Receptor-mediated endocytosis and the cellular uptake of low density lipoprotein

Exogenous lipid vesicles induce endocytosis-mediated cellular aggregation in a close unicellular relative of animals

Capsaspora owczarzaki is a protozoan that may both reveal aspects of animal evolution and also curtail the spread of schistosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease. Capsaspora exhibits a chemically regulated aggregative behavior that resembles cellular aggregation in some animals. This behavior may have played a key role in the evolution of animal multicellularity. Additionally, this aggregative behavior may be important for Capsaspora 's ability to colonize the intermediate host of parasitic schistosomes and potentially prevent the spread of schistosomiasis. Both applications demand elucidation of the molecular mechanism of Capsaspora aggregation. Toward this goal, we first determined the necessary chemical properties of lipid cues that activate aggregation. We found that a wide range of abundant zwitterionic lipids induced aggregation, revealing that the aggregative behavior could be activated by diverse lipid-rich conditions. Furthermore, we demonstrated that aggregation in Capsaspora requires clathrin-mediated endocytosis, highlighting the potential significance of endocytosis-linked cellular signaling in recent animal ancestors. Finally, we found that aggregation was initiated by post-translational activation of cell-cell adhesion-not transcriptional regulation of cellular adhesion machinery. Our findings illuminate the chemical, molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate Capsaspora aggregative behavior-with implications for the evolution of animal multicellularity and the transmission of parasites.

Zebrafish ApoB-Containing Lipoprotein Metabolism: A Closer Look

Zebrafish have become a powerful model of mammalian lipoprotein metabolism and lipid cell biology. Most key proteins involved in lipid metabolism, including cholesteryl ester transfer protein, are conserved in zebrafish. Consequently, zebrafish exhibit a human-like lipoprotein profile. Zebrafish with mutations in genes linked to human metabolic diseases often mimic the human phenotype. Zebrafish larvae develop rapidly and externally around the maternally deposited yolk. Recent work revealed that any disturbance of lipoprotein formation leads to the accumulation of cytoplasmic lipid droplets and an opaque yolk, providing a visible phenotype to investigate disturbances of the lipoprotein pathway, already leading to discoveries in MTTP (microsomal triglyceride transfer protein) and ApoB (apolipoprotein B). By 5 days of development, the digestive system is functional, making it possible to study fluorescently labeled lipid uptake in the transparent larvae. These and other approaches enabled the first in vivo description of the STAB (stabilin) receptors, showing lipoprotein uptake in endothelial cells. Various zebrafish models have been developed to mimic human diseases by mutating genes known to influence lipoproteins (eg, ldlra, apoC2). This review aims to discuss the most recent research in the zebrafish ApoB-containing lipoprotein and lipid metabolism field. We also summarize new insights into lipid processing within the yolk cell and how changes in lipid flux alter yolk opacity. This curious new finding, coupled with the development of several techniques, can be deployed to identify new players in lipoprotein research directly relevant to human disease.

Cholesterol in colorectal cancer: an essential but tumorigenic precursor?

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most lethal human malignancies, and with the growth of societies and lifestyle changes, the rate of people suffering from it increases yearly. Important factors such as genetics, family history, nutrition, lifestyle, smoking, and alcohol can play a significant role in increasing susceptibility to this cancer. On the other hand, the metabolism of several macromolecules is also involved in the fate of tumors and immune cells. The evidence discloses that cholesterol and its metabolism can play a role in the pathogenesis of several cancers because there appears to be an association between cholesterol levels and CRC, and cholesterol-lowering drugs may reduce the risk. Furthermore, changes or mutations of some involved genes in cholesterol metabolism, such as CYP7A1 as well as signaling pathways, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), can play a role in CRC pathogenesis. This review summarized and discussed the role of cholesterol in the pathogenesis of CRC as well as available cholesterol-related therapeutic approaches in CRC.

Visualization of accessible cholesterol using a GRAM domain-based biosensor

Cholesterol is important for membrane integrity and cell signaling, and dysregulation of the distribution of cellular cholesterol is associated with numerous diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders. While regulated transport of a specific pool of cholesterol, known as "accessible cholesterol", contributes to the maintenance of cellular cholesterol distribution and homeostasis, tools to monitor accessible cholesterol in live cells remain limited. Here, we engineer a highly sensitive accessible cholesterol biosensor by taking advantage of the cholesterol-sensing element (the GRAM domain) of an evolutionarily conserved lipid transfer protein, GRAMD1b. Using this cholesterol biosensor, which we call GRAM-W, we successfully visualize in real time the distribution of accessible cholesterol in many different cell types, including human keratinocytes and iPSC-derived neurons, and show differential dependencies on cholesterol biosynthesis and uptake for maintaining levels of accessible cholesterol. Furthermore, we combine GRAM-W with a dimerization-dependent fluorescent protein (ddFP) and establish a strategy for the ultrasensitive detection of accessible plasma membrane cholesterol. These tools will allow us to obtain important insights into the molecular mechanisms by which the distribution of cellular cholesterol is regulated.

Approaches to Visualising Endocytosis of LDL-Related Lipoproteins

Endocytosis is the process by which molecules are actively transported into cells. It can take on a variety of forms depending on the cellular machinery involved ranging from specific receptor-mediated endocytosis to the less selective and actin-driven macropinocytosis. The plasma lipoproteins, which deliver lipids and other cargo to cells, have been intensely studied with respect to their endocytic uptake. One of the first molecules to be visualised undergoing endocytosis via a receptor-mediated, clathrin-dependent pathway was low-density lipoprotein (LDL). The LDL molecule has subsequently been shown to be internalised through multiple endocytic pathways. Dissecting the pathways of lipoprotein endocytosis has been crucial to understanding the regulation of plasma lipid levels and how lipids enter cells in the arterial wall to promote atherosclerosis. It has also aided understanding of the dysregulation that occurs in plasma lipid levels when molecules involved in uptake are defective, as is the case in familial hypercholesterolemia (FH). The aim of this review is to outline the many endocytic pathways utilised for lipoprotein uptake. It explores the various experimental approaches that have been applied to visualise lipoprotein endocytosis with an emphasis on LDL and its more complex counterpart, lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)]. Finally, we look at new developments in lipoprotein visualisation that hold promise for scrutinising endocytic pathways to finer detail in the future.

Dynamic Continuum of Nanoscale Peptide Assemblies Facilitates Endocytosis and Endosomal Escape

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) enables intracellular targeting by peptide assemblies, but how the ALP substrates enter cells remains elusive. Here we show that nanoscale phosphopeptide assemblies cluster ALP to enable caveolae-mediated endocytosis (CME) and endosomal escape. Specifically, fluorescent phosphopeptides undergo enzyme-catalyzed self-assembly to form nanofibers. Live cell imaging unveils that phosphopeptides nanoparticles, coincubated with HEK293 cells overexpressing red fluorescent protein-tagged tissue-nonspecific ALP (TNAP-RFP), cluster TNAP-RFP in lipid rafts to enable CME. Further dephosphorylation of the phosphopeptides produces peptidic nanofibers for endosomal escape. Inhibiting TNAP, cleaving the membrane anchored TNAP, or disrupting lipid rafts abolishes the endocytosis. Decreasing the transformation to nanofibers prevents the endosomal escape. As the first study establishing a dynamic continuum of nanoscale assemblies for cellular uptake, this work illustrates an effective design for enzyme-responsive supramolecular therapeutics and provides mechanism insights for understanding the dynamics of cellular uptake of proteins or exogenous peptide aggregates.

Advances in fatty acids nutrition in dairy cows: from gut to cells and effects on performance

High producing dairy cows generally receive in the diet up to 5-6% of fat. This is a relatively low amount of fat in the diet compared to diets in monogastrics; however, dietary fat is important for dairy cows as demonstrated by the benefits of supplementing cows with various fatty acids (FA). Several FA are highly bioactive, especially by affecting the transcriptome; thus, they have nutrigenomic effects. In the present review, we provide an up-to-date understanding of the utilization of FA by dairy cows including the main processes affecting FA in the rumen, molecular aspects of the absorption of FA by the gut, synthesis, secretion, and utilization of chylomicrons; uptake and metabolism of FA by peripheral tissues, with a main emphasis on the liver, and main transcription factors regulated by FA. Most of the advances in FA utilization by rumen microorganisms and intestinal absorption of FA in dairy cows were made before the end of the last century with little information generated afterwards. However, large advances on the molecular aspects of intestinal absorption and cellular uptake of FA were made on monogastric species in the last 20 years. We provide a model of FA utilization in dairy cows by using information generated in monogastrics and enriching it with data produced in dairy cows. We also reviewed the latest studies on the effects of dietary FA on milk yield, milk fatty acid composition, reproduction, and health in dairy cows. The reviewed data revealed a complex picture with the FA being active in each step of the way, starting from influencing rumen microbiota, regulating intestinal absorption, and affecting cellular uptake and utilization by peripheral tissues, making prediction on in vivo nutrigenomic effects of FA challenging.

Therapy-induced lipid uptake and remodeling underpin ferroptosis hypersensitivity in prostate cancer

Background

Metabolic reprograming, non-mutational epigenetic changes, increased cell plasticity, and multidrug tolerance are early hallmarks of therapy resistance in cancer. In this temporary, therapy-tolerant state, cancer cells are highly sensitive to ferroptosis, a form of regulated cell death that is caused by oxidative stress through excess levels of iron-dependent peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). However, mechanisms underpinning therapy-induced ferroptosis hypersensitivity remain to be elucidated.

Methods

We used quantitative single-cell imaging of fluorescent metabolic probes, transcriptomics, proteomics, and lipidomics to perform a longitudinal analysis of the adaptive response to androgen receptor-targeted therapies (androgen deprivation and enzalutamide) in prostate cancer (PCa).

Results

We discovered that cessation of cell proliferation and a robust reduction in bioenergetic processes were associated with multidrug tolerance and a strong accumulation of lipids. The gain in lipid biomass was fueled by enhanced lipid uptake through cargo non-selective (macropinocytosis, tunneling nanotubes) and cargo-selective mechanisms (lipid transporters), whereas de novo lipid synthesis was strongly reduced. Enzalutamide induced extensive lipid remodeling of all major phospholipid classes at the expense of storage lipids, leading to increased desaturation and acyl chain length of membrane lipids. The rise in membrane PUFA levels enhanced membrane fluidity and lipid peroxidation, causing hypersensitivity to glutathione peroxidase (GPX4) inhibition and ferroptosis. Combination treatments against AR and fatty acid desaturation, lipase activities, or growth medium supplementation with antioxidants or PUFAs altered GPX4 dependence.

Conclusions

Our work provides mechanistic insight into processes of lipid metabolism that underpin the acquisition of therapy-induced GPX4 dependence and ferroptosis hypersensitivity to standard of care therapies in PCa. It demonstrates novel strategies to suppress the therapy-tolerant state that may have potential to delay and combat resistance to androgen receptor-targeted therapies, a currently unmet clinical challenge of advanced PCa. Since enhanced GPX4 dependence is an adaptive phenotype shared by several types of cancer in response to different therapies, our work might have universal implications for our understanding of metabolic events that underpin resistance to cancer therapies.

Interaction between Sex and LDLR rs688 Polymorphism on Hyperlipidemia among Taiwan Biobank Adult Participants

Hyperlipidemia is one of the strong risk factors for ischemic heart disease. Using the Taiwan Biobank (TWB) database, we evaluated the risk of hyperlipidemia and its interaction with sex and rs688 polymorphism on the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) gene. Data collection in the biobank started in 2008 and is ongoing. Data analysis was performed on the participants’ data collected between 2008 and 2015. In general, 27.92% of the 9237 female participants and 32.65% of the 8690 male participants were identified with hyperlipidemia. Compared to the C/C genotype, C/T and T/T genotypes were not significant risk factors for hyperlipidemia (OR = 1.061, CI: 0.976–1.153 for C/T and OR = 1.052, CI: 0.845–1.309 for T/T genotype) in the general model. However, there was a significant interaction between sex and rs6888 on hyperlipidemia risk (p-interaction = 0.0321). With the male sex/CC genotype being the reference group, only the female sex/CT and T/T genotypes were closely associated with hyperlipidemia, with respective ORs of 1.153 (CI: 1.014–1.311) and 1.423 (CI: 1.056–1.917). Our data indicate that rs688 C/T and T/T genotypes may be associated with increased risk of hyperlipidemia in Taiwanese women. These findings may be relevant in lipid-modification therapy.

Corona Composition Can Affect the Mechanisms Cells Use to Internalize Nanoparticles

Nanosized objects, such as nanoparticles and other drug carriers used in nanomedicine, once in contact with biological environments are modified by adsorption of biomolecules on their surface. The presence of this corona strongly affects the following interactions at cell and organism levels. It has been shown that corona proteins can be recognized by cell receptors. However, it is not known whether the composition of this acquired layer can also affect the mechanisms nanoparticles use to enter cells. This is of particular importance when considering that the same nanoparticles can form different coronas for instance in vitro when exposed to cells in different serum amounts or in vivo depending on the exposure or administration route. Thus, in this work, different coronas were formed on 50 nm silica by exposing them to different serum concentrations. The uptake efficiency in HeLa cells was compared, and the uptake mechanisms were characterized using transport inhibitors and RNA interference. The results showed that the nanoparticles were internalized by cells via different mechanisms when different coronas were formed, and only for one corona condition was uptake mediated by the LDL receptor. This suggested that coronas of different composition can be recognized differently by cell receptors, and this in turn leads to internalization via different mechanisms. Similar studies were performed using other cells, including A549 cells and primary HUVEC, and different nanoparticles, namely 100 nm liposomes and 200 nm silica. Overall, the results confirmed that the corona composition can affect the mechanisms of nanoparticle uptake by cells.

LDLR rs688 TT Genotype and T Allele Are Associated with Increased Susceptibility to Coronary Artery Disease-A Case-Control Study

PURPOSE

The low-density lipoprotein receptor is responsible for the binding and uptake of plasma LDL particles and plays a critical role in maintaining cellular cholesterol homeostasis. LDLR gene SNP rs688 has been reported to be associated with increased plasma total and LDL cholesterol in several populations and can lead to elevated plasma LDL levels, resulting in an increased risk for atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease. This study aimed to explore genetic LDLR variant rs688 for its potential roles in coronary artery disease.

METHODOLOGY

This study recruited 200 coronary artery disease patients and 200 healthy individuals. Genotyping of LDLR-rs688C > T gene variations was performed using the allele specific PCR method. Correlation of LDLR-rs688C > T gene variants with different clinicopathological features of coronary artery disease patients was performed. Pooled odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were applied to evaluate the correlation of this microRNA polymorphism with coronary artery disease risk.

RESULTS

A significant difference was observed in genotype distribution among the coronary artery disease and matched healthy controls (p = 0.003). The frequencies of all three genotypes CC, CT, TT reported in the patient samples were 14%, 65% and 21% and in the healthy controls samples were 18%, 73% and 9%, respectively. The increased risk of developing CAD in Indian patients was found to be associated with LDLR rs688 TT genotype (OR = 3.0, 95% CI, 1.43 × 6.2; p = 0.003) RR 1.87 (1.20⁻2.91) p = 0.0037) and also the increased risk of developing CAD was reported to be associated with LDLR rs688 T allele (OR = 0.74, 95% CI, 1.57⁻0.97; p = 0.03) RR 0.85 (0.73⁻0.99) p = 0.03) compared to the C allele. Therefore, it was observed that more than a 3.0- and 0.74-fold increase risk of developing CAD was associated with TT genotype and T allele in Indian coronary artery disease patients.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicated that LDLR rs688 TT genotype and T allele are associated with an increased susceptibility to coronary artery disease patients. LDLR-rs688C > T gene variation can be used as a predisposing genetic marker for coronary artery disease. Further studies with larger sample sizes are necessary to confirm our findings.

MicroRNAs and atherosclerosis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, ~22 nucleotide (nt) sequences of RNA that regulate gene expression at posttranscriptional level. These endogenous gene expression inhibitors were primarily described in cancer but recent exciting findings have also demonstrated a key role in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including atherosclerosis. MiRNAs control endothelial cell (EC), vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC), and macrophage functions, and thereby regulate the progression of atherosclerosis. MiRNA expression is modulated by different stimuli involved in every stage of atherosclerosis, and conversely miRNAs modulates several pathways implicated in plaque development such as cholesterol metabolism. In the present review, we focus on the importance of miRNAs in atherosclerosis, and we further discuss their potential use as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in CVDs.

A common polymorphism in the LDL receptor gene has multiple effects on LDL receptor function

A common synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism in exon 12 of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) gene, rs688, has been associated with increased plasma total and LDL cholesterol in several populations. Using immortalized lymphoblastoid cell lines from a healthy study population, we confirmed an earlier report that the minor allele of rs688 is associated with increased exon 12 alternative splicing (P < 0.05) and showed that this triggered nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) of the alternatively spliced LDLR mRNA. However, since synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms may influence structure and function of the encoded proteins by co-translational effects, we sought to test whether rs688 was also functional in the full-length mRNA. In HepG2 cells expressing LDLR cDNA constructs engineered to contain the major or minor allele of rs688, the latter was associated with a smaller amount of LDLR protein at the cell surface (-21.8 ± 0.6%, P = 0.012), a higher amount in the lysosome fraction (+25.7 ± 0.3%, P = 0.037) and reduced uptake of fluorescently labeled LDL (-24.3 ± 0.7%, P < 0.01). Moreover, in the presence of exogenous proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), a protein that reduces cellular LDL uptake by promoting lysosomal degradation of LDLR, the minor allele resulted in reduced capacity of a PCSK9 monoclonal antibody to increase LDL uptake. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that rs688, which is located in the β-propeller region of LDLR, has effects on LDLR activity beyond its role in alternative splicing due to impairment of LDLR endosomal recycling and/or PCSK9 binding, processes in which the β-propeller is critically involved.

The IL-15/IL-15Ralpha on cell surfaces enables sustained IL-15 activity and contributes to the long survival of CD8 memory T cells

We previously described unique features of the IL-15 receptor (IL-15R)alpha. IL-15Ralpha by itself forms stable complexes with IL-15 on cell surfaces and presents IL-15 in trans to neighboring natural killer/T cells. Moreover, the membrane IL-15/IL-15Ralpha complexes (membIL-15) undergo endosomal internalization but survive lysosomal degradation, allowing the complexes to recycle back to the cell surface. Here, we show that membIL-15+ cells act as a persistent source of IL-15 for the surrounding microenvironment (intercellular reservoir effect). Additionally, membIL-15+ cells give rise to augmented retention of IL-15 in the circulation as well as in tissues. Curiously, IL-15 retention was particularly associated with lungs, rather than with lymph nodes, in normal unstimulated mice, which correlated with the preferential homing of antigen-specific CD8 T cells to lungs during their contraction phase in an IL-15Ralpha-dependent manner. Furthermore, membIL-15, unlike soluble IL-15, caused sustained IL-15 signal transduction in the target cells. Collectively, these characteristics define IL-15 as a unique cytokine with prolonged in vivo survival and sustained biological action on the target cells, which may account for the proposed persistent action of IL-15 that helps the long-term survival of functional CD8 memory T cells in vivo.

Isolation and characterization of multivesicular bodies from rat hepatocytes: an organelle distinct from secretory vesicles of the Golgi apparatus

Hepatocytes of estradiol-treated rats, which express many low density lipoprotein receptors, rapidly accumulate intravenously injected low density lipoprotein in multivesicular bodies (MVBs). We have isolated MVBs and Golgi apparatus fractions from livers of estradiol-treated rats. MVB fractions were composed mainly of large vesicles, approximately 0.55 micron diam, filled with remnantlike very low density lipoproteins, known to be taken up into hepatocytes by receptor-mediated endocytosis. MVBs also contained numerous small vesicles, 0.05-0.07 micron in diameter, and had two types of appendages: one fingerlike and electron dense and the other saclike and electron lucent. MVBs contained little galactosyltransferase or arylsulfatase activity, and content lipoproteins were largely intact. Very low density lipoproteins from Golgi fractions, which are derived to a large extent from secretory vesicles, were larger than those of MVB fractions and contained newly synthesized triglycerides. Membranes of MVBs contained much more cholesterol and less protein than did Golgi membranes. We conclude that two distinct lipoprotein-filled organelles are located in the bile canalicular pole of hepatocytes. MVBs, a major prelysosomal organelle of low density in the endocytic pathway, contain remnants of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, whereas secretory vesicles of the Golgi apparatus contain nascent very low density lipoproteins.

The isolation of endosome-derived vesicles from rat hepatocytes

Intracellular 5'-nucleotidase involved in membrane circulation in rat hepatocytes is latent, and is protected from inhibition when whole cells are incubated with inhibiting antiserum at 2 degrees C [Stanley, Edwards & Luzio (1980) Biochem. J. 186, 59-69]. These two criteria were used to identify intracellular membrane vesicles containing 5'-nucleotidase on Ficoll density gradients. A sharply defined turbid band containing intracellular 5'-nucleotidase isolated on density gradients was further fractionated by immunoadsorption of plasma-membrane fragments derived from the cell surface of surface-inhibited cells on to an anti-(immunoglobulin G) immunoadsorbent. The resulting non-adsorbed membrane fraction consisted of vesicles of uniform size (approx. 65 nm diam.), but was not identifiable as any known organelle. This fraction could account for approx. 5% of the total cell 5'-nucleotidase activity, and the enzyme activity measured was 55% latent. The fraction had a restricted polypeptide composition but similar phospholipid composition compared with plasma membrane. We suggest that the vesicles observed in this fraction were derived from the endocytic pathway.

Internalization and processing of transferrin and the transferrin receptor in human carcinoma A431 cells

The binding and subsequent intracellular processing of transferrin and transferrin receptors was studied in A431 cells using 125I-transferrin and a monoclonal antibody to the receptor (ATR) labeled with 125I and gold colloid. Using 125I-transferrin we have shown that, whereas at 37 degrees C uptake proceeded linearly for up to 60 min, most of the ligand that was bound was internalized and then rapidly returned to the incubation medium undegraded. At 37 degrees C, the intracellular half-life of the most rapidly recycled transferrin was 7.5 min. 125I-ATR displayed the same kinetics of uptake but following its internalization at 37 degrees C, it was partially degraded. At 22 degrees C and below, the intracellular degradation of 125I-ATR was selectively inhibited and as a result it accumulated intracellularly. Electron microscopy of conventional thin sections and of whole-cell mounts was used to follow the uptake and processing of transferrin receptors labeled with ATR-gold colloid complexes. Using a pulse-chase protocol, the intracellular pathway followed by internalized ATR gold-receptor complexes was outlined in detail. Within 5 min at 22 degrees C the internalized complexes were transferred from coated pits on the cell surface to a system of narrow, branching cisternae within the peripheral cytoplasm. By 15 min they reached larger, more dilated elements that, in thin section, appeared as irregular profiles containing small (30-50-nm diam) vesicles. By 30 min, the gold complexes were located predominantly within typical spherical multivesicular bodies lying in the peripheral cytoplasm, and by 40-60 min, they reached a system of cisternal and multivesicular body elements in the juxtanuclear area. At 22 degrees C, no other compartments became labeled but if they were warmed to 37 degrees C the gold complexes were transferred to lysosome-like elements. Extracting ATR-gold complexes with Triton X after a 30-min chase at 22 degrees C and purifying them on Sepharose-transferrin indicated that the internalized complexes remained bound to the transferrin receptor during their intracellular processing.