patient and in 2 out of 4 other RA patients examined. Other V beta families such as V beta 6, V beta 8, V beta 16, V beta 18 and V beta 19 were also over-represented in the SF compared with the blood in some patients. Taken together our results provide more information concerning the role of mycobacterial antigens in RA and suggest that there may be an in vivo clonal expansion of T lymphocytes in the synovium.

Limited T-cell receptor beta-chain heterogeneity among interleukin 2 receptor-positive synovial T cells suggests a role for superantigen in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a disease affecting the synovial membranes of articulating joints that is thought to result from T-cell-mediated autoimmune phenomena. T cells responsible for the pathogenesis of RA are likely present in that fraction of synovial T cells that expresses the interleukin 2 receptor (IL-2R), one marker of T-cell activation. We report herein an analysis of T-cell receptor (TCR) beta-chain gene expression by IL-2R-positive synovial T cells. These T cells were isolated from uncultured synovial tissue specimens by using IL-2R-specific monoclonal antibodies and magnetic beads, and TCR beta-chain transcription was analyzed by PCR-catalyzed amplification using a panel of primers specific for the human TCR beta-chain variable region (V beta). Multiple V beta gene families were found to be transcribed in these patients samples; however, three gene families, V beta 3, V beta 14, and V beta 17, were found in a majority of the five synovial samples analyzed, suggesting that T cells bearing these V beta s had been selectively retained in the synovial microenvironment. In many instances, the V beta 3, V beta 14, or V beta 17 repertoires amplified from an individual patient were dominated by a single rearrangement, indicative of clonal expansion in the synovium and supportive of a role for these T cells in RA. Of note is a high sequence similarity between V beta 3, V beta 14, and V beta 17 polypeptides, particularly in the fourth complementarity-determining region (CDR). Given that binding sites for superantigens have been mapped to the CDR4s of TCR beta chains, the synovial localization of T cells bearing V beta s with significant CDR4 homology indicates that V beta-specific T-cell activation by superantigen may play a role in RA.

Preferential T-cell receptor beta-chain variable gene use in myelin basic protein-reactive T-cell clones from patients with multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease in which T lymphocytes reactive to myelin basic protein (BP) could play a central role. T cells specific for BP were cloned from the blood of multiple sclerosis patients and normal individuals, and expression of T-cell receptor variable region genes was analyzed. A remarkable bias for use of beta-chain variable region (V beta) 5.2 and, to a lesser extent, V beta 6.1 was seen among BP-specific clones from patients but not from controls. The preferential use of V beta 5.2 for BP recognition did not reflect altered expression of this V beta in the peripheral repertoire. Interestingly, shared V beta 5.2 usage was apparent for clones specific for different BP determinants, even when derived from the same individual. The concurrent demonstration by others (J. R. Oksenberg, M. A. Panzara, A. B. Begovich, H. Erlich, R. Murray, M. Sherritt, S. Stuart, C. C. Bernard, and L. Steinman, personal communication) that T cells within demyelinating areas of multiple sclerosis brains preferentially express V beta 5.2 and V beta 6.1 suggests that the BP-specific clones derived from blood may be relevant to disease pathogenesis. These findings may have important implications for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

Extensive conservation of alpha and beta chains of the human T-cell antigen receptor recognizing HLA-A2 and influenza A matrix peptide

The major histocompatibility complex class I molecule HLA-A2.1 presents the influenza A virus matrix peptide 57-68 to cytotoxic T lymphocytes in all individuals with this common HLA type and is among the most thoroughly studied immune responses in humans. We have studied the T-cell receptor (TCR) heterogeneity of T cells specific for HLA-A2 and influenza A matrix peptide using the polymerase chain reaction. The usage of V alpha and V beta sequences seen on these T cells is remarkably conserved as are certain junctional sequences associated with alpha and beta chains. Furthermore, two unrelated HLA-A2 individuals have a similar pattern of TCR usage, implying that this is a predominant response in HLA-A2 populations. Analysis in one individual showed that the conserved TCR V alpha and V beta genes are minor members of the peripheral blood TCR repertoire. The sequences provide important information on the TCR necessary for the final structural analysis of this ternary complex.

Does a retrovirally encoded superantigen cause multiple sclerosis?

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The T-cell-receptor repertoire in the synovial fluid of a patient with rheumatoid arthritis is polyclonal

We have analyzed the T-cell-receptor repertoire expressed in the synovial fluid of a patient with rheumatoid arthritis by using an inverse polymerase chain reaction. Total RNA was isolated from Ficoll-purified mononuclear cells and converted into circularized double-stranded cDNA. Specific amplification of alpha- and beta-chain variable regions (V alpha and V beta) was achieved with inverted alpha- and beta-chain constant region (C alpha and C beta) primer pairs, and the amplification products were cloned into phage vectors. A total of 78 alpha and 76 beta clones were sequenced, and 67 and 72 productively rearranged alpha and beta genes were identified, respectively. Thirty-one V alpha, 33 alpha-chain joining region (J alpha), 29 V beta, and 12 beta-chain joining region (J beta) gene segments were found in the productively rearranged clones, indicating that the T-cell repertoire expressed in the synovial fluid of this RA patient is highly heterogenous and polyclonal. Comparison of peripheral blood and synovial fluid repertoires showed that the most abundant V beta sequences, V beta 2.1 and V beta 3.1, were enriched in the inflamed joint by a factor of 2 to 3. It is possible that T cells expressing these V beta gene segments, which recognize bacterial superantigens, play a role in the disease.

New approaches to the therapy of demyelinating disease

The pace of research on the pathogenesis and treatment of multiple sclerosis, the principal human demyelinating disease of the central nervous system, has intensified in the past 3 years, due in part, to the application of advances in molecular and cellular immunology. Many lessons that have been learned in an animal model of central nervous system demyelinating disease, experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, also apply to multiple sclerosis and certain successful approaches for the treatment of this disease are now being attempted in humans.

Analysis of T cell receptor V alpha and V beta gene usage in synovia of patients with rheumatoid arthritis

T cells are thought to play a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Activated T cells expressing alpha/beta T cell receptor (Tcr) infiltrate the rheumatoid synovium and could potentially initiate a local inflammatory response directed against joint constituents. A Tcr repertoire with restricted heterogeneity may reflect a selective expansion of T cells reactive to a few antigenic determinants within the synovium. To determine whether predominant V alpha and/or V beta gene usage of the expressed alpha/beta Tcr repertoire is a feature of synovial T cells in patients with RA, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to amplify Tcr-alpha and Tcr-beta chain transcripts. The peripheral blood and synovia of five patients with adult RA were examined and no evidence of preferential use of 19 Tcr V alpha gene families was found. Similarly, most of the 18 Tcr V beta gene families could be detected in RA synovia although there were quantitative differences in Tcr V beta gene expression when compared to peripheral blood. This report shows that when the extremely sensitive assay of oligonucleotide hybridization of PCR amplified Tcr transcripts is used, permitting identification of specific V gene families, the alpha/beta Tcr repertoire in the rheumatoid synovium is more diverse than was previously thought. Therefore, in patients with RA of long duration, the synovial T cell response is most likely to be polyclonal.

Characterization of human T cells reactive with the Mycoplasma arthritidis-derived superantigen (MAM): generation of a monoclonal antibody against V beta 17, the T cell receptor gene product expressed by a large fraction of MAM-reactive human T cells

While all known microbial superantigens are mitogenic for human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL), the functional response induced by Mycoplasma arthritidis-derived superantigen (MAM) is unique in that MAM stimulation of PBL consistently results in T cell-dependent B cell activation characterized by polyclonal IgM and IgG production. These immunostimulatory effects of MAM on the humoral arm of the human immune system warranted a more precise characterization of MAM-reactive human T cells. Using an uncloned MAM reactive human T cell line as immunogen, we have generated a monoclonal antibody (mAb) (termed C1) specific for the T cell receptor V beta gene expressed by the major fraction of MAM-reactive human T cells, V beta 17. In addition, a V beta 17- MAM-reactive T cell population exists, assessed by MAM, induced T cell proliferation and cytotoxic T cell activity. mAb C1 will be useful in characterizing the functional properties of V beta 17+ T cells and their potential role in autoimmune disease.

Oligoclonal expansion and CD1 recognition by human intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes

A human intestinal intraepithelial lymphocyte (IEL) T cell line was established from jejunum to characterize the structure and function of the alpha beta T cell antigen receptors (TCRs) expressed by this population. Single-sided polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification cloning and quantitative PCR amplification of the TCR chains from the cell line and from fresh IELs demonstrated that IELs were oligoclonal. The IEL T cell line exhibited CD1-specific cytotoxicity and a dominant IEL T cell clone was CD1c-specific. Thus, human jejunal intraepithelial lymphocytes are oligoclonal and recognize members of the CD1 gene family.

Discordance of T-cell receptor beta-chain genes in familial multiple sclerosis

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms of the T-cell receptor beta-chain gene were studied in DNA obtained from 96 individuals from 14 multiplex families with multiple sclerosis (MS). Thirty-four family members had definite MS and two had probable MS. Five normal family members had abnormal findings on cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. Linkage analysis was performed using the BglII and the KpnI polymorphisms. With penetrance values from 0.1 to 0.7, and altering the scoring of the normal individuals with abnormal findings on MRI scans from "unknown" to "affected," log of the odds scores between -4.59 to -12.76 were found for the autosomal dominant model. For the autosomal recessive model with a penetrance range from 0.1 to 1.0, the LOD scores ranged from -8.20 to -32.98. These findings do not support a direct role of T-cell receptor beta-chain gene in the inheritance of MS.

A novel and rapid cloning method for the T-cell receptor variable region sequences

Conventional polymerase chain reactions (PCR) require sequence information on both ends of the DNA to be amplified. The novel technique described here allows the amplification of cDNA fragments with sequence information from one end only. Blunt-ended double-strand cDNA is prepared, circularized with T4 DNA ligase and used as a PCR template. The two PCR primers are designed to hybridize to the known region in an outward orientation allowing the amplification of the unknown sequence. The method was established using the alpha-chain of T-cell antigen receptors (Tcr) as an example. The cDNA synthesized from 1 microgram of total RNA from human peripheral lymphocytes was amplified and cloned resulting in a library of 1-2 x 10(6) Tcr-specific clones. The method should also be useful for cloning full-length cDNA or for the identification of new members of a gene family that share a conserved domain.

Borrelia burgdorferi activates a T helper type 1-like T cell subset in Lyme arthritis

18 cloned T cell lines reactive with Borrelia burgdorferi proteins, all CD3+4+8-TCR-alpha/beta+ and restricted by HLA class II proteins, were isolated from four patients with chronic Lyme arthritis. Analysis of these T cell clones indicated that the T cell response to the Lyme disease spirochete is not oligoclonally restricted; yet all produced the same pattern of lymphokines, resembling that of murine type 1 T helper cells, after antigen-specific or nonspecific stimulation. Therefore, a subset of human CD4+ T cells, with a distinct profile of lymphokine secretion, is selectively activated by the pathogen inciting this chronic inflammatory disease.

Colocalization of lymphocytes bearing gamma delta T-cell receptor and heat shock protein hsp65+ oligodendrocytes in multiple sclerosis

The presence of T lymphocytes bearing the gamma delta T-cell receptor (TCR gamma delta) has been studied immunocyto-chemically in central nervous system (CNS) tissue from 13 patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), 4 with inflammatory non-MS CNS disorders, 6 with other neurological diseases, and 3 with nonneurologic conditions. Twenty-eight of 43 MS lesions contained TCR gamma delta cells and these were most frequently found in chronically demyelinated areas, in contrast to the previously studied CD4+, CD8+ (TCR alpha beta) population, which predominated in more active lesions. Some TCR gamma delta lymphocytes had an unusual morphology with long dendritic processes, which were sometimes interconnected forming a network. Because it is generally believed that TCR gamma delta lymphocytes function in a cytotoxic fashion in association with heat shock proteins (hsp), we examined the colocalization of TCR gamma delta cells with 65- and 70-kDa hsp (hsp65 and hsp70) in MS lesions. Hsp65 was expressed on immature oligodendrocytes at the margins of chronic lesions containing TCR gamma delta lymphocytes. The coexpression of these molecules might imply functional relationships perhaps of significance to the chronicity of the MS disease process and the failure of CNS remyelination.

Multiple sclerosis: a pivotal role for the T cell in lesion development

The recognition of an increasing number of similarities between the immunologic anomalies associated with multiple sclerosis (MS) and the T cell-mediated demyelinating model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), has resulted in considerable focusing of investigative approaches. It appears that irrespective of the elucidation of the nature of the putative aetiological factor (presumed to be viral) in MS, the arrest and reversal of T cell-related events within the CNS in this devastating condition represent feasible goals and should remain a major target for some time to come. This short review summarizes the current major areas of activity as they relate to T cell involvement in the immunopathology of MS (and EAE) and presents them in the context of potential therapeutic relevance. In the light of laboratory experiments in which ablation or counteraction of the inflammatory response within the central nervous system (CNS) appears to lead to cessation of immune-mediated disease and encouragement of CNS remyelination, the prospects of similar strategies being applied to MS are becoming increasingly strong.

T-cell recognition of myelin basic protein

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system which has been hypothesized to be autoimmune in nature. To test whether this is the case, Kai Wucherpfennig and colleagues have developed a set of criteria that must be met to satisfy the hypothesis. Here, they present these criteria and assess the extent to which studies to date satisfy them.

Evidence of limited variability of antigen receptors on intrathyroidal T cells in autoimmune thyroid disease

BACKGROUND

Patients with autoimmune thyroid diseases, including Graves' disease and Hashimoto's disease, have marked lymphocytic infiltration in their thyroid glands. We examined the gene for the variable regions of the alpha-chain of the human T-cell receptor (the V alpha gene) in intrathyroidal T cells to determine whether the infiltration is a secondary heterogeneous immune response or a more restricted, and therefore primary and presumably pathogenetic, reaction to thyroid autoantigens.

METHODS

We used the polymerase chain reaction to detect small numbers of T cells expressing the variable region of the V alpha gene. Different oligonucleotides were used to amplify complementary DNA for the 18 known families of the V alpha gene in intrathyroidal T cells from 9 patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. We compared the findings with the results in patients with nonautoimmune thyroid disease as well as those in normal subjects.

RESULTS

We found marked restriction in the expression of T-cell-receptor V alpha genes by T cells from the thyroid tissue of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. An average of only 5 of the 18 V alpha genes were expressed in such samples, as compared with 17 V alpha genes expressed in peripheral-blood T cells from the same patients. No such restriction was found in thyroid tissue from patients with nonautoimmune thyroid disease. The predominantly expressed V alpha genes differed from patient to patient, however, with no clear association with the type of disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Intrathyroidal T-cell accumulation in autoimmune thyroid disease is highly restricted and points to the primacy of T cells in causing thyroid disorders. These results present the possibility of using antibodies to the T-cell receptor for the specific inhibition of abnormal T-cell function in autoimmune thyroid disease.

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from multiple sclerosis patients recognize myelin proteolipid protein and selected peptides

Myelin proteolipid protein (PLP) can induce a T cell-mediated chronic relapsing autoimmune encephalomyelitis in animals and therefore is a candidate for an antigen involved in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. In this report, evidence is presented that peripheral blood mononuclear cells from certain multiple sclerosis (MS) patients recognize the intact PLP molecule as well as certain synthetic PLP peptides in proliferation assays. PLP-specific T cell lines could be obtained from six of ten MS patients with early relapsing-remitting disease. These lines recognized more than one PLP peptide and the relevant peptides differed among patients. The relevance of these observations to the pathogenesis of MS remains to be determined.