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Abstract
Cell cycle cytometry and analysis are essential tools for studying cells of model organisms and natural populations (e.g., bone marrow). Methods have not changed much for many years. The simplest and most common protocol is DNA content analysis, which is extensively published and reviewed. The next most common protocol, 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine S phase labeling detected by specific antibodies, is also well published and reviewed. More recently, S phase labeling using 5'-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine incorporation and a chemical reaction to label substituted DNA has been established as a basic, reliable protocol. Multiple antibody labeling to detect epitopes on cell cycle regulated proteins, which is what this chapter is about, is the most complex of these cytometric cell cycle assays, requiring knowledge of the chemistry of fixation, the biochemistry of antibody-antigen reactions, and spectral compensation. However, because this knowledge is relatively well presented methodologically in many papers and reviews, this chapter will present a minimal Methods section for one mammalian cell type and an extended Notes section, focusing on aspects that are problematic or not well described in the literature. Most of the presented work involves how to segment the data to produce a complete, progressive, and compartmentalized cell cycle analysis from early G1 to late mitosis (telophase). A more recent development, using fluorescent proteins fused with proteins or peptides that are degraded by ubiquitination during specific periods of the cell cycle, termed "Fucci" (fluorescent, ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicators) provide an analysis similar in concept to multiple antibody labeling, except in this case cells can be analyzed while living and transgenic organisms can be created to perform cell cycle analysis ex or in vivo (Sakaue-Sawano et al., Cell 132:487-498, 2007). This technology will not be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Jacobberger
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
| | - R Michael Sramkoski
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Tammy Stefan
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Philip G Woost
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
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Avva J, Weis MC, Sramkoski RM, Sreenath SN, Jacobberger JW. Dynamic expression profiles from static cytometry data: component fitting and conversion to relative, "same scale" values. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38275. [PMID: 22808005 PMCID: PMC3395670 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2011] [Accepted: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cytometry of asynchronous proliferating cell populations produces data with an extractable time-based feature embedded in the frequency of clustered, correlated events. Here, we present a specific case of general methodology for calculating dynamic expression profiles of epitopes that oscillate during the cell cycle and conversion of these values to the same scale. Methods Samples of K562 cells from one population were labeled by direct and indirect antibody methods for cyclins A2 and B1 and phospho-S10-histone H3. The same indirect antibody was used for both cyclins. Directly stained samples were counter-stained with 4′6-diamidino-2-phenylindole and indirectly stained samples with propidium to label DNA. The S phase cyclin expressions from indirect assays were used to scale the expression of the cyclins of the multi-variate direct assay. Boolean gating and two dimensional, sequential regions set on bivariate displays of the directly conjugated sample data were used to untangle and isolate unique, unambiguous expression values of the cyclins along the four-dimensional data path through the cell cycle. The median values of cyclins A2 and B1 from each region were correlated with the frequency of events within each region. Results The sequential runs of data were plotted as continuous multi-line linear equations of the form y = [(yi+1−yi)/(xi+1−xi)]x + yi−[(yi+1−yi)/(xi+1−xi)]xi (line between points (xi,yi) and (xi+1, yi+1)) to capture the dynamic expression profile of the two cyclins. Conclusions This specific approach demonstrates the general methodology and provides a rule set from which the cell cycle expression of any other epitopes could be measured and calculated. These expression profiles are the “state variable” outputs, useful for calibrating mathematical cell cycle models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayant Avva
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Michael C. Weis
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - R. Michael Sramkoski
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Sree N. Sreenath
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - James W. Jacobberger
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Dynamic epitope expression from static cytometry data: principles and reproducibility. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30870. [PMID: 22347408 PMCID: PMC3275612 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Accepted: 12/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background An imprecise quantitative sense for the oscillating levels of proteins and their modifications, interactions, and translocations as a function of the cell cycle is fundamentally important for a cartoon/narrative understanding for how the cell cycle works. Mathematical modeling of the same cartoon/narrative models would be greatly enhanced by an open-ended methodology providing precise quantification of many proteins and their modifications, etc. Here we present methodology that fulfills these features. Methodology Multiparametric flow cytometry was performed on Molt4 cells to measure cyclins A2 and B1, phospho-S10-histone H3, DNA content, and light scatter (cell size). The resulting 5 dimensional data were analyzed as a series of bivariate plots to isolate the data as segments of an N-dimensional “worm” through the data space. Sequential, unidirectional regions of the data were used to assemble expression profiles for each parameter as a function of cell frequency. Results Analysis of synthesized data in which the true values where known validated the approach. Triplicate experiments demonstrated exceptional reproducibility. Comparison of three triplicate experiments stained by two methods (single cyclin or dual cyclin measurements with common DNA and phospho-histone H3 measurements) supported the feasibility of combining an unlimited number of epitopes through this methodology. The sequential degradations of cyclin A2 followed by cyclin B1 followed by de-phosphorylation of histone H3 were precisely mapped. Finally, a two phase expression rate during interphase for each cyclin was robustly identified. Conclusions Very precise, correlated expression profiles for important cell cycle regulating and regulated proteins and their modifications can be produced, limited only by the number of available high-quality antibodies. These profiles can be assembled into large information libraries for calibration and validation of mathematical models.
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Abstract
Cell cycle-related cytometry and analysis is an essential experimental paradigm for the cell biology of yeast, mammalian, and drosophila cells. Methods have not changed much for many years. The most common is DNA content analysis, which has been well-published and reviewed. Next most common is analysis of 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation, detected by specific antibodies - also well-published and reviewed. A new measurement approach to S phase labeling utilizes 5'-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation and a chemical reaction to label substituted DNA. The approach is new, but published work indicates that it is equivalent to BrdU incorporation. Finally, multiple antibody labeling to detect epitopes on cell cycle-regulated proteins is the most complex of the cytometric cell cycle assays, requiring knowledge of the chemistry of fixation, the biochemistry of antibody-antigen reactions, and spectral compensation. Because all of this knowledge is relatively well presented, methodologically, in many papers and reviews, this chapter presents a bare-bones Methods section for one mammalian cell type and an extended Notes section, focusing on aspects that are problematic or not well described in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Jacobberger
- Cytometry and Imaging Microscopy Core, Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
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Abstract
Background To obtain non-relative measures of cell proteins, purified preparations of the same proteins are used as standards in Western blots. We have previously quantified SV40 large T antigen expressed over a several fold range in different cell lines and correlated the average number of molecules to average fluorescence obtained by cytometry and determined cell cycle phase related expression by calculation from multi-parametric cytometry data. Using a modified approach, we report quantification of endogenous cyclin B1 and generation of the cell cycle time related expression profile. Methodology Recombinant cyclin B1 was purified from a baculovirus lysate using an antibody affinity column and concentrated. We created fixed cell preparations from nocodazole-treated (high cyclin B1) and serum starved (low cyclin B1) PC3 cells that were either lyophilized (for preservation) or solubilized. The lysates and purified cyclin B1 were subjected to Western blotting; the cell preparations were subjected to cytometry, and fluorescence was correlated to molecules. Three untreated cell lines (K562, HeLa, and RKO) were prepared for cytometry without lyophilization and also prepared for Western blotting. These were quantified by Western blotting and by cytometry using the standard cell preparations. Results The standard cell preparations had 1.5×105 to 2.5×106 molecules of cyclin B1 per cell on average (i.e., 16-fold range). The average coefficient of variation was 24%. Fluorescence varied 12-fold. The relationship between molecules/cell (Western blot) and immunofluorescence (cytometry) was linear (r2 = 0.87). Average cyclin B1 levels for the three untreated cell lines determined by Western blotting and cytometry agreed within a factor of 2. The non-linear rise in cyclin B1 in S phase was quantified from correlated plots of cyclin B1 and DNA content. The peak levels achieved in G2 were similar despite differences in lineage, growth conditions, and rates of increase through the cell cycle (range: 1.6–2.2×106 molecules per cell). Conclusions Net cyclin B1 expression begins in G1 in human somatic cells lines; increases non-linearly with variation in rates of accumulation, but peaks at similar peak values in different cell lines growing under different conditions. This suggests tight quantitative end point control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phyllis S. Frisa
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - James W. Jacobberger
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Jacobberger JW, Frisa PS, Sramkoski RM, Stefan T, Shults KE, Soni DV. A new biomarker for mitotic cells. Cytometry A 2008; 73:5-15. [PMID: 18061938 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.20501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Many epitopes are phosphorylated during mitosis. These epitopes are useful biomarkers for mitotic cells. The most commonly used are MPM-2 and serine 10 of histone H3. Here we investigated the use of an antibody generated against a phospho peptide matching residues 774-788 of the human retinoblastoma protein 1 (Rb) to detect mitotic cells. Human cell lines were stained with DNA dyes and antibodies reactive with epitopes defined by antibody MPM-2, phospho-S10-histone-H3, and the phospho-serine peptide, TRPPTLSPIPHIPRC (phospho-S780-Rb). Immunoreactivity and DNA content were measured by flow and image cytometry. Correlation and pattern recognition analyses were performed on list mode data. Western blots and immunoprecipitation were used to investigate the number of peptides reactive with phospho-S780-Rb and the relationship between reactivity with this antibody and MPM-2. Costaining for bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was used to determine acid resistance of the phospho-S780-Rb epitope. Cell cycle related phospho-S780-Rb immunofluorescence correlated strongly with that of MPM-2. Laser scanning cytometry showed that phospho-S780-Rb immunofluorescence is expressed at high levels on all stages of mitotic cells. Western blotting and immunoprecipitation showed that the epitope is expressed on several peptides including Rb protein. Costaining of BrdU showed that the epitope is stable to acid. Kinetic experiments showed utility in complex cell cycle analysis aimed at measuring cell cycle transition state timing. The phospho-S780-Rb epitope is a robust marker of mitosis that allows cytometric detection of mitotic cells beginning with chromatin condensation and ending after cytokinesis. Costaining of cells with DNA dyes allows discrimination and counting of mitotic cells and post-cytokinetic ("newborn") cells. To facilitate use without confusion about specificity, we suggest the trivial name, pS780 for this mitotic epitope.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Jacobberger
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.
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Chan SM, Olson JA, Utz PJ. Single-cell analysis of siRNA-mediated gene silencing using multiparameter flow cytometry. Cytometry A 2006; 69:59-65. [PMID: 16419066 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.20209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Use of synthetic short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to study gene function has been limited by an inability to selectively analyze subsets of cells in complex populations, low and variable transfection efficiencies, and semiquantitative assays for measuring protein down-regulation. Intracellular flow cytometry can overcome these limitations by analyzing populations at the single-cell level in a high-throughput and quantitative fashion. Individual cells displaying a knockdown phenotype can be selectively interrogated for functional responses using multiparameter analysis. METHODS Lck-specific siRNA was delivered into Jurkat T cells or peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) to suppress endogenous Lck expression. Transfected cells were fluorescently stained for intracellular Lck and analyzed using multiparameter flow cytometry. The Lck(lo) Jurkat subpopulation was selectively analyzed for CD69 up-regulation and phospho-states of signaling proteins following T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation. Surface expression levels of CD4 and CD8 on transfected CD3+ gated PBMCs were correlated with intracellular Lck levels. RESULTS A subpopulation of Jurkat cells with reduced levels of Lck was clearly resolved from cells with wildtype levels of Lck. Both CD69 up-regulation and ZAP70 phosphorylation were suppressed in Lck(lo) cells when compared with those in Lck(hi) cells upon TCR stimulation. Knockdown of intracellular Lck in primary T lymphocytes reduced surface expression of CD4 in a dose-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS Multiparameter flow cytometry is a powerful technique for the quantitative analysis of siRNA-mediated protein knockdown in complex hard-to-transfect cell populations.
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MESH Headings
- Antigens, CD/analysis
- Antigens, CD/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/analysis
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- CD4 Antigens/analysis
- CD4 Antigens/genetics
- CD8 Antigens/analysis
- CD8 Antigens/genetics
- Cell Line
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Flow Cytometry/methods
- Gene Expression Regulation/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation/physiology
- Gene Silencing
- Humans
- Jurkat Cells
- Lectins, C-Type
- Lymphocyte Specific Protein Tyrosine Kinase p56(lck)/analysis
- Lymphocyte Specific Protein Tyrosine Kinase p56(lck)/genetics
- RNA, Small Interfering
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/analysis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/physiology
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/physiology
- T-Lymphocytes/chemistry
- Transfection
- Up-Regulation/genetics
- Up-Regulation/physiology
- ZAP-70 Protein-Tyrosine Kinase/analysis
- ZAP-70 Protein-Tyrosine Kinase/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven M Chan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology and Rheumatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 269 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Traganos
- Brander Cancer Research Institute, New York Medical College, Hawthorne, New York 10532, USA
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Frisa PS, Jacobberger JW. Cell density related gene expression: SV40 large T antigen levels in immortalized astrocyte lines. BMC Cell Biol 2002; 3:10. [PMID: 11960551 PMCID: PMC111187 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2121-3-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2002] [Accepted: 04/17/2002] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gene expression is affected by population density. Cell density is a potent negative regulator of cell cycle time during exponential growth. Here, we asked whether SV40 large T antigen (Tag) levels, driven by two different promoters, changed in a predictable and regular manner during exponential growth in clonal astrocyte cell lines, immortalized and dependent on Tag. RESULTS Expression and cell cycle phase fractions were measured and correlated using flow cytometry. T antigen levels did not change or increased during exponential growth as a function of the G1 fraction and increasing cell density when Tag was transcribed from the Moloney Murine Leukemia virus (MoMuLV) long terminal repeat (LTR). When an Rb-binding mutant T antigen transcribed from the LTR was tested, levels decreased. When transcribed from the herpes thymidine kinase promoter, Tag levels decreased. The directions of change and the rates of change in Tag expression were unrelated to the average T antigen levels (i.e., the expression potential). CONCLUSIONS These data show that Tag expression potential in these lines varies depending on the vector and clonal variation, but that the observed level depends on cell density and cell cycle transit time. The hypothetical terms, expression at zero cell density and expression at minimum G1 phase fraction, were introduced to simplify measures of expression potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phyllis S Frisa
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 4106-4944, USA
| | - James W Jacobberger
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 4106-4944, USA
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Abstract
This chapter reviewed and presented my biases about the factors that affect our ability to make quantitative measurements of epitope (for this chapter, equal to a protein) with monoclonal antibodies in a flow cytometric system. The discussion has illustrated that the chemical structure of the permeabilized cell and the affinity and specificity of the antibody are the "two" factors that are important. Pursuit of this discipline would be significantly enhanced with highly specific antibodies with a high affinity--higher than we have so far observed with the antibodies against cell cycle regulatory proteins. When moving to multiparametric space, optical systems that mask off interbeam cross talk, primary labeled antibodies, and rigorous use of fluorescence compensation is essential for the highest quality work.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Jacobberger
- Cancer Research Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
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Dragowska WH, Lopes de Menezes DE, Sartor J, Mayer LD. Quantitative fluorescence cytometric analysis of Bcl-2 levels in tumor cells exhibiting a wide range of inherent Bcl-2 protein expression: correlation with Western blot analysis. CYTOMETRY 2000; 40:346-52. [PMID: 10918285 DOI: 10.1002/1097-0320(20000801)40:4<346::aid-cyto10>3.0.co;2-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A protocol to measure a wide range of Bcl-2 protein expression using quantitative fluorescence cytometry (QFCM) in different cell types was developed for use with flow cytometry. Bcl-2 measurements obtained by flow cytometry were correlated with Western blot Bcl-2 measurements to confirm specificity of the Bcl-2-FITC staining. This protocol was applied to measure absolute levels of Bcl-2 protein in different tumor cell lines including Bcl-2-transfected breast carcinoma cell lines and in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL). METHODS HL-60, K562, DOHH2, Jurkat, MDA435/LCC6, MCF7 cell lines, and PBL derived from normal donors were fixed, permeabilized, stained with anti-Bcl-2-FITC antibody and evaluated by QFCM. In parallel, the same cells were evaluated for Bcl-2 protein expression by Western blot analysis. Mitochondrial localization of anti-Bcl-2-FITC antibody inside cells was confirmed using fluorescence imaging microscopy. RESULTS Bcl-2 expression in different cell types could be accurately quantified based on antibody-binding capacity (ABC) ranging from 12.6 x 10(3) antibody-binding sites in HL-60 cells to 1.64 x 10(6) antibody-binding sites in a Bcl-2-transfected MDA435/LCC6 clone. The data from flow cytometry analysis correlated well with Western analysis (R(2) = 0.78). Bcl-2-FITC staining colocalized with dyes specific for mitochondria. CONCLUSIONS The Bcl-2 staining protocol described here was shown to be specific, sensitive, and it was able to provide higher resolution as well as more reproducible quantitation of Bcl-2 protein content in cells when compared with Western blot methods. Quantitation of Bcl-2 content in cells by QFCM may be useful for monitoring Bcl-2 expression in cells undergoing various treatments in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- W H Dragowska
- Department of Advanced Therapeutics, BC Cancer Agency, Vancouver, Canada
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