Reprogramming the Tumor Microenvironment through Second-Near-Infrared-Window Photothermal Genome Editing of PD-L1 Mediated by Supramolecular Gold Nanorods for Enhanced Cancer Immunotherapy

Advancing cancer gene therapy: the emerging role of nanoparticle delivery systems

Gene therapy holds immense potential due to its ability to precisely target oncogenes, making it a promising strategy for cancer treatment. Advances in genetic science and bioinformatics have expanded the applications of gene delivery technologies beyond detection and diagnosis to potential therapeutic interventions. However, traditional gene therapy faces significant challenges, including limited therapeutic efficacy and the rapid degradation of genetic materials in vivo. To address these limitations, multifunctional nanoparticles have been engineered to encapsulate and protect genetic materials, enhancing their stability and therapeutic effectiveness. Nanoparticles are being extensively explored for their ability to deliver various genetic payloads-including plasmid DNA, messenger RNA, and small interfering RNA-directly to cancer cells. This review highlights key gene modulation strategies such as RNA interference, gene editing systems, and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) technologies, alongside a diverse array of nanoscale delivery systems composed of polymers, lipids, and inorganic materials. These nanoparticle-based delivery platforms aim to improve targeted transport of genetic material into cancer cells, ultimately enhancing the efficacy of cancer therapies.

Precisely Targeted Nanoparticles for CRISPR-Cas9 Delivery in Clinical Applications

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9), an emerging gene-editing technology, has recently gained rapidly increasing attention. However, the lack of efficient delivery vectors to deliver CRISPR-Cas9 to specific cells or tissues has hindered the translation of this biotechnology into clinical applications. Chemically synthesized nanoparticles (NPs), as attractive non-viral delivery platforms for CRISPR-Cas9, have been extensively investigated because of their unique characteristics, such as controllable size, high stability, multi-functionality, bio-responsive behavior, biocompatibility, and versatility in chemistry. In this review, the key considerations for the precise design of chemically synthesized-based nanoparticles include efficient encapsulation, cellular uptake, the targeting of specific tissues and cells, endosomal escape, and controlled release. We discuss cutting-edge strategies to integrate chemical modifications into non-viral nanoparticles that guide the CRISPR-Cas9 genome-editing machinery to specific edits. We also highlighted the rationale of intelligent nanoparticle design. In particular, we have summarized promising functional groups and molecules that can effectively optimize carrier function. In addition, this review focuses on advances in the widespread application of NPs delivery in the biomedical fields to promote the development of safe, specific, and efficient NPs for delivering CRISPR-Cas9 systems, providing references for accelerating their clinical translational applications.

Visual detection of HPV16 using a photoactivatable CRISPR-Cas12 system

Human papillomavirus (HPV) screening is crucial for the diagnosis of cervical cancer. In this study, we have combined photoactivated CRISPR-Cas12a with tube-in-tube structure and recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) to enable simple, rapid and convenient visualization detection of HPV16, facilitated by blue UV light at 302 nm. It serves as a potential tool for on-site diagnostic use, which could be beneficial in terms of portability and speed.

Endogenous Protein-Modified Gold Nanorods as Immune-Inert Biomodulators for Tumor-Specific Imaging and Therapy

Engineered modifications of nanomaterials inspired by nature hold great promise for disease-specific imaging and therapies. However, conventional polyethylene glycol modification is limited by immune system rejection. The manipulation of gold nanorods (Au NRs) modified by endogenous proteins (eP@Au) is reported as an engineered biomodulator for enhanced breast tumor therapy. The results show that eP@Au NRs neither activate inflammatory factors in vitro nor elicit rejection of immune responses in vivo. Tumor-specific eP@Au NRs exhibit a dual-modal imaging capability and trigger a mild photothermal effect under near-infrared light irradiation, enabling highly efficient imaging and therapy of tumors. Transcriptome sequencing and confirmatory experiments reveal that the antitumor effect is mainly attributed to the repression of PI3K-Akt/MAPK signaling pathways at the molecular level. This powerful and surprising in situ eP-regulated biomodulation demonstrates the advantages of convenient fabrication, inert immunogenicity, and biocompatibility, providing an alternative strategy for biomedical imaging and therapy.

Nanomaterials Enhanced Sonodynamic Therapy for Multiple Tumor Treatment

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) as an emerging modality for malignant tumors mainly involves in sonosensitizers and low-intensity ultrasound (US), which can safely penetrate the tissue without significant attenuation. SDT not only has the advantages including high precision, non-invasiveness, and minimal side effects, but also overcomes the limitation of low penetration of light to deep tumors. The cytotoxic reactive oxygen species can be produced by the utilization of sonosensitizers combined with US and kill tumor cells. However, the underlying mechanism of SDT has not been elucidated, and its unsatisfactory efficiency retards its further clinical application. Herein, we shed light on the main mechanisms of SDT and the types of sonosensitizers, including organic sonosensitizers and inorganic sonosensitizers. Due to the development of nanotechnology, many novel nanoplatforms are utilized in this arisen field to solve the barriers of sonosensitizers and enable continuous innovation. This review also highlights the potential advantages of nanosonosensitizers and focus on the enhanced efficiency of SDT based on nanosonosensitizers with monotherapy or synergistic therapy for deep tumors that are difficult to reach by traditional treatment, especially orthotopic cancers.

Orchestrating cancer therapy: Recent advances in nanoplatforms harmonize immunotherapy with multifaceted treatments

Advancements in cancer therapy have increasingly focused on leveraging the synergistic effects of combining immunotherapy with other treatment modalities, facilitated by the use of innovative nanoplatforms. These strategies aim to augment the efficacy of standalone treatments while addressing their inherent limitations. Nanoplatforms enable precise delivery and controlled release of therapeutic agents, which enhances treatment specificity and reduces systemic toxicity. This review highlights the critical role of nanomaterials in enhancing immunotherapy when combined with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, and sonodynamic therapy. Additionally, it addresses current challenges, including limited in vivo studies, difficulties in standardizing and scaling production, complexities of combination therapies, lack of comparative analyses, and the need for personalized treatments. Future directions involve refining nanoplatform engineering for improved targeting and minimizing adverse effects, alongside large animal studies to establish the long-term efficacy and safety of these combined therapeutic strategies. These efforts aim to translate laboratory successes into clinically viable treatments, significantly improving therapeutic outcomes and advancing the field of oncology.

GSH/pH-responsive copper-based cascade nanocomplexes inducing immunogenic cell death through cuproptosis/ferroptosis/necroptosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) remains a formidable challenge due to high recurrence rates and limited efficacy of conventional treatments. Immunotherapy holds potential, but its effectiveness is often restricted by low patient responsiveness. This study presents a novel therapeutic strategy using GSH/pH-responsive copper-based cascade nanocomplexes to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) in OSCC. The fabricated nanocomplex, PC@B-H, leverages the acidic and reducing tumor microenvironment to release copper ions and plumbagin, triggering a cascade of cell death mechanisms including cuproptosis, ferroptosis, and necroptosis. This multifunctional system not only enhances oxidative stress but also depletes glutathione, promotes lipid peroxidation, and disrupts mitochondrial function, leading to robust tumor inhibition. Additionally, the induction of ICD facilitates dendritic cell maturation and cytotoxic T lymphocyte infiltration, providing durable anti-tumor immunity. The study demonstrates that PC@B-H achieves a 92.3 % tumor growth inhibition rate with minimal systemic toxicity, offering a promising avenue for enhancing the efficacy of OSCC treatment through combined cell death pathways and immune activation.

Exosomes as a Therapeutic Strategy in Cancer: Potential Roles as Drug Carriers and Immune Modulators

Exosome-based cancer immunotherapy is advancing quickly on the concept of artificially activating the immune system to combat cancer. They can mechanistically change the tumor microenvironment, increase immune responses, and function as efficient drug delivery vehicles because of their inherent bioactivity, low toxicity, and immunogenicity. Accurate identification of the mechanisms of action of exosomes in tumor environments, along with optimization of their isolation, purification, and characterization methods, is necessary to increase clinical applications. Exosomes can be modified through cargo loading and surface modification to enhance their therapeutic applications, either before or after the donor cells' isolation. These engineered exosomes can directly target tumor cells at the tumor site or indirectly activate innate and adaptive immune responses in the tumor microenvironment. This approach is particularly effective when combined with traditional cancer immunotherapy techniques such as vaccines, immune checkpoints, and CAR-T cells. It can improve anti-tumor responses, induce long-term immunity, and address the limitations of traditional therapies, such as poor penetration in solid tumors and immunosuppressive environments. This review aims to provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of the direct role of engineered exosomes as drug delivery systems and their immunomodulatory effects on tumors as an indirect approach to fighting cancer. Additionally, it will discuss novel immunotherapy options.

Drug Delivery System Targeting Cancer-Associated Fibroblast for Improving Immunotherapy

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are a heterogeneous population of non-malignant cells that play a crucial role in the tumor microenvironment, increasingly recognized as key contributors to cancer progression, metastasis, and treatment resistance. So, targeting CAFs has always been considered an important part of cancer immunotherapy. However, targeting CAFs to improve the efficacy of tumor therapy is currently a major challenge. Nanomaterials show their unique advantages in the whole process. At present, nanomaterials have achieved significant accomplishments in medical applications, particularly in the field of cancer-targeted therapy, showing enormous potential. It has been confirmed that nanomaterials can not only directly target CAFs, but also interact with the tumor microenvironment (TME) and immune cells to affect tumorigenesis. As for the cancer treatment, nanomaterials could enhance the therapeutic effect in many ways. Therefore, in this review, we first summarized the current understanding of the complex interactions between CAFs and TME, immune cells, and tumor cells. Next, we discussed common nanomaterials in modern medicine and their respective impacts on the TME, CAFs, and interactions with tumors. Finally, we focus on the application of nano drug delivery system targeting CAFs in cancer therapy.

Proximity Labeling: Precise Proteomics Technology for Mapping Receptor Protein Neighborhoods at the Cancer Cell Surface

Cell surface receptors are pivotal to cancer cell transformation, disease progression, metastasis, early detection, targeted therapy, drug responses, and clinical outcomes. Since they coordinate complex signaling communication networks in the tumor microenvironment, mapping the physical interaction partners of cell surface receptors in vivo is vital for understanding their roles, functional states, and suitability as therapeutic targets. Yet traditional methods like immunoprecipitation and affinity purification-mass spectrometry often fail to detect key but weak or transient receptor-protein interactions. Proximity labeling, a cutting-edge proteomics technology, addresses these technical challenges by enabling precise mapping of protein neighborhoods around a receptor target on the cell surface of cancer cells. This technique has been successfully applied in vitro and in vivo for proteomic mapping across various model systems. This review explores the fundamental principles, technologies, advantages, limitations, and applications of proximity labeling in cancer biology, focusing on mapping receptor microenvironments. By advancing mechanistic insights into cancer cell receptor signaling mechanisms, proximity labeling is poised to transform cancer research, improve targeted therapies, and illuminate avenues to overcome drug resistance.

A Multiple Targeting Genome Editing System for Remodulation of Circulating Malignant Cells to Eliminate Cancer Immunosuppression and Restore Immune Responses

Cancer immunotherapy, which aims to eliminate cancer immunosuppression and reactivate anticancer immunity, holds great promise in oncology treatments. However, it is challenging to accurately study the efficacy of immunotherapy based on human-derived cells through animal experiments due to xenogeneic immune rejection. Herein, a personalized and precise strategy to evaluate the effectiveness of immunotherapy using the blood samples of cancer patients is presented. Through the utilization of multiple cancer-targeting delivery system decorated with the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-specific aptamer CL4 and the AXL-specific aptamer GL21.T to achieve superior efficiency in delivering the genome editing plasmid for MUC1 knockout, effective modulation on the behavior of circulating malignant cells (CMCs) is realized. After genome editing, both mucin 1 (MUC1) and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) are significantly downregulated in CMCs. The elimination of immunosuppression results in markedly enhanced secretion of pro-inflammatory anticancer cytokines encompassing interleukins 2, 12, and 15 and interferon-γ by immune cells. The study not only provides a strategy to overcome immunosuppression but also yields critical insights for personalized immunotherapy approaches.

Photoactivable CRISPR for Biosensing and Cancer Therapy

Photoactivable CRISPR technology represents a transformative approach in the field of genome editing, offering unprecedented control over gene editing with high spatial and temporal precision. By harnessing the power of light to modulate the activity of CRISPR components, this innovative strategy enables precise regulation of Cas proteins, guide RNAs, and ribonucleoprotein complexes. Recent advancements in optical control methodologies, including the development of photoactivable nanocarriers, have significantly expanded the potential applications of CRISPR in biomedical fields. This Concept highlights the latest developments in designing photoactivable CRISPR systems and their promising applications in biosensing and cancer therapy. Additionally, the remaining challenges and future trends are also discussed. It is expected that the photoactivable CRISPR would facilitate translating more precise gene therapies into clinical use.

Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Safe and Effective Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy using immune checkpoint blockades has emerged as a promising therapeutic approach. However, immunotherapy faces challenges such as low response rates in solid tumors, necessitating strategies to remodel the immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) into an immune-activated state. One of the primary approaches to achieve this transformation is through the induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD). Herein, we discussed strategies to maximize ICD induction using nanoparticles. In particular, this review highlighted various studies integrating chemotherapy, radiation therapy (RT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and photothermal therapy (PTT) with nanoparticle-based immunotherapy. The research covered in this review aims to provide valuable insights for future studies on nanoparticle-assisted immunotherapy.

Generating Immunological Memory Against Cancer by Camouflaging Gold-Based Photothermal Nanoparticles in NIR-II Biowindow for Mimicking T-Cells

Photothermal therapy (PTT) against cancer not only directly ablates tumors but also induces tumor immunogenic cell death (ICD). However, the antitumor immune response elicited by ICD is insufficient to prevent relapse and metastasis because of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). A biomimetic nanoplatform (bmNP) mimicking cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTLs) for combinational photothermal-immunotherapy to effectively regulate the immunosuppressive TME is reported here. The bmNP is constructed by wrapping the T-cell membrane onto a new type of photothermal agents, spherical Au-based PNCs (sAuPNCs). Similar to T-cells, the bmNP enhanced accumulation at the tumor site by targeting the tumor via adhesion proteins on T-cell membrane. The obtained sAuPNCs have a wide absorption band in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) region with a high photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE) up to about 75% and excellent photostability. The bmNP with a smaller size is more superior compete with T-cells to bond with tumor cells via PD-1/PD-L1 interaction to effectively block the PD-1 checkpoint of T-cells for preventing T-cell exhaustion. Furthermore, in vivo studies reveal the immunological memory effect is significantly elicited in mice received bmNPs therapy. Collectively, bmNPs show great potential in photothermal-enhanced immunotherapy.

Harnessing Gene Editing Technology for Tumor Microenvironment Modulation: An Emerging Anticancer Strategy

Cancer is a multifaceted disease influenced by both intrinsic cellular traits and extrinsic factors, with the tumor microenvironment (TME) being crucial for cancer progression. To satisfy their high proliferation and aggressiveness, cancer cells always plunder large amounts of nutrients and release various signals to their surroundings, forming a dynamic TME with special metabolic, immune, microbial and physical characteristics. Due to the neglect of interactions between tumor cells and the TME, traditional cancer therapies often struggle with challenges such as drug resistance, low efficacy, and recurrence. Importantly, the development of gene editing technologies, particularly the CRISPR-Cas system, offers promising new strategies for cancer treatment. Combined with nanomaterial strategies, CRISPR-Cas technology exhibits precision, affordability, and user-friendliness with reduced side effects, which holds great promise for profoundly altering the TME at the genetic level, potentially leading to lasting anticancer outcomes. This review will delve into how CRISPR-Cas can be leveraged to manipulate the TME, examining its potential as a transformative anticancer therapy.

Spatiotemporal Delivery of Dual Nanobodies by Engineered Probiotics to Reverse Tumor Immunosuppression via Targeting Tumor-Derived Exosomes

The anti-PD-L1 and its bispecific antibodies have exhibited durable antitumor immunity but still elicit immunosuppression mainly caused by tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs), leading to difficulty in clinical transformation. Herein, engineered Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) coexpressing anti-PD-L1 and anti-CD9 nanobodies (EcN-Nb) are developed and decorated with zinc-based metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) loaded with indocyanine green (ICG), to generate EcN-Nb-ZIF-8CHO-ICG (ENZC) for spatiotemporal lysis of bacteria for immunotherapy. The tumor-homing hybrid system can specifically release nanobodies in response to near-infrared (NIR) radiation, thereby targeting TDEs and changing their biological distribution, remodeling tumor-associated macrophages to M1 states, activating more effective and cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and finally, leading to the inhibition of tumor proliferation and metastasis. Altogether, the microfluidic-enabled MOF-modified engineered probiotics target TDEs and activate the antitumor immune response in a spatiotemporally manipulated manner, offering promising TDE-targeted immune therapy.

NIR-II-Responsive Hybrid System Achieves Cascade-Augmented Antitumor Immunity via Genetic Engineering of Both Bacteria and Tumor Cells

The combination of nanoparticles and tumor-targeting bacteria for cancer immunotherapy can overcome the shortcomings of poor nanoparticle accumulation, limited penetration, and restricted distribution. However, it remains a great challenge for the hybrid system to improve therapeutic efficacy through the simultaneous and controllable regulation of immune cells and tumor cells. Herein, a hybrid therapeutic platform is rationally designed to achieve immune cascade-augmented cancer immunotherapy. To construct the hybrids, photothermal nanoparticles responsive to light in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) region are conjugated onto the surface of engineered bacteria through pH-responsive Schiff base bonds. Taking advantage of the hypoxia targeting and deep penetration characteristics of the bacteria, the hybrids can accumulate at tumor sites. Then nanoparticles detach from the bacteria to realize genetic engineering of tumor cells, which induces tumor cell apoptosis and down-regulate the expression of programmed cell death ligand 1 to alleviate immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. The mild photothermal heating can not only induce tumor-associated antigen release, but also trigger sustainable expression of cytokine interleukin-2. Notably, a synergistic antitumor effect is achieved between the process of p53 transfection and NIR-II light-activated genetic engineering of bacteria. This work proposes a facile strategy for the construction of hybrid system to achieve cascade-augmented cancer immunotherapy.

Nanoneedle Array-Electroporation Facilitates Intranuclear Ribonucleoprotein Delivery and High Throughput Gene Editing

Dendritic cells (DCs) are critical regulators of T cell immunity, with immense therapeutic potential against tumors and autoimmune diseases. Efficient gene editing in DCs is crucial for understanding their regulatory mechanisms and maximizing their therapeutic efficacy. However, DCs are notoriously difficult to transfect, posing a major bottleneck for conventional DNA and RNA-based editing approaches. Microneedle-mediated injection of Cas9/sgRNA ribonucleoprotein (RNP) directly into the nucleus, akin to gene editing in reproductive cells, offers promise but suffers from limitations in scalability. Here, an intranuclear delivery system using a hollow nanoneedle array (HNA) combined with nano-electroporation is developed. The 2 µm-high HNA physically reaches the nucleus, positioning the nuclear envelope and plasma membrane in close proximity at the tip. Transient electronic pulses then induce simultaneous perforations across all 3 membranes, enabling direct RNP delivery into the nucleus. This HNA-based system achieves efficient knockout of genes like PD-L1 in primary DCs, demonstrating its potential as a powerful tool for gene editing in DCs and other hard-to-transfect cells.

Mannosylated Fluoropolypeptide Nanovaccines Remodeling Tumor Immunosuppressive Microenvironment to Achieve Highly Potent Cancer Immunotherapy

It is challenging for nanovaccines (NVs) to effectively deliver antigens/neoantigens to prime specifically potent immunities and remodel immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) for combating immune "cold" cancers. Herein, a novel kind of mannosylated fluoropolypeptide NVs of MFPCOFG (i.e., mannosylated fluoropoly(D,L-cysteine) ovalbumin-loaded Fe2+-gallic acid) is designed that synergistically integrates triple antigen-metal-thermoimmunity to remodel immunosuppressive TME and achieve highly potent immunities. MFPCOFG plus near-infrared irradiation (NIR) effectively facilitated antigen uptake and escape, induced the maturation and antigen cross-presentations of dendritic cells and macrophages, polarized anti-inflammatory macrophage phenotype M2 into tumoricial M1, primed potent CD4+/CD8+T cells responses, proinflammatory cytokines secretion and immune memory effects, showcasing triple antigen-metal-thermoimmunity outperforming combo/mono-immunity. Importantly, both MFPCOFG + NIR and personalized NVs can remarkably enhance the tumor infiltration of CD4+/CD8+T and NK cells to boost potent immunities and long-lasting memory effects, reduce regulatory T (Tregs) and M2 to remodel immunosuppressive TME in B16-OVA and 4T1 models, achieving superior tumor prevention, ablation, and tumor relapse and metastasis inhibition, as further orchestrated with anti-PD-1. Consequently, this work opens up a new avenue to design biocompatible polypeptide nanovaccines with potent immune-priming and TME-remodeling capabilities, holding great potentials to combat immune "cold" cancers with clinic-used anti-PD-1 for cancer immunotherapy and personalized immunotherapy.

Two-pronged reversal of chemotherapy resistance by gold nanorods induced mild photothermal effect

Chemotherapy treatment outcomes are severely restricted by multidrug resistance (MDR), in which tumors develop a multiple cross-resistance toward drug involving the pump and nonpump resistance mechanisms, resulting in drug efflux and defending against drug toxicity. Herein, we constructed a pH and near infrared (NIR) light responsive nanomedicine DOX@FG based on gold nanorods (GNRs) that demonstrated the potential to improve chemotherapy outcomes by overcoming MDR. DOX@FG was constructed by conjugating folic acid (FA) and doxorubicin (DOX) derivatives onto GNRs, where the DOX derivatives possessed an acid-labile hydrazone bond. Stimulated by the acidic media in endocytic organelles, DOX@FG exhibited a responsive dissociation for the controlled release of chemotherapeutic DOX. Surprisingly, we found the mild photothermal effect elicited by GNRs under NIR irradiation simultaneously inhibited the pump and nonpump resistance mechanisms, enhancing the intracellular DOX accumulation and sensitizing the cancer cells to DOX, collectively amplify the chemotherapy efficacy and delay the MCF-7/ADR breast tumor growth. This intelligent DOX@FG nanomedicine with the potential for two-pronged reversal of MDR may provide a prospective way to encourage chemotherapy efficacy.

Boosting Cancer Immunotherapy via Reversing PD-L1-Mediated Immunosuppression with a Molecularly Imprinted Lysosomal Nanodegrader

Immune checkpoint blockade therapy has achieved important clinical advances in several types of tumors, particularly via targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 axis. However, existing therapeutic strategies that suppress the PD-1/PD-L1 signal pathway usually experience low treatment efficacy and the risk of causing autoimmune diseases. Herein, we report a cancer cell-targeted molecularly imprinted lysosomal nanodegrader (MILND) for boosting immune checkpoint blockade therapy against tumors. The MILND, imprinted with the N-terminal epitope of PD-L1 as an imprinting template, could specifically target the PD-L1 on tumor cells to promote cellular uptake. This process further induces the transport of PD-L1 into lysosomes for degradation, ultimately resulting in the downregulation of PD-L1 expression levels on tumor cells. As a result, a T cell-mediated immune response in the body was activated via the blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 signaling pathway, which triggered a durable antitumor efficacy. In vivo experiments demonstrated that the MILND could effectively accumulate in tumor sites and exhibit strong tumor growth suppression efficacy in a xenograft tumor model without obvious side effects. Therefore, the MILND provides not only a promising strategy for boosting cancer immunotherapy but also insights for developing molecular imprinting-empowered nanomedicines.

Docetaxel-Encapsulated Catalytic Pt/Au Nanotubes for Synergistic Chemo-Photothermal Therapy of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

The combination of photothermal therapy with chemotherapy has emerged as a promising therapeutic modality for addressing triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). This manuscript describes a novel hybrid nanoplatform comprising ultrathin catalytic platinum/gold (Pt/Au) nanotubes encapsulated with docetaxel and phase-change materials (PCMs) for the photoacoustic imaging-guided synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy of TNBC. Upon irradiation of near-infrared laser, the photothermal heating of nanotubes converts solid-state PCM into liquid, triggering the controlled release of the encapsulated docetaxel. The thin Pt layer within nanotubes enhances the nanotube's thermal stability, thus prolonging the photothermal ablation of tumors. Furthermore, platinum effectively mitigates tumor hypoxia by catalyzing the decomposition of hydrogen peroxides to generate oxygen in the tumor microenvironment, thus improving the efficiency of chemotherapy. It is demonstrated that the drug-loaded nanotubes achieve significant tumor inhibition rates of 75.4% in vivo on 4T1 tumor-bearing mice, significantly surpassing control groups. These nanotubes also notably extend survival, attributable to the synergistic effects of prolonged photothermal therapy facilitated by platinum and oxygenation-enhanced chemotherapy. This combination leverages the unique properties of the Pt/Au NTs-DTX/PCM nanoplatform, optimizing therapeutic outcomes. It is envisioned that this nanoplatform may find important applications in managing superficial malignant solid tumors in general.

Mechanism insights and therapeutic intervention of tumor metastasis: latest developments and perspectives

Metastasis remains a pivotal characteristic of cancer and is the primary contributor to cancer-associated mortality. Despite its significance, the mechanisms governing metastasis are not fully elucidated. Contemporary findings in the domain of cancer biology have shed light on the molecular aspects of this intricate process. Tumor cells undergoing invasion engage with other cellular entities and proteins en route to their destination. Insights into these engagements have enhanced our comprehension of the principles directing the movement and adaptability of metastatic cells. The tumor microenvironment plays a pivotal role in facilitating the invasion and proliferation of cancer cells by enabling tumor cells to navigate through stromal barriers. Such attributes are influenced by genetic and epigenetic changes occurring in the tumor cells and their surrounding milieu. A profound understanding of the metastatic process's biological mechanisms is indispensable for devising efficacious therapeutic strategies. This review delves into recent developments concerning metastasis-associated genes, important signaling pathways, tumor microenvironment, metabolic processes, peripheral immunity, and mechanical forces and cancer metastasis. In addition, we combine recent advances with a particular emphasis on the prospect of developing effective interventions including the most popular cancer immunotherapies and nanotechnology to combat metastasis. We have also identified the limitations of current research on tumor metastasis, encompassing drug resistance, restricted animal models, inadequate biomarkers and early detection methods, as well as heterogeneity among others. It is anticipated that this comprehensive review will significantly contribute to the advancement of cancer metastasis research.

Engineering an Organic Nanoplatform for Augmented Pyroeletroimmunotherapy

Photothermal immunotherapy has shown great promise in the treatment of tumor metastasis. However, the thermal resistance of tumor cells substantially compromises the treatment effect of photothermal immunotherapy. Herein, a high-performance organic pyroelectric nanoplatform, tBu-TPAD-BF2 nanoparticles (NPs), is rationally engineered for the effective pyroelectroimmunotherapy of tumor metastasis. Biocompatible tBu-TPAD-BF2 NPs with excellent pyroelectric and photothermal conversion properties are constructed by assembling organic, low-bandgap pyroelectric molecules with amphiphilic polymers. After internalization by tumor cells, treatment with tBu-TPAD-BF2 NPs causes an apparent temperature elevation upon near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, inducing potent immunogenic cell death (ICD). Additionally, the temperature variations under alternating NIR laser irradiation facilitate reactive oxygen species production for pyroelectric therapy, thus promoting ICD activation and lowering thermal resistance. Importantly, in vivo assessments illustrate that tBu-TPAD-BF2 NPs in combination with NIR laser exposure notably inhibit primary and distant tumor proliferation and prominently retarded lung metastasis. RNA profiling reveals that treatment with tBu-TPAD-BF2 NPs markedly suppresses metastasis under NIR laser illumination by downregulating metastasis-related genes and upregulating immune response-associated pathways. Therefore, this study provides a strategy for designing high-performance pyroelectric nanoplatforms to effectively cure tumor metastasis, thereby overcoming the inherent shortcomings of photothermal immunotherapy.

DNA nanodevice as a multi-module co-delivery platform for combination cancer immunotherapy

A major challenge in combining cancer immunotherapy is the efficient delivery of multiple types of immunological stimulators to elicit a robust anti-tumor immune response and reprogram the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Here, we developed a DNA nanodevice that was generated by precisely assembling three types of immunological stimulators. The doxorubicin (Dox) component induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor cells and enhanced phagocytosis of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Exogenous double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) could act as a molecular adjuvant to activate the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling in APCs by engulfing dying tumor cells. Interleukin (IL)-12 and small hairpin programmed cell death-ligand 1 (shPD-L1) transcription templates were designed to regulate TME. Additionally, for targeted drug delivery, multiple cyclo[Arg-Gly-Asp-(d-Phe)-Cys] (cRGD) peptide units on DNA origami were employed. The incorporation of disulfide bonds allowed the release of multiple modules in response to intracellular glutathione (GSH) in tumors. The nanodevice promoted the infiltration of CD8+ and CD4+ cells into the tumor and generated a highly inflamed TME, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy. Our research results indicate that the nanodevice we constructed can effectively inhibit tumor growth and prevent lung metastasis without obvious systemic toxicity, providing a promising strategy for cancer combination treatment.

Targeting Hydrogel for Intelligent Recognition and Spatiotemporal Control in Cell-Based Therapeutics

Smart drug platforms based on spatiotemporally controlled release and integration of tumor imaging are expected to overcome the inefficiency and uncertainty of traditional theranostic modes. In this study, a composite consisting of a thermosensitive hydrogel (polyvinyl alcohol-carboxylic acid hydrogel (PCF)) and a multifunctional nanoparticle (Fe3O4@Au/Mn(Zn)-4-carboxyphenyl porphyrin/polydopamine (FAMxP)) is developed to combine tumor immunogenic cell death (ICD)/immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy under the guidance of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and fluorescence imaging (FI). It can not only further recognize the target cells through the folate receptor of tumor cells, but also produce thermal dissolution after exposure to near-infrared light to slowly release FAMxP in situ, thereby prolonging the treatment time and avoiding tumor recurrence. As FAMxP entered the tumor cells, it released FAMx in a pH-dependent manner. Chemodynamic, photothermal and photodynamic therapy can cause significant ICD in cancer cells. ICB can thus be further enhanced by injecting anti-programmed cell death ligand 1, improving the effectiveness of tumor treatment. The developed PCF-FAMxP composite hydrogel may represent an updated drug design approach with simple compositions for cooperative MRI/FI-guided targeted therapeutic pathways for tumors.

Manipulating the Crosstalk between Cancer and Immunosuppressive Cells with Phototherapeutic Gold-Nanohut for Reprogramming Tumor Microenvironment

Photoimmunotherapy faces challenges due to insufficient intratumoral accumulation of photothermal agents and the reversion of the cancer-immunity cycle during treatment. In this study, an anti-PD-L1-immobilized magnetic gold nanohut, AuNH-2-Ab, with photoresponsive, thermosensitive, and immunomodulatory properties to effectively suppress the growth of primary tumors, elevate immunogenic cell death (ICD) levels, reverse the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), and consequently inhibit metastases are developed. AuNH-2-Ab achieves high tumor accumulation (9.54% injected dose) following systemic administration, allowing the modulation of hyperthermia dose of over 50 °C in the tumor. By optimizing the hyperthermia dose, AuNH-2-Ab simultaneously target and eliminate cancer cells and tumor-associated macrophages, thereby activating potent antitumor immunity without being compromised by immunosuppressive elements. Hyperthermia/pH induced morphological transformation of AuNH-2-Ab involving the detachment of the surface antibody for in situ PD-L1 inhibition, and exposure of the inner fucoidan layer for natural killer (NK) cell activation. This precision photoimmunotherapy approach reprograms the TIME, significantly prolongs survival in a murine hepatocellular carcinoma model (Hep55.1c), and harnesses the synergistic effects of ICD production and checkpoint inhibitors by utilizing a single nanoplatform.

Acidity-activatable dynamic hybrid nanoplatforms derived from extracellular vesicles of M1 macrophages enhance cancer immunotherapy through synergistic triple immunotherapy

Immunotherapy exhibits considerable promise for sustained tumor reduction. However, current cancer immunotherapy methods elicit limited responses due to the inadequate immunogenicity exhibited by cancer cells. This obstacle may be addressed using nanoplatforms that can activate synergistic therapies (photodynamic therapy and ferroptosis) in response to the acidic pH of the tumor microenvironment. We previously developed an amphiphilic photosensitizer, SR780, which displays satisfactory photodynamic effects. This photosensitizer is inactivated when bound to Fe3+ (SR780Fe) but is activated upon release in mildly acidic conditions. In this study, M1 macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) were fused with REV and SR780Fe-loaded liposomes (REV@SR780Fe@Lip) to form REV@SR780Fe@LEV hybrid nanovesicles. Further modification with the RS17 peptide for tumor targeting enabled a combination of photodynamic therapy, ferroptosis, and cGAS-STING pathway activation, resulting in enhanced antitumor efficacy through a synergistic effect. Upon laser irradiation, REV@SR780Fe@LEV-RS17 demonstrated antitumor effects in 4T1 breast cancer models, including the inhibition of lung and liver metastasis, as well as prevention of tumor recurrence.

Current application and future perspective of CRISPR/cas9 gene editing system mediated immune checkpoint for liver cancer treatment

Liver cancer, which is well-known to us as one of human most prevalent malignancies across the globe, poses a significant risk to live condition and life safety of individuals in every region of the planet. It has been shown that immune checkpoint treatment may enhance survival benefits and make a significant contribution to patient prognosis, which makes it a promising and popular therapeutic option for treating liver cancer at the current time. However, there are only a very few numbers of patients who can benefit from the treatment and there also exist adverse events such as toxic effects and so on, which is still required further research and discussion. Fortunately, the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat/CRISPR-associated nuclease 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) provides a potential strategy for immunotherapy and immune checkpoint therapy of liver cancer. In this review, we focus on elucidating the fundamentals of the recently developed CRISPR/Cas9 technology as well as the present-day landscape of immune checkpoint treatment which pertains to liver cancer. What's more, we aim to explore the molecular mechanism of immune checkpoint treatment in liver cancer based on CRISPR/Cas9 technology. At last, its encouraging and powerful potential in the future application of the clinic is discussed, along with the issues that already exist and the difficulties that must be overcome. To sum up, our ultimate goal is to create a fresh knowledge that we can utilize this new CRISPR/Cas9 technology for the current popular immune checkpoint therapy to overcome the treatment issues of liver cancer.

Elucidation of Spatial Cooperativity in Chemo-Immunotherapy by a Sequential Dual-pH-Responsive Drug Delivery System

Combining immune checkpoint blockade with chemotherapy through nanotechnology is promising in terms of safety and efficacy. However, the distinct subcellular distribution of each ingredient's action site makes it challenging to acquire an optimal synergism. Herein, a dual-pH responsive hybrid polymeric micelle system, HNP(αPDL16.9, Dox5.3), is constructed as a proof-of-concept for the spatial cooperativity in chemo-immunotherapy. HNP retains the inherent pH-transition of each polymer, with stepwise disassembly under discrete pH thresholds. Within weakly acidic extracellular tumor environment, αPDL1 is first released to block the checkpoint on cell membranes. The remaining intact Doxorubicin-loaded micelle NP(Dox)5.3 displays significant tropism toward tumor cells and releases Dox upon lysosomal pH for efficient tumor immunogenic cell death without immune toxicity. This sequential-released pattern boosts DC activation and primes CD8+ T cells, leading to enhanced therapeutic performance than single agent or an inverse-ordered combination in multiple murine tumor models. Using HNP, the indispensable role of conventional type 1 DC (cDC1) is identified in chemo-immunotherapy. A co-signature of cDC1 and CD8 correlates with cancer patient survival after neoadjuvant Pembrolizumab plus chemotherapy in clinic. This study highlights spatial cooperativity of chemo- and immuno-agents in immunoregulation and provides insights into the rational design of drug combination for future nanotherapeutics development.

Dual-enzyme decorated semiconducting polymer nanoagents for second near-infrared photoactivatable ferroptosis-immunotherapy

Enzymes provide a class of potential options to treat cancer, while the precise regulation of enzyme activities for effective and safe therapeutic actions has been poorly reported. Dual-enzyme decorated semiconducting polymer nanoagents for second near-infrared (NIR-II) photoactivatable ferroptosis-immunotherapy are reported in this study. Such nanoagents (termed SPHGA) consist of hemoglobin (Hb)-based semiconducting polymer (SP@Hb), adenosine deaminase (ADA) and glucose oxidase (GOx) with loadings in a thermal-responsive nanoparticle shell. NIR-II photoactivation of SPHGA results in the generation of heat to trigger on-demand releases of two enzymes (ADA and GOx) via destroying the thermal-responsive nanoparticle shells. In the tumor microenvironment, GOx oxidizes glucose to form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which promotes the Fenton reaction of iron in SP@Hb, resulting in an enhanced ferroptosis effect and immunogenic cell death (ICD). In addition, ADA degrades high-level adenosine to reverse the immunosuppressive microenvironment, thus amplifying antitumor immune responses. Via NIR-II photoactivatable ferroptosis-immunotherapy, SPHGA shows an improved effect to absolutely remove bilateral tumors and effectively suppress tumor metastases in subcutaneous 4T1 breast cancer models. This study presents a dual-enzyme-based nanoagent with controllable therapeutic actions for effective and precise cancer therapy.

Genetically Edited Cascade Nanozymes for Cancer Immunotherapy

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has brought tremendous clinical progress, but its therapeutic outcome can be limited due to insufficient activation of dendritic cells (DCs) and insufficient infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Evoking immunogenic cell death (ICD) is one promising strategy to promote DC maturation and elicit T-cell immunity, whereas low levels of ICD induction of solid tumors restrict durable antitumor efficacy. Herein, we report a genetically edited cell membrane-coated cascade nanozyme (gCM@MnAu) for enhanced cancer immunotherapy by inducing ICD and activating the stimulator of the interferon genes (STING) pathway. In the tumor microenvironment (TME), the gCM@MnAu initiates a cascade reaction and generates abundant cytotoxic hydroxyl (•OH), resulting in improved chemodynamic therapy (CDT) and boosted ICD activation. In addition, released Mn2+ during the cascade reaction activates the STING pathway and further promotes the DC maturation. More importantly, activated immunogenicity in the TME significantly improves gCM-mediated PD-1/PD-L1 checkpoint blockade therapy by eliciting systemic antitumor responses. In breast cancer subcutaneous and lung metastasis models, the gCM@MnAu showed synergistically enhanced therapeutic effects and significantly prolonged the survival of mice. This work develops a genetically edited nanozyme-based therapeutic strategy to improve DC-mediated cross-priming of T cells against poorly immunogenic solid tumors.

Supramolecular Genome Editing: Targeted Delivery and Endogenous Activation of CRISPR/Cas9 by Dynamic Host-Guest Recognition

We synthesize supramolecular poly(disulfide) (CPS) containing covalently attached cucurbit[7]uril (CB[7]), which is exploited not only as a carrier to deliver plasmid DNA encoding destabilized Cas9 (dsCas9), but also as a host to include trimethoprim (TMP) by CB[7] moieties through the supramolecular complexation to form TMP@CPS/dsCas9. Once the plasmid is transfected into tumor cells by CPS, the presence of polyamines can competitively trigger the decomplexation of TMP@CPS, thereby displacing and releasing TMP from CB[7] to stabilize dsCas9 that can target and edit the genomic locus of PLK1 to inhibit the growth of tumor cells. Following the systemic administration of TMP@CPS/dsCas9 decorated with hyaluronic acid (HA), tumor-specific editing of PLK1 is detected due to the elevated polyamines in tumor microenvironment, greatly minimizing off-target editing in healthy tissues and non-targeted organs. As the metabolism of polyamines is dysregulated in a wide range of disorders, this study offers a supramolecular approach to precisely control CRISPR/Cas9 functions under particular pathological contexts.

Proinflammatory polarization of engineered heat-inducible macrophages reprogram the tumor immune microenvironment during cancer immunotherapy

The success of macrophage-based adoptive cell therapy is largely constrained by poor polarization from alternatively activated (M2-like) to classically activated (M1-like) phenotype in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Here, we show that the engineered macrophage (eMac) with a heat-inducible genetic switch can induce both self-polarization of adoptively transferred eMac and re-polarization of tumour-associated macrophages in response to mild temperature elevation in a mouse model. The locoregional production of proinflammatory cytokines by eMac in the TME dose not only induces the strong polarization of macrophages into a classically activated phenotype, but also ensures that the side effects typical for systemically administrate proinflammatory cytokines are avoided. We also present a wearable warming device which is adaptable for human patients and can be remotely controlled by a smartphone. In summary, our work represents a safe and efficient adoptive transfer immunotherapy method with potential for human translation.

Engineering Nanosensitizer to Remodel the TME for Hypoimmunogenic "Cold"-"Hot" Tumor Transformations

α-PD-L1 therapy has shown encouraging results at harnessing the immune system to combat cancer. However, the treatment effect is relatively low due to the dense extracellular matrix (ECM) and tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment (TIME). Therefore, an ultrasound (US)-responsive nanosensitizer (URNS) is engineered to deliver losartan (LST) and polyethylenimine (PEI) to remolde the TME, driving "cold"-"hot" tumor transformation and enhancing the sensitivity of α-PD-L1 therapy. In the tumor site, noninvasive US can make MTNP generate ROS, which cleave ROS-sensitive bonds to dissociate MTNPtK@LST-PEI, shedding PEI and releasing LST from mesoporous spheres. The results demonstrated that URNS combined with α-PD-L1 therapy effectively inhibited tumor growth with an inhibition rate as high as 90%, which was 1.7-fold higher than that of the α-PD-L1 treatment in vivo. In summary, the URNS improves the sensitivity of α-PD-L1 therapy by remodeling the TME, which provides promising insights for optimizing cancer immunotherapy.

Precision USPIO-PEG-SLex Nanotheranostic Agent Targeted Photothermal Therapy for Enhanced Anti-PD-L1 Immunotherapy to Treat Immunotherapy Resistance

Background

The anti-Programmed Death-Ligand 1 (termed aPD-L1) immune checkpoint blockade therapy has emerged as a promising treatment approach for various advanced solid tumors. However, the effect of aPD-L1 inhibitors limited by the tumor microenvironment makes most patients exhibit immunotherapy resistance.

Methods

We conjugated the Sialyl Lewis X with a polyethylene glycol-coated ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO-PEG) to form UPS nanoparticles (USPIO-PEG-SLex, termed UPS). The physicochemical properties of UPS were tested and characterized. Transmission electron microscopy and ICP-OES were used to observe the cellular uptake and targeting ability of UPS. Flow cytometry, mitochondrial membrane potential staining, live-dead staining and scratch assay were used to verify the in vitro photothermal effect of UPS, and the stimulation of UPS on immune-related pathways at the gene level was analyzed by sequencing. Biological safety analysis and pharmacokinetic analysis of UPS were performed. Finally, the amplification effect of UPS-mediated photothermal therapy on aPD-L1-mediated immunotherapy and the corresponding mechanism were studied.

Results

In vitro experiments showed that UPS had strong photothermal therapy ability and was able to stimulate 5 immune-related pathways. In vivo, when the PTT assisted aPD-L1 treatment, it exhibited a significant increase in CD4+ T cell infiltration by 14.46-fold and CD8+ T cell infiltration by 14.79-fold, along with elevated secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma, comparing with alone aPD-L1. This PTT assisted aPD-L1 therapy achieved a significant inhibition of both primary tumors and distant tumors compared to the alone aPD-L1, demonstrating a significant difference.

Conclusion

The nanotheranostic agent UPS has been introduced into immunotherapy, which has effectively broadened its application in biomedicine. This photothermal therapeutic approach of the UPS nanotheranostic agent enhancing the efficacy of aPD-L1 immune checkpoint blockade therapy, can be instructive to address the challenges associated with immunotherapy resistance, thereby offering potential for clinical translation.

Gene and Photothermal Combination Therapy: Principle, Materials, and Amplified Anticancer Intervention

Gene therapy (GT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) have emerged as promising alternatives to chemotherapy and radiotherapy for cancer treatment, offering noninvasiveness and reduced side effects. However, their efficacy as standalone treatments is limited. GT exhibits slow response rates, while PTT is confined to local tumor ablation. The convergence of GT and PTT, known as GT-PTT, facilitated by photothermal gene nanocarriers, has attracted considerable attention across various disciplines. In this integrated approach, GT reciprocates PTT by sensitizing cellular response to heat, while PTT benefits GT by improving gene translocation, unpacking, and expression. Consequently, this integration presents a unique opportunity for cancer therapy with rapid response and improved effectiveness. Extensive efforts over the past few years have been dedicated to the development of GT-PTT, resulting in notable achievements and rapid progress from the laboratory to potential clinical applications. This comprehensive review outlines recent advances in GT-PTT, including synergistic mechanisms, material systems, imaging-guided therapy, and anticancer applications. It also explores the challenges and future prospects in this nascent field. By presenting innovative ideas and insights into the implementation of GT-PTT for enhanced cancer therapy, this review aims to inspire further progress in this promising area of research.

Designing Peptide-Based Nanoinhibitors of Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1 (PD-L1) for Enhanced Chemo-immunotherapy

The combination of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and chemotherapy has shown significant potential in the clinical treatment of various cancers. However, circulating regeneration of PD-L1 within tumor cells greatly limits the efficiency of chemo-immunotherapy and consequent patient response rates. Herein, we report the synthesis of a nanoparticle-based PD-L1 inhibitor (FRS) with a rational design for effective endogenous PD-L1 suppression. The nanoinhibitor is achieved through self-assembly of fluoroalkylated competitive peptides that target PD-L1 palmitoylation. The FRS nanoparticles provide efficient protection and delivery of functional peptides to the cytoplasm of tumors, showing greater inhibition of PD-L1 than nonfluorinated peptidic inhibitors. Moreover, we demonstrate that FRS synergizes with chemotherapeutic doxorubicin (DOX) to boost the antitumor activities via simultaneous reduction of PD-L1 abundance and induction of immunogenic cell death in murine colon tumor models. The nano strategy of PD-L1 regulation present in this study is expected to advance the development of ICB inhibitors and overcome the limitations of conventional ICB-assisted chemo-immunotherapy.

CRISPR/Cas gene editing and delivery systems for cancer therapy

CRISPR/Cas systems stand out because of simplicity, efficiency, and other superiorities, thus becoming attractive and brilliant gene-editing tools in biomedical field including cancer therapy. CRISPR/Cas systems bring promises for cancer therapy through manipulating and engineering on tumor cells or immune cells. However, there have been concerns about how to overcome the numerous physiological barriers and deliver CRISPR components to target cells efficiently and accurately. In this review, we introduced the mechanisms of CRISPR/Cas systems, summarized the current delivery strategies of CRISPR/Cas systems by physical methods, viral vectors, and nonviral vectors, and presented the current application of CRISPR/Cas systems in cancer clinical treatment. Furthermore, we discussed prospects related to delivery approaches of CRISPR/Cas systems. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Nanodelivery Systems as a Novel Strategy to Overcome Treatment Failure of Cancer

Despite the tremendous progress in cancer treatment in recent decades, cancers often become resistant due to multiple mechanisms, such as intrinsic or acquired multidrug resistance, which leads to unsatisfactory treatment effects or accompanying metastasis and recurrence, ultimately to treatment failure. With a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms of tumors, researchers have realized that treatment designs targeting tumor resistance mechanisms would be a promising strategy to break the therapeutic deadlock. Nanodelivery systems have excellent physicochemical properties, including highly efficient tissue-specific delivery, substantial specific surface area, and controllable surface chemistry, which endow nanodelivery systems with capabilities such as precise targeting, deep penetration, responsive drug release, multidrug codelivery, and multimodal synergy, which are currently widely used in biomedical researches and bring a new dawn for overcoming cancer resistance. Based on the mechanisms of tumor therapeutic resistance, this review summarizes the research progress of nanodelivery systems for overcoming tumor resistance to improve therapeutic efficacy in recent years and offers prospects and challenges of the application of nanodelivery systems for overcoming cancer resistance.

Guanidinium-based Integrated Peptide Dendrimers: Pioneer Nanocarrier in Cancer Therapy

The landscape of cancer therapy has witnessed a paradigm shift with the emergence of innovative delivery systems, and Guanidinium-based Peptide Dendrimers have emerged as a vanguard in this transformative journey. With their unique molecular architecture and intrinsic biocompatibility, these dendrimers offer a promising avenue for the targeted delivery of therapeutic cargo in cancer treatment. This comprehensive review delves into the intricate world of Guanidinium- based Peptide Dendrimers, unraveling their structural intricacies, mechanisms of action, and advancements that have propelled them from laboratory curiosities to potential clinical champions. Exploiting the potent properties of guanidinium, these dendrimers exhibit unparalleled precision in encapsulating and transporting diverse cargo molecules, ranging from conventional chemotherapeutics to cutting-edge nucleic acids. The review navigates the depths of their design principles, investigating their prowess in traversing the complex terrain of cellular barriers for optimal cargo delivery. Moreover, it delves into emerging trends, such as personalized therapeutic approaches, multimodal imaging, and bioinformatics-driven design, highlighting their potential to redefine the future of cancer therapy. Crucially, the review addresses the pivotal concerns of biocompatibility and safety, examining cytotoxicity profiles, immune responses, and in vivo studies. It underscores the importance of aligning scientific marvels with the stringent demands of clinical applications. Through each section, the narrative underscores the promises and possibilities that Guanidinium-based Peptide Dendrimers hold and how they can potentially reshape the landscape of precision cancer therapy.

Predictable and adjustable broadband gold nanorods for photothermal effects and foldable performances

Colloidal gold nanorods (GNRs) have demonstrated their potential to absorb light within specific wavelength bands and induce photothermal effects. However, the unpredictability and lack of adjustability in the broadband spectrum formed by the self-assembly of gold nanospheres or the coupling of various sizes of GNRs have posed significant challenges. To address this, we have developed broadband GNRs (BGNRs) with a predictable and adjustable extinction band in the visible and near-infrared regions. The BGNRs were synthesized by simply mixing GNRs with different aspect ratios, allowing for control over the bandwidths and positions of the extinction bands. Subsequently, the BGNRs were coated with silica and underwent surface modification. The resulting BGNRs@SiO2were then mixed with either polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) to create BGNRs@SiO2/PDMS (or PVDF) films. The BGNRs@SiO2/PDMS and BGNRs@SiO2/PVDF films both exhibit excellent photothermal performance properties. Additionally, the light absorption intensity of the BGNRs@SiO2/PVDF film linearly increases upon folding, leading to significantly enhanced photothermal performance after folding. This work demonstrates that plasmonic colloidal GNRs, without the need for coupling, can yield predictable and adjustable extinction bands. This finding holds great promise for future development and practical applications, particularly in the transfer of these properties to films.

Manganese-Based Immunomodulatory Nanocomposite with Catalase-Like Activity and Microwave-Enhanced ROS Elimination Ability for Efficient Rheumatoid Arthritis Therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease commonly associated with the accumulation of hyperactive immune cells (HICs), particularly macrophages of pro-inflammatory (M1) phenotype, accompanied by the elevated level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), decreased pH and O2 content in joint synovium. In this work, an immunomodulatory nanosystem (IMN) is developed for RA therapy by modulating and restoring the function of HICs in inflamed tissues. Manganese tetraoxide nanoparticles (Mn3 O4 ) nanoparticles anchored on UiO-66-NH2 are designed, and then the hybrid is coated with Mn-EGCG film, further wrapped with HA to obtain the final nanocomposite of UiO-66-NH2 @Mn3 O4 /Mn-EGCG@HA (termed as UMnEH). When UMnEH diffuses to the inflammatory site of RA synovium, the stimulation of microwave (MW) irradiation and low pH trigger the slow dissociation of Mn-EGCG film. Then the endogenously overexpressed hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) disintegrates the exposed Mn3 O4 NPs to promote ROS scavenging and O2 generation. Assisted by MW irradiation, the elevated O2 content in the RA microenvironment down-regulates the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α). Coupled with the clearance of ROS, it promotes the re-polarization of M1 phenotype macrophages into anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype macrophages. Therefore, the multifunctional UMnEH nanoplatform, as the IMN, exhibits a promising potential to modulate and restore the function of HICs and has an exciting prospect in the treatment of RA.

Laser-Activatable In Situ Vaccine Enhances Cancer-Immunity Cycle

The immune response in cancer reflects a series of carefully regulated events; however, current tumor immunotherapies typically address a single key aspect to enhance anti-tumor immunity. In the present study, a nanoplatform (Fe3 O4 @IR820@CpG)-based immunotherapy strategy that targets the multiple key steps in cancer-immunity cycle is developed: 1) promotes the release of tumor-derived proteins (TDPs), including tumor-associated antigens and pro-immunostimulatory factors), in addition to the direct killing effect, by photothermal (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT); 2) captures the released TDPs and delivers them, together with CpG (a Toll-like receptor 9 agonist) to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to promote antigen presentation and T cell activation; 3) enhances the tumor-killing ability of T cells by combining with anti-programmed death ligand 1 antibody (α-PD-L1), which collectively advances the outstanding of the anti-tumor effects on colorectal, liver and breast cancers. The broad-spectrum anti-tumor activity of Fe3 O4 @IR820@CpG with α-PD-L1 demonstrates that optimally manipulating anti-cancer immunity not singly but as a group provides promising clinical strategies.

Nanocarrier-Mediated Immunogenic Cell Death for Melanoma Treatment

Melanoma, a highly aggressive skin tumor, exhibits notable features including heterogeneity, a high mutational load, and innate immune escape. Despite advancements in melanoma treatment, current immunotherapies fail to fully exploit the immune system's maximum potential. Activating immunogenic cell death (ICD) holds promise in enhancing tumor cell immunogenicity, stimulating immune amplification response, improving drug sensitivity, and eliminating tumors. Nanotechnology-enabled ICD has emerged as a compelling therapeutic strategy for augmenting cancer immunotherapy. Nanoparticles possess versatile attributes, such as prolonged blood circulation, stability, and tumor-targeting capabilities, rendering them ideal for drug delivery. In this review, we elucidate the mechanisms underlying ICD induction and associated therapeutic strategies. Additionally, we provide a concise overview of the immune stress response associated with ICD and explore the potential synergistic benefits of combining ICD induction methods with the utilization of nanocarriers.

Rationally designed multifunctional nanoparticles as GSH-responsive anticancer drug delivery systems based on host-guest polymers derived from dextran and β-cyclodextrin

Tumor proliferation and metastasis rely on energy provided by mitochondria. The hexokinase inhibitor lonidamine (LND) could suppress the activities in mitochondria, being a potential antitumor drug. However, limited water-solubility of LND may hinder its biomedical applications. Besides, the cancer-killing effect of LND is compromised by the high level of glutathione (GSH) in cancer cells. Therefore, it is urgent to find a proper method to simultaneously deliver LND and deplete GSH as well as monitor GSH level in cancer cells. Herein, a host polymer β-cyclodextrin-polyethylenimine (β-CD-PEI) and a guest polymer dextran-5-dithio-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (Dextran-SS-TNB) were synthesized and allowed to form LND-loaded GSH-responsive nanoparticles through host-guest inclusion complexation between β-CD and TNB as host and guest molecular moieties, respectively, which functioned as a system for simultaneous delivery of LND and -SS-TNB species into cancer cells. As a result, the delivery system could deplete GSH and elevate reactive oxygen species (ROS) level in cancer cells, further induce LND-based mitochondrial dysfunction and ROS-based immunogenic cell death (ICD), leading to a synergistic and efficient anticancer effect. In addition, -SS-TNB reacted with GSH to release TNB2-, which could be a probe with visible light absorption at 410 nm for monitoring the GSH level in the cells.

GSH-activatable camptothecin prodrug-loaded gold nanostars coated with hyaluronic acid for targeted breast cancer therapy via multiple radiosensitization strategies

Breast cancer has overtaken lung cancer to rank as the top malignant tumor in terms of incidence. Herein, a gold nanostar (denoted as AuNS) is used for loading disulfide-coupled camptothecin-fluorophore prodrugs (denoted as CPT-SS-FL) to form a nanocomposite of AuNS@CPT-SS-FL (denoted as AS), which, in turn, is further encapsulated with hyaluronic acid (HA) to give the final nanoplatform of AuNS@CPT-SS-FL@HA (denoted as ASH). ASH effectively carries the prodrug and targets the CD44 receptor on the surface of tumor cells. The endogenously overexpressed glutathione (GSH) in tumor cells breaks the disulfide bond to activate the prodrug and release the radiosensitizer drug camptothecin (CPT) and the fluorescence imaging reagent rhodamine derivative as a fluorophore (FL). The released FL can track the precise release position of the radiosensitizer camptothecin in tumor cells in real time. The AuNS has strong X-ray absorption and deposition ability due to the high atomic coefficient of elemental Au (Z = 79). At the same time, the AuNS can alleviate the tumor microenvironment (TME) hypoxia through its mild photothermal therapy (PTT). Therefore, through the multiple radiosensitizing effects of GSH depletion, the high atomic coefficient of Au, and hypoxia alleviation, accompanied by the radiosensitizer camptothecin, the designed ASH nanoplatform can effectively induce strong immunogenic cell death (ICD) at the tumor site via radiosensitizing therapy combined with PTT. This work provides a new way of constructing a structurally compact and highly functionalized hierarchical system toward efficient breast cancer treatment through ameliorating the TME with multiple modalities.

"One-stop" synergistic strategy for hepatocellular carcinoma postoperative recurrence

Residual tumor recurrence after surgical resection of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a considerable challenge that imperils the prognosis of patients. Notably, intraoperative bleeding and postoperative infection are potential risk factors for tumor recurrence. However, the biomaterial strategy for the above problems has rarely been reported. Herein, a series of cryogels (coded as SQ-n) based on sodium alginate (SA) and quaternized chitosan (QC) were synthesized and selected for optimal ratios. The in vitro assays showed that SQ-50 possessed superior hemostasis, excellent antibacterial property, and great cytocompatibility. Subsequently, SQAP was constructed by loading black phosphorus nanosheets (BPNSs) and anlotinib hydrochloride (AL3818) based on SQ-50. Physicochemical experiments confirmed that near-infrared (NIR)-assisted SQAP could control the release of AL3818 in photothermal response, significantly inhibiting the proliferation and survival of HUVECs and H22 cells. Furthermore, in vivo studies indicated that the NIR-assisted SQAP prevented local recurrence of ectopic HCC after surgical resection, achieved through the synergistic effect of mPTT and molecular targeted therapy. Thus, the multifunctional SQAP provides a "one-stop" synergistic strategy for HCC postoperative recurrence, showing great potential for clinical application.

A PD-L1 targeting nanotheranostic for effective photoacoustic imaging guided photothermal-immunotherapy of tumor

Tumor immunotherapy has been partly effective for specific cancers. However, problems such as low immune response, limited antitumor effectiveness, and high antibody costs still persist. Synergistic therapeutic approaches, such as immune checkpoint inhibition in conjunction with photothermal therapy and photoacoustic imaging, are expected to provide approaches for more precise and efficient immunotherapy of tumors. Furthermore, developing alternatives for antibodies, such as PD-L1 aptamers and nanocarriers, would reduce the cost of tumor immunotherapy. Herein, we develop a PD-L1-targeting nanotheranostic to block immune checkpoints for synergistic photothermal-immunotherapy against tumors, along with effective photoacoustic (PA) imaging. The nanotheranostic is synthesized by the modification of gold nanorods (GNRs) with the PD-L1 aptamer (APDL1), which can sensitively and specifically recognize PD-L1 on the tumor cell surface, and mediate nanoparticle accumulation and strong PA signals in tumors. The aptamer is released from GNR through a competition of glutathione (GSH) and is then functionalized as a PD-L1 blockade. In collaboration with the concurrent photothermal therapy, antitumor immunity is significantly augmented by enhancing the filtration of matured dendritic cells and suppressing regulatory T cells, followed by the activation of cytotoxic T cells and inhibition of T cell exhaustion. Such a nanotheranostic modality effectively suppresses tumor growth in mice, representing an appealing platform for both biological imaging and photoimmunotherapy of tumors.

Deep Tumor Penetration of CRISPR-Cas System for Photothermal-Sensitized Immunotherapy via Probiotics

Since central cells are more malignant and aggressive in solid tumors, improving penetration of therapeutic agents and activating immunity in tumor centers exhibit great potential in cancer therapies. Here, polydopamine-coated Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) bearing CRISPR-Cas9 plasmid-loaded liposomes (Lipo-P) are applied for enhanced immunotherapy in deep tumors through activation of innate and adaptive immunity simultaneously. After accumulation in the tumor center through hypoxia targeting, Lipo-P could be detached under the reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive linkers, lowering the thermal resistance of cancer cells via Hsp90α depletion. Owing to that, heating induced by polydopamine upon near-infrared irradiation could achieve effective tumor ablation. Furthermore, mild photothermal therapy induces immunogenic cell death, as bacterial infections in tumor tissues trigger innate immunity. This bacteria-assisted approach provides a promising photothermal-sensitized immunotherapy in deep tumors.