Intelligent Molybdenum Disulfide Complexes as a Platform for Cooperative Imaging-Guided Tri-Mode Chemo-Photothermo-Immunotherapy

Temperature and light dual-responsive hydrogels for anti-inflammation and wound repair monitoring

Wound healing is a complex and dynamic biological process that requires meticulous management to ensure optimal outcomes. Traditional wound dressings, such as gauze and bandages, although commonly used, often fall short in their frequent need for replacement, lack of real-time monitoring and absence of anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties, which can lead to increased risk of infection and delayed healing. Here, we address these limitations by introducing an innovative hydrogel dressing, named PHDNN6, to combine wireless Bluetooth temperature monitoring and light-triggered nitric oxide (NO) release to enhance wound healing and management. The PHDNN6 hydrogel is based on a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) matrix, integrated with methacrylated and dopamine-grafted hyaluronic acid (HA-MA-DA), which allows the dressing to be highly responsive to changes in wound temperature, enabling continuous and real-time monitoring of the wound microenvironment wirelessly. Besides, PHDNN6 is embedded with photothermal polydopamine nanoparticles (PDA NPs) that are loaded with a NO donor, N,N'-di-sec-butyl-N,N'-dinitroso-1,4-phenylenediamine (BNN6). When exposed to near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, these PDA@BNN6 nanoparticles release NO to provide potent antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects. The integration of continuous wireless temperature monitoring with NO release within a single hydrogel dressing represents a significant advancement in clinical wound care. This dual-functional platform not only provides real-time diagnostic capabilities but also offers therapeutic interventions to manage wound infections and promote tissue regeneration. Our research highlights the potential of PHDNN6 to revolutionize wound management by offering a comprehensive solution that addresses both the diagnostic and therapeutic needs in wound healing.

Exploring the application of metal-based photothermal agents in photothermal therapy combined with immune checkpoint therapy

Photothermal therapy (PTT), a popular local treatment that uses heat to ablate tumors, has limited efficacy in addressing metastatic and deeply located tumors when used alone. Integrating PTT with immunotherapy not only yields a synergistic effect but also promotes cancer regression and confers the benefit of immune memory, which can surmount the challenges faced by PTT when used in isolation. Metal-based nanomaterials, renowned for their superior photothermal conversion efficiency and distinctive photochemical properties, have been extensively researched and applied in the field of PTT. This review summarizes the latest developments in combination therapies, with a specific focus on the combination of PTT and immune checkpoint therapy (ICT) for cancer treatment, including a comprehensive overview of the recent advancements in noble metal-based and 2D transition metal chalcogenides (TMDCs)-based photothermal agents, and their anticancer effect when combining PTT with immune checkpoint blockades (anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-L1) therapy. The goal of this review is to present an overview of the application, current challenges and future prospects of metal-based photothermal agents in PTT combined with ICT for cancer treatment.

A molybdenum sulfide based nitric oxide controlled release oral gel for rapid healing of oral mucosal ulcers

Oral mucosal ulcer is the most prevalent oral mucosal lesion, affecting over 25 % of general population. The current treatment regimens lack efficacy in addressing challenges such as wound bleeding, bacterial infection and inflammation on a continuous basis. Hence, a multi-functional oral gel (termed MPCST) with a long-acting duration is designed. It is based on a tannic acid-thioctic acid (TATA) supramolecular hydrogel which absorbs tissue exudate while exhibiting robust tissue adhesion properties. To form MPCST, TATA is loaded with MPCS, which are composed of polydopamine (PDA)-coated molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanoflakes (MoS2@PDA) with high photothermal conversion efficiency, nitric oxide (NO) precursor nitroprusside (SNP) and cerium oxide (CeO2) with high reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging rate. Upon exposure to 808 nm near-infrared (NIR) irradiation, MPCS rapidly heats up and releases NO to promote angiogenesis, while exhibiting strong ROS scavenging, antibacterial (including oral common Streptococcus mutans), and anti-inflammatory properties. Animal experiments show that the MPCST oral gel, composed of MPCS and TATA hydrogel, exhibits superior therapeutic efficacy compared to the commonly used dexamethasone patch.

NIR Enhanced pH-Responsive Microneedles for Synergetic Therapy of Melanoma

Melanoma has emerged as a significant threat to human life and health. Microneedle (MN)-mediated transdermal drug delivery (TDD) has garnered attention in melanoma treatment for bypassing the first-pass effect. However, the propensity of melanoma to metastasize presents substantial challenges for MN mediated local treatment. Developing systemic therapies, such as immunotherapy in combination with TDD, is crucial for achieving effective melanoma treatment. Herein, a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) MN-mediated multifunctional TDD system, designated MN@PDA@1-MT/CUR/DOX@HA (MN@PMCDH), was developed for synergetic chemotherapy/photothermal/immunotherapy of melanoma. PMCDH nanomedicines penetrate deep skin layers through MNs, accumulate at tumor sites guided by hyaluronic acid (HA), and selectively release drugs in response to the acidic tumor microenvironment and near-infrared (NIR) stimulation. Released curcumin (CUR) significantly enhances the efficacy of photothermal therapy (PTT) and chemotherapy, as well as improves the induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD) by increasing melanoma sensitivity to polydopamine (PDA)-mediated photothermal effects and doxorubicin (DOX). Moreover, the incorporation of 1-methyltryptophan (1-MT) to reverse the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment can further enhance the effects of immunotherapy. In vitro studies revealed that the MN@PMCDH system can effectively induce ICD and inhibit tumor cell growth. Additionally, remarkable deep tumor cell inhibition effects are also achieved in 3D tumor models.

Recent advances in two-dimensional materials for drug delivery

Two-dimensional (2D) materials exhibit significant potential in biomedical applications, particularly as drug carriers. Thus, 2D materials, including graphene, black phosphorus, transition metal dichalcogenides, transition metal carbides/nitrides, and hexagonal boron nitride, have been extensively studied. Their large specific surface area, abundant surface active sites, and excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability make them ideal platforms for drug loading and delivery. By optimizing the physicochemical properties and methods for the surface modification of 2D materials, improved drug release mechanisms and enhanced combination therapy effects can be achieved, providing a reliable foundation for efficient cancer treatment. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the recent advances in the utilization of 2D materials for drug delivery. It systematically categorizes and summarizes the preparation methodologies, surface modification strategies, application domains, primary advantages and potential drawbacks of various 2D materials in the biomedical field. Furthermore, it provides an extensive overview of current challenges in this field and outlines potential future research directions for 2D materials in drug delivery based on existing issues.

Development of a microfluidic wearable electrochemical sensor for the non-invasive monitoring of oxidative stress biomarkers in human sweat

Oxidative stress is widely recognized as a pivotal factor contributing to numerous Central Nervous System (CNS) ailments. The concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and phosphorylated proteins within the human body serve as crucial indicators of oxidative stress. As such, the real-time monitoring of H2O2 and phosphorylated proteins in sweat is vital for the early identification, diagnosis, and management of diseases linked to oxidative stress. In this context, we present a novel microfluidic wearable electrochemical sensor by modifying the electrode with Prussian blue (PB) and loading sulfur-rich vacancy-containing molybdenum disulfide (MoS2-X) onto Multi-walled carbon nanotube (CNTs) to form coaxially layered CNTs/MoS2-X, which was then synthesized with highly dispersed titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2) to synthesize CNTs/MoS2-X/TiO2 composites for the detection of human sweat H2O2 and phosphorylated proteins, respectively. This structure, with its sulfur vacancies and coaxial layering, significantly improved sensitivity of electrochemical sensors, allowing it to detect H2O2 in a range of 0.01-1 mM with a detection limit of 4.80 μM, and phosphoproteins in a range of 0.01-1 mg/mL with a threshold of 0.917 μg/mL. Furthermore, the miniature sensor demonstrates outstanding performance in detecting analytes in both simulated and real sweat. Comprehensive biosafety assessments have validated the compatibility of the electrode material, underscoring the potential of sensor as a reliable and non-invasive method for tracking biomarkers linked to CNS disorders. This microfluidic wearable electrochemical biosensor with high performance and biosafety features shows great promise for the development of cutting-edge wearable technology devices for tracking CNS disease indicators.

Recent developments in two-dimensional molybdenum disulfide-based multimodal cancer theranostics

Recent advancements in cancer research have led to the generation of innovative nanomaterials for improved diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. Despite the proven potential of two-dimensional (2D) molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) as a versatile platform in biomedical applications, few review articles have focused on MoS2-based platforms for cancer theranostics. This review aims to fill this gap by providing a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in 2D MoS2 cancer theranostics and emerging strategies in this field. This review highlights the potential applications of 2D MoS2 in single-model imaging and therapy, including fluorescence imaging, photoacoustic imaging, photothermal therapy, and catalytic therapy. This review further classifies the potential of 2D MoS2 in multimodal imaging for diagnostic and synergistic theranostic platforms. In particular, this review underscores the progress of 2D MoS2 as an integrated drug delivery system, covering a broad spectrum of therapeutic strategies from chemotherapy and gene therapy to immunotherapy and photodynamic therapy. Finally, this review discusses the current challenges and future perspectives in meeting the diverse demands of advanced cancer diagnostic and theranostic applications.

Ultrasound-Based Micro-/Nanosystems for Biomedical Applications

Due to the intrinsic non-invasive nature, cost-effectiveness, high safety, and real-time capabilities, besides diagnostic imaging, ultrasound as a typical mechanical wave has been extensively developed as a physical tool for versatile biomedical applications. Especially, the prosperity of nanotechnology and nanomedicine invigorates the landscape of ultrasound-based medicine. The unprecedented surge in research enthusiasm and dedicated efforts have led to a mass of multifunctional micro-/nanosystems being applied in ultrasound biomedicine, facilitating precise diagnosis, effective treatment, and personalized theranostics. The effective deployment of versatile ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems in biomedical applications is rooted in a profound understanding of the relationship among composition, structure, property, bioactivity, application, and performance. In this comprehensive review, we elaborate on the general principles regarding the design, synthesis, functionalization, and optimization of ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems for abundant biomedical applications. In particular, recent advancements in ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems for diagnostic imaging are meticulously summarized. Furthermore, we systematically elucidate state-of-the-art studies concerning recent progress in ultrasound-based micro-/nanosystems for therapeutic applications targeting various pathological abnormalities including cancer, bacterial infection, brain diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic diseases. Finally, we conclude and provide an outlook on this research field with an in-depth discussion of the challenges faced and future developments for further extensive clinical translation and application.

Acidity-responsive polyphenol-coordinated nanovaccines for improving tumor immunotherapy via bidirectional reshaping of the immunosuppressive microenvironment and controllable release of antigens

The tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment (TIME) and uncontrollable release of antigens can lower the efficacy of nanovaccine-based immunotherapy (NBI). Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new strategy for TIME reshaping and controllable release of antigens to improve the NBI efficacy. Herein, an acidity-responsive Schiff base-conjugated polyphenol-coordinated nanovaccine was constructed for the first time to realize bidirectional TIME reshaping and controllable release of antigens for activating T cells. In particular, an acidity-responsive tannic acid-ovalbumin (TA-OVA) nanoconjugate was prepared via a Schiff base reaction. FeIII was coordinated with TA-OVA to produce a FeIII-TA-OVA nanosystem, and 1-methyltryptophan (1-MT) as an indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase inhibitor was loaded to form a polyphenol-coordinated nanovaccine. The coordination between FeIII and TA could cause photothermal ablation of primary tumors, and the acidity-triggered Schiff base dissociation of TA-OVA could controllably release OVA to realize lysosome escape, initiating the body's immune response. More importantly, oxidative stress generated by a tumor-specific Fenton reaction of Fe ions could promote the polarization of tumor-associated macrophages from the M2 to M1 phenotype, resulting in the upregulation of cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells. Meanwhile, 1-MT could downregulate immunosuppressive regulatory T cells. Overall, such skillful combination of bidirectional TIME reshaping and controllable antigen release into one coordination nanosystem could effectively enhance the NBI efficacy of tumors.

Genomic and transcriptomic significance of multiple primary lung cancers detected by next-generation sequencing in clinical settings

Effective diagnosis and understanding of the mechanism of intrapulmonary metastasis (IM) from multiple primary lung cancers (MPLC) aid clinical management. However, the actual detection panels used in the clinic are variable. Current research on tumor microenvironment (TME) of MPLC and IM is insufficient. Therefore, additional investigation into the differential diagnosis and discrepancies in TME between two conditions is crucial. Two hundred and fourteen non-small cell lung cancer patients with multiple tumors were enrolled and 507 samples were subjected to DNA sequencing (NGS 10). Then, DNA and RNA sequencing (master panel) were performed on the specimens from 32 patients, the TME profiles between tumors within each patient and across patients and the differentially expressed genes were compared. Four patients were regrouped with NGS 10 results. Master panel resolved the classifications of six undetermined patients. The TME in MPLC exhibited a high degree of infiltration by natural killer (NK) cells, CD56dim NK cells, endothelial cells, etc., P < 0.05. Conversely, B cells, activated B cells, regulatory cells, immature dendritic cells, etc., P < 0.001, were heavily infiltrated in the IM. NECTIN4 and LILRB4 mRNA were downregulated in the MPLC (P < 0.0001). Additionally, NECTIN4 (P < 0.05) and LILRB4 were linked to improved disease-free survival in the MPLC. In conclusion, IM is screened from MPLC by pathology joint NGS 10 detections, followed by a large NGS panel for indistinguishable patients. A superior prognosis of MPLC may be associated with an immune-activating TME and the downregulation of NECTIN4 and LILRB4 considered as potential drug therapeutic targets.

Cancer Radiosensitization Nanoagent to Activate cGAS-STING Pathway for Molecular Imaging Guided Synergistic Radio/Chemo/Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has emerged as an innovative strategy with the potential to improve outcomes in cancer patients. Recent evidence indicates that radiation-induced DNA damage can activate the cyclic-GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway to enhance the antitumor immune response. Even so, only a small fraction of patients currently benefits from radioimmunotherapy due to the radioresistance and the inadequate activation of the cGAS-STING pathway. Herein, this work integrates hafnium oxide (HfO2) nanoparticles (radiosensitizer) and 7-Ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN38, chemotherapy drug, STING agonist) into a polydopamine (PDA)-coated core-shell nanoplatform (HfO2@PDA/Fe/SN38) to achieve synergistic chemoradiotherapy and immunotherapy. The co-delivery of HfO2/SN38 greatly enhances radiotherapy efficacy by effectively activating the cGAS-STING pathway, which then triggers dendritic cells maturation and CD8+ T cells recruitment. Consequently, the growth of both primary and abscopal tumors in tumor-bearing mice is efficiently inhibited. Moreover, the HfO2@PDA/Fe/SN38 complexes exhibit favorable magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)/photoacoustic (PA) bimodal molecular imaging properties. In summary, these developed multifunctional complexes have the potential to intensify immune activation to realize simultaneous cancer Radio/Chemo/Immunotherapy for clinical translation.

A metal-organic framework (MOF) built on surface-modified Cu nanoparticles eliminates tumors via multiple cascading synergistic therapeutic effects

Tumors produce a hypoxic environment that greatly influences cancer treatment, and conventional chemotherapeutic drugs cannot selectively accumulate in the tumor region because of the lack of a tumor targeting mechanism, causing increased systemic toxicities and side effects. Hence, designing and developing new nanoplatforms that combine multimodal therapeutic regimens is essential to improve tumor therapeutic efficacy. Herein, we report the synthesis of ultrafine Cu nanoparticles loaded with a drug combination of cisplatin (Pt) and 1-methyl-d-tryptophan (1-MT) and externally coated with 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl)porphyrin (TCPP) photosensitizer, polydopamine (PDA) and CaO2 of MIL-101(Fe) as a new nanoplatform (Cu@MIL-101@PMTPC). The nanoplatform synergistically combined chemodynamic therapy (CDT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and immunochemotherapy. The Fe3+ in MIL-101(Fe) and the surface Cu nanoparticles exhibited strong ability to consume intracellular glutathione (GSH), thereby generating a Fenton-like response in the tumor microenvironment (TME) with substantial peroxidase (POD)-like and superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like activities. In this design, we used the indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) inhibitor 1-MT to overcome chemotherapy-induced immune escape phenomena including enhanced CD8+ and CD4+ T cell expression, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) production, and accelerated immunogenic cell death. The targeted release of cisplatin loaded into Cu@MIL-101@PMTPC also reduced toxic side effects of chemotherapy. TCPP generated a large amount of singlet oxygen (1O2) upon specific laser irradiation to effectively kill tumor cells. CaO2 on the outer layer generated oxygen (O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to ameliorate hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment, enhance the PDT effect, and provide a continuous supply of H2O2 for the Fenton-like reaction. Thus, this nanocarrier platform exhibited a powerful chemodynamic, photodynamic, and immunochemotherapeutic cascade, providing a new strategy for cancer treatment.

An insight into the dual role of MoS2-based nanocarriers in anticancer drug delivery and therapy

Over the years, nanomaterials have been exploited as drug delivery systems and therapeutic agents in cancer treatment. Special emphasis has been placed on structure and shape-mediated drug loading and release. Functional materials, including molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), have shown promising results because of their tunable structure and unmatched physicochemical properties. Specifically, easy surface functionalization and high drug adsorption ability make them ideal candidates. Although the large surface area of nanosheets/nanoflakes may result in high drug loading, the encapsulation efficiency is better for MoS2 nanoflower structures. Due to its high targeting abilities, the loading of chemotherapeutic drugs onto MoS2 may minimize nonspecific cellular death and undesired side effects. Furthermore, due to their strong light-absorption ability, MoS2 nanostructures have been widely exploited as photothermal and photodynamic therapeutic agents. The unexplored dimensions of cancer therapy, including chemodynamic (Fenton-like reaction) and piezo-catalytic (ultrasound-mediated reactive oxygen generation), have been recently unlocked, in which the catalytic properties of MoS2 are utilized to generate toxic free radicals to eliminate cancer. Intriguingly, combining these therapeutic modalities often results in high therapeutic efficacy at low doses and minimizes side effects. With a plethora of recent studies, a thorough analysis of current findings is crucial. Therefore, this review discusses the major advances in this field of research. A brief commentary on the limitations/future outlook/ethical issues of the clinical translation of MoS2-mediated cancer treatments is also deliberated. Overall, in our observations, the MoS2-based nanoformulations hold great potential for future cancer therapy applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Development of nanomedicines based on MoS2 has opened new avenues in cancer treatment. The MoS2 with different morphologies (nanosheet/nanoflower/QDs) has shown promising results in controlled and targeted drug delivery, leading to minimized side effects and increased therapeutic efficacy. While existing reviews have primarily focused on the optical/thermal properties utilized in photodynamic/photothermal therapy, the outstanding catalytic properties of MoS2 utilized in cancer therapies (chemodynamic/piezo-catalytic) are often overlooked. This review critically highlights and praises/criticizes individual articles reporting the MoS2-based nanoplatforms for cancer therapy applications. Additionally, MoS2-based combined therapies for synergistic effects are discussed. Furthermore, a brief commentary on the future prospects for clinical translations is also deliberated, which is appealing to various research communities engaged in cancer theranostics and biomedical sciences research.

Synthesis and photodynamic activity of novel thieno[3,2-b]thiophene fused BODIPYs with good bio-solubility and anti-aggregation effect

To discover new photosensitizers with long wavelength UV-visible absorption, high efficiency, and low side effects for photodynamic therapy, here, a series of novel thieno[3,2-b]thiophene-fused BODIPY derivatives were designed, synthesized and characterized. These compounds had a distinct absorption band at 640-680 nm, fluorescence emission at 650-760 nm, and good solubility with anti-aggregation effects. These new compounds possessed obvious singlet oxygen generation ability and photodynamic anti-Eca-109 cancer cells activities in vitro. Among them, compound II4 could be well uptaked by Eca-109 cells, and result in the apoptosis after laser irradiation, and have outstanding photodynamic efficiency both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, II4 could be considered as a potential photosensitizer drug candidate for PDT and photo-imaging.

Zwitterionic Injectable Hydrogel-Combined Chemo- and Immunotherapy Medicated by Monomolecular Micelles to Effectively Prevent the Recurrence of Tumor Post Operation

Surgical resection remains the most common method of tumor treatment; however, the high recurrence and metastasis after surgery need to be solved urgently. Herein, we report an injectable zwitterionic hydrogel based on "thiol-ene" click chemistry containing doxorubicin (DOX) and a macrophage membrane (MM)-coated 1-methyl-tryptophan (1-MT)-loaded polyamide-amine dendrimer (P-DOX/1MT) for preventing the postoperative recurrence of tumors. The results indicated that P-DOX/1MT@MM exhibited enhanced recognition and uptake of the dendrimer by tumor cells and induced the immunogenic cell death. In the mice tumor model, the P-DOX/1MT@MM-Gel exhibited high therapeutic efficiency, which could significantly reduce the recurrence of the tumor, including suppressing tumor growth, promoting dendritic cell maturation, and increasing tumor-infiltrating cytotoxic T lymphocytes. The mechanism analysis revealed that the hydrogel greatly reduces the side effects to normal tissues and significantly improves its therapeutic effect. 1MT in the hydrogel is released more rapidly, improving the tumor suppressor microenvironment and increasing the tumor cell sensitivity to DOX. Then, the DOX in the P-DOX/1MT@MM effectively eliminatedo the residual tumor cells and exerted enhanced toxicity. In conclusion, this novel injectable hydrogel that combines chemotherapy and immunotherapy has the property of sequential drug release and is a promising strategy for preventing the postoperative recurrence of tumors.

Multi-Stimuli-Responsive and Cell Membrane Camouflaged Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanogels for Precise Chemo-photothermal Synergistic Therapy of Tumors

Targeted and controllable drug release at lesion sites with the aid of visual navigation in real-time is of great significance for precise theranostics of cancers. Benefiting from the marvelous features (e.g., bright emission and phototheranostic effects in aggregates) of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) materials, constructing AIE-based multifunctional nanocarriers that act as all-arounders to integrate multimodalities for precise theranostics is highly desirable. Here, an intelligent nanoplatform (P-TN-Dox@CM) with homologous targeting, controllable drug release, and in vivo dual-modal imaging for precise chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy is proposed. AIE photothermic agent (TN) and anticancer drug (Dox) are encapsulated in thermo-/pH-responsive nanogels (PNA), and the tumor cell membranes are camouflaged onto the surface of nanogels. Active targeting can be realized through homologous effects derived from source tumor cell membranes, which advantageously elevates the specific drug delivery to tumor sites. After being engulfed into tumor cells, the nanogels exhibit a burst drug release at low pH. The near-infrared (NIR) photoinduced local hyperthermia can activate severe cytotoxicity and further accelerate drug release, thus generating enhanced synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy to thoroughly eradicate tumors. Moreover, P-TN-Dox@CM nanogels could achieve NIR-fluorescence/photothermal dual-modal imaging to monitor the dynamic distribution of therapeutics in real-time. This work highlights the great potential of smart P-TN-Dox@CM nanogels as a versatile nanoplatform to integrate multimodalities for precise chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy in combating cancers.

Reactive oxygen nanobiocatalysts: activity-mechanism disclosures, catalytic center evolutions, and changing states

Benefiting from low costs, structural diversities, tunable catalytic activities, feasible modifications, and high stability compared to the natural enzymes, reactive oxygen nanobiocatalysts (RONBCs) have become dominant materials in catalyzing and mediating reactive oxygen species (ROS) for diverse biomedical and biological applications. Decoding the catalytic mechanism and structure-reactivity relationship of RONBCs is critical to guide their future developments. Here, this timely review comprehensively summarizes the recent breakthroughs and future trends in creating and decoding RONBCs. First, the fundamental classification, activity, detection method, and reaction mechanism for biocatalytic ROS generation and elimination have been systematically disclosed. Then, the merits, modulation strategies, structure evolutions, and state-of-art characterisation techniques for designing RONBCs have been briefly outlined. Thereafter, we thoroughly discuss different RONBCs based on the reported major material species, including metal compounds, carbon nanostructures, and organic networks. In particular, we offer particular insights into the coordination microenvironments, bond interactions, reaction pathways, and performance comparisons to disclose the structure-reactivity relationships and mechanisms. In the end, the future challenge and perspectives for RONBCs are also carefully summarised. We envision that this review will provide a comprehensive understanding and guidance for designing ROS-catalytic materials and stimulate the wide utilisation of RONBCs in diverse biomedical and biological applications.

Nanomaterials for photothermal cancer therapy

Cancer has emerged as a pressing global public health issue, and improving the effectiveness of cancer treatment remains one of the foremost challenges of modern medicine. The primary clinical methods of treating cancer, including surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, inevitably result in some adverse effects on the body. However, the advent of photothermal therapy offers an alternative route for cancer treatment. Photothermal therapy relies on photothermal agents with photothermal conversion capability to eliminate tumors at high temperatures, which offers advantages of high precision and low toxicity. As nanomaterials increasingly play a pivotal role in tumor prevention and treatment, nanomaterial-based photothermal therapy has gained significant attention owing to its superior photothermal properties and tumor-killing abilities. In this review, we briefly summarize and introduce the applications of common organic photothermal conversion materials (e.g., cyanine-based nanomaterials, porphyrin-based nanomaterials, polymer-based nanomaterials, etc.) and inorganic photothermal conversion materials (e.g., noble metal nanomaterials, carbon-based nanomaterials, etc.) in tumor photothermal therapy in recent years. Finally, the problems of photothermal nanomaterials in antitumour therapy applications are discussed. It is believed that nanomaterial-based photothermal therapy will have good application prospects in tumor treatment in the future.

Platinum Drug-Incorporating Polymeric Nanosystems for Precise Cancer Therapy

Platinum (Pt) drugs are widely used in clinic for cancer therapy, but their therapeutic outcomes are significantly compromised by severe side effects and acquired drug resistance. With the emerging immunotherapy and imaging-guided cancer therapy, precise delivery and release of Pt drugs have drawn great attention these days. The targeting delivery of Pt drugs can greatly increase the accumulation at tumor sites, which ultimately enhances antitumor efficacy. Further, with the combination of Pt drugs and other theranostic agents into one nanosystem, it not only possesses excellent synergistic efficacy but also achieves real-time monitoring. In this review, after the introduction of Pt drugs and their characteristics, the recent progress of polymeric nanosystems for efficient delivery of Pt drugs is summarized with an emphasis on multi-modal synergistic therapy and imaging-guided Pt-based cancer treatment. In the end, the conclusions and future perspectives of Pt-encapsulated nanosystems are given.

Smart One-for-All Agent with Adaptive Functions for Improving Photoacoustic /Fluorescence Imaging-Guided Photodynamic Immunotherapy

Multifunctional phototheranostics that integrate several diagnostic and therapeutic strategies into one platform hold great promise for precision medicine. However, it is really difficult for one molecule to possess multimodality optical imaging and therapy properties that all functions are in the optimized mode because the absorbed photoenergy is fixed. Herein, a smart one-for-all nanoagent that the photophysical energy transformation processes can be facilely tuned by external light stimuli is developed for precise multifunctional image-guided therapy. A dithienylethene-based molecule is designed and synthesized because it has two light-switchable forms. In the ring-closed form, most of the absorbed energy dissipates via nonradiative thermal deactivation for photoacoustic (PA) imaging. In the ring-open form, the molecule possesses obvious aggregation-induced emission features with excellent fluorescence and photodynamic therapy properties. In vivo experiments demonstrate that preoperative PA and fluorescence imaging help to delineate tumors in a high-contrast manner, and intraoperative fluorescence imaging is able to sensitively detect tiny residual tumors. Furthermore, the nanoagent can induce immunogenic cell death to elicit antitumor immunity and significantly suppress solid tumors. This work develops a smart one-for-all agent that the photophysical energy transformation and related phototheranostic properties can be optimized by light-driven structure switch, which is promising for multifunctional biomedical applications.

Dual-Responsive Core-Shell Tecto Dendrimers Enable Efficient Gene Editing of Cancer Cells to Boost Immune Checkpoint Blockade Therapy

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy has become a promising strategy in treating multiple tumor types, but the therapeutic efficacy is still unsatisfactory due to the temporary and inefficient blocking and the poor immune responsiveness. Herein, we report the development of dual reactive oxygen species (ROS)- and pH-responsive core-shell tecto dendrimers loaded with gold nanoparticles (for short, Au CSTDs) to deliver a plasmid-clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 system for the permanent disruption of the programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) gene in cancer cells to boost cancer immunotherapy. In our work, Au CSTDs were constructed using lactobionic acid (LA)-modified generation 5 poly(amidoamine) dendrimers entrapped with gold nanoparticles as cores and phenylboronic acid (PBA)-conjugated generation 3 dendrimers as shells via the formation of responsive phenylborate ester bonds between PBA and LA. The plasmid-CRISPR/Cas9 system can be efficiently compacted and specifically taken up by cancer cells overexpressing sialic acids due to the PBA-mediated targeting and be responsively released in cancer cells by the responsive dissociation of the Au CSTDs, leading to the successful endosomal escape and the efficient knockout of the PD-L1 gene. Further in vivo delivery in a mouse melanoma model reveals that the developed Au CSTDs/plasmid-CRISPR/Cas9 complexes can be specifically accumulated at the tumor site for enhanced computed tomography (CT) imaging of tumors, owing to the X-ray attenuation effect of Au, and disrupt the PD-L1 expression in tumor cells, thus promoting the ICB-based antitumor immunity. The designed dual-responsive Au CSTDs may be developed as a versatile tool for genetic engineering of other cell types to achieve different therapeutic effects for expanded space of biomedical applications.

Photothermal Attenuation of Cancer Cell Stemness, Chemoresistance, and Migration Using CD44-Targeted MoS2 Nanosheets

Cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) play key roles in chemoresistance, tumor metastasis, and clinical relapse. However, current CSC inhibitors lack specificity, efficacy, and applicability to different cancers. Herein, we introduce a nanomaterial-based approach to photothermally induce the differentiation of CSCs, termed "photothermal differentiation", leading to the attenuation of cancer cell stemness, chemoresistance, and metastasis. MoS2 nanosheets and a moderate photothermal treatment were applied to target a CSC surface receptor (i.e., CD44) and modulate its downstream signaling pathway. This treatment forces the more stem-like cancer cells to lose the mesenchymal phenotype and adopt an epithelial, less stem-like state, which shows attenuated self-renewal capacity, more response to anticancer drugs, and less invasiveness. This approach could be applicable to various cancers due to the broad availability of the CD44 biomarker. The concept of using photothermal nanomaterials to regulate specific cellular activities driving the differentiation of CSCs offers a new avenue for treating refractory cancers.

Perylene-Mediated Electron Leakage in Respiratory Chain to Trigger Endogenous ROS Burst for Hypoxic Cancer Chemo-Immunotherapy

Perylene derivatives can be stimulated by the hypoxic tumor microenvironment to generate radical anion that is proposed to arouse electron exchange with oxidizing substance, and in turn, realize reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst. Here, three perylene therapeutic agents, PDI-NI, PDIB-NI, and PDIC-NI, are developed and it is found that the minimum lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy level makes PDIC-NI most easily accept electrons from the oxidative respiratory chain to form lots of anions, and the resultant maximum ROS generation, establishing an unambiguous mechanism for the formation of perylene radical anions in the cell, presents solid evidence for LUMO energy level determining endogenous ROS burst. Stirringly, PDIC-NI-induced ROS generation arouses enhanced mitochondrial oxidative stress and concurrently activates immunogenic cell death (ICD), which not only efficiently kills lung tumor cells but also reprograms immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, including the cytokine secretion, dendritic cell maturation, as well as cytotoxic T lymphocytes activation, to inhibit the growth of xenografted and metastasis tumor, presenting a proof-of-concept demonstration of perylene that acts as an integrated therapeutic agent to well realize hypoxia-activated chemotherapy with ICD-induced immunotherapy on lung cancer.

Phosphorous Dendron Micelles as a Nanomedicine Platform for Cooperative Tumor Chemoimmunotherapy via Synergistic Modulation of Immune Cells

Design of effective nanomedicines to modulate multiple immune cells to overcome the immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment is desirable to improve the overall poor clinical outcomes of immunotherapy. Herein, a nanomedicine platform is reported based on chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded phosphorus dendron micelles (M-G1-TBPNa@DOX, TBP, tyramine bearing two dimethylphosphonate) with inherent immunomodulatory activity for synergistic tumor chemoimmunotherapy. The M-G1-TBPNa@DOX micelles with good stability and a mean particle size of 86.4 nm can deliver DOX to solid tumors to induce significant tumor cell apoptosis and immunogenic cell death (ICD). With the demonstrated intrinsic activity of M-G1-TBPNa that can promote the proliferation of natural killer (NK) cells, the ICD-resulted maturation of dendritic cells of the DOX-loaded micelles, and the combination of anti-PD-L1 antibody, the synergistic modulation of multiple immune cells through NK cell proliferation, recruitment of tumor-infiltrating NK cells and cytotoxic T cells, and decrease of regulatory T cells for effective tumor chemoimmunotherapy with strong antitumor immunity and immune memory effect for effective prevention of lung metastasis are demonstrated. The developed phosphorous dendron micelles may hold great promise to be used as an advanced nanomedicine formulation for synergistic modulation of multiple immune cells through NK cell proliferation for effective chemoimmunotherapy of different tumor types.

Nanomaterial‐Boosted Tumor Immunotherapy Through Natural Killer Cells

Natural killer (NK)‐cell immunotherapy as an alternative to T‐cell immunotherapy has been widely used in clinical cell immunotherapy of various tumors. Despite the surprising findings, the widespread applications of NK cells are still limited by the insufficient expansion and short lifespan of adoptive NK cells in vivo, the poor penetration of NK cells in solid tumors, as well as the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment that may cause the inactivation of NK cells. Fortunately, the emergence of nanomaterials provides many opportunities to address these vexing problems, thus overcoming the barriers faced by NK cells and promoting the tumor inhibitory efficacy of NK cells. Herein, the recent advances in the rational design of nanomaterials for boosting the NK cell‐based immunotherapy, mainly through enhancing NK cell engagement with tumors, boosting NK cell activation or expansion, as well as redirecting NK cells to tumor cells, are reviewed. Lastly, the design and preparation of next‐generation nanomaterials that aim to further boost the NK cell‐based immunotherapy are briefly discussed.

Chemotherapy Mediated by Biomimetic Polymeric Nanoparticles Potentiates Enhanced Tumor Immunotherapy via Amplification of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Construction of multifunctional nanoplatforms to elevate chemotherapeutic efficacy and induce long-term antitumor immunity still remains to be an extreme challenge. Herein, the design of an advanced redox-responsive nanomedicine formulation based on phosphorus dendrimer-copper(II) complexes (1G₃ -Cu)- and toyocamycin (Toy)-loaded polymeric nanoparticles (GCT NPs) coated with cancer cell membranes (CM) are reported. The designed GCT@CM NPs with a size of 210 nm are stable under physiological conditions but are rapidly dissociated in the reductive tumor microenvironment to deplete glutathione and release drugs. The co-loading of 1G₃ -Cu and Toy within the NPs causes significant tumor cell apoptosis and immunogenic cell death through 1G₃ -Cu-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and Toy-mediated amplification of endoplasmic reticulum stress, respectively, thus effectively suppressing tumor growth, promoting dendritic cell maturation, and increasing tumor-infiltrating cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Likewise, the coated CM and the loaded 1G₃ -Cu render the GCT@CM NPs with homotypic targeting and T₁ -weighted magnetic resonance imaging of tumors, respectively. With the assistance of programmed cell death ligand 1 antibody, the GCT@CM NP-mediated chemotherapy can significantly potentiate tumor immunotherapy for effective inhibition of tumor recurrence and metastasis. The developed GCT@CM NPs hold a great potential for chemotherapy-potentiated immunotherapy of different tumor types through different mechanisms or synergies.

Organic single molecule based nano-platform for NIR-II imaging and chemo-photothermal synergistic treatment of tumor

Integrating multiple functionalities of near-infrared second window fluorescence imaging (NIR-Ⅱ FLI), chemotherapy, and photothermal treatment (PTT) into a single molecule is desirable but still a highly challenging task. Herein, inspired by the results that hyperthermia can enhance the cytotoxicity of some alkylating agents, we designed and synthesized the novel compound NM. By introducing nitrogen mustard's active moiety bis(2-chlorethyl)amino into Donor-Acceptor-Donor (D-A-D) electronic structure, the unimolecular system not only behaviored as a chemotherapeutic agent but also exhibited good PTT and NIR-Ⅱ FLI abilities. The hydrophobic agent NM was encapsulated by DSPE-PEG2000 to generate the nano-platform NM-NPs. The current study on in vitro and in vivo experiments indicated that NM-NPs make vessels visualize clearly in the NIR-II zone and achieve complete tumor elimination through chemo-photothermal synergistic treatment. Overall, this study provides a new innovative strategy for developing superior, versatile phototheranostics for cancer theranostics.

Van-mediated self-aggregating photothermal agents combined with multifunctional magnetic nickel oxide nanoparticles for precise elimination of bacterial infections

Building a novel and efficient photothermal antibacterial nanoplatform is a promising strategy for precise bacterial elimination. Herein, a nanocomposite NiO NPs@AuNPs@Van (NAV) for selective MRSA removal was constructed by electrostatic self-assembly of highly photothermal magnetic NiO NPs and vancomycin (Van)-modified gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). In the presence of MRSA and under NIR irradiation, Van-mediated AuNPs can self-aggregate on MRSA surface, generating photothermal effect in situ and killing 99.6% MRSA in conjunction with magnetic NiO NPs. Additionally, the photothermal efficiency can be improved by magnetic enrichment due to the excellent magnetism of NAV, thereby enhancing the bactericidal effect at a lower experimental dose. In vitro antibacterial experiments and full-thickness skin wound healing test demonstrated that this combination therapy could effectively accelerate wound healing in MRSA-infected mice, increase collagen coverage, reduce IL-6 and TNF-α content, and upregulate VEGF expression. Biological safety experiments confirmed that NAV has good biocompatibility in vivo and in vitro. Overall, this work reveals a new type of nanocomposite with enhanced photothermal antibacterial activity as a potential nano-antibacterial agent for treating bacteria-infected wounds.

Understanding the bidirectional interactions between two-dimensional materials, microorganisms, and the immune system

Two-dimensional (2D) materials such as the graphene-based materials, transition metal dichalcogenides, transition metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes), black phosphorus, hexagonal boron nitride, and others have attracted considerable attention due to their unique physicochemical properties. This is true not least in the field of medicine. Understanding the interactions between 2D materials and the immune system is therefore of paramount importance. Furthermore, emerging evidence suggests that 2D materials may interact with microorganisms - pathogens as well as commensal bacteria that dwell in and on our body. We discuss the interplay between 2D materials, the immune system, and the microbial world in order to bring a systems perspective to bear on the biological interactions of 2D materials. The use of 2D materials as vectors for drug delivery and as immune adjuvants in tumor vaccines, and 2D materials to counteract inflammation and promote tissue regeneration, are explored. The bio-corona formation on and biodegradation of 2D materials, and the reciprocal interactions between 2D materials and microorganisms, are also highlighted. Finally, we consider the future challenges pertaining to the biomedical applications of various classes of 2D materials.

68Ga-labeled dendrimer-entrapped gold nanoparticles for PET/CT dual-modality imaging and immunotherapy of tumors

The design and fabrication of nanoplatforms with both nuclear medical imaging and therapeutic functions remain challenging in current precision nanomedicine. Herein, we report the design of a novel nanoplatform based on glucose-modified dendrimer-entrapped gold nanoparticles (Au DENPs) labeled with radionuclide ⁶⁸Ga and incorporated with cytosine-guanine (CpG) oligonucleotide for positron emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT) dual-mode imaging and immunotherapy of tumors. In this study, generation 5 poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers were first modified to have 8.2 DOTA and 7.3 polyethylene glycol with the other end functionalized with 2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose (DG) for each dendrimer, entrapped with Au NPs, and then radiolabeled with ⁶⁸Ga through the DOTA chelation. The synthesized DG-Au DENPs have good cytocompatibility, targeting specificity toward cancer cells expressing glucose transporters, and the ability to be labeled by ⁶⁸Ga with great labeling efficiency (≥85%) and stability (≥95%). After being loaded with CpG, the formed DG-Au DENPs/CpG polyplexes were proven to be used for tumor dual-mode PET/CT imaging and immunotherapy by effectively maturing dendritic cells to initiate a T cell-based antitumor immune response in vivo. Compared with the DG-free polyplexes, the developed DG-Au DENPs/CpG polyplexes show a much more sensitive imaging effect and better inhibition effect of tumors. These findings demonstrate a unique design of ⁶⁸Ga-labeled DG-Au DENPs, a promising theranostic nanoplatform that may be extended to tackle different tumor types.

Tumor cell membrane-camouflaged responsive nanoparticles enable MRI-guided immuno-chemodynamic therapy of orthotopic osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is a refractory bone disease in young people that needs the updating and development of effective treatment. Although nanotechnology is widely applied in cancer therapy, poor targeting and inadequate efficiency hinder its development. In this study, we prepared alendronate (ALD)/K7M2 cell membranes-coated hollow manganese dioxide (HMnO₂) nanoparticles as a nanocarrier to load Ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2) for Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI)-guided immuno-chemodynamic combination osteosarcoma therapy. Subsequently, the ALD and K7M2 cell membranes were successively modified on the surface of HMnO₂ and loaded with Rh2. The tumor microenvironment (TME)-activated Rh2@HMnO₂-AM nanoparticles have good bone tumor-targeting and tumor-homing capabilities, excellent GSH-sensitive drug release profile and MRI capability, and attractive immuno-chemodynamic combined therapeutic efficiency. The Rh2@HMnO₂-AM nanoparticles can effectively trigger immunogenic cell death (ICD), activate CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T cells in vivo, and upregulate BAX, BCL-2 and Caspase-3 in cellular level. Further results revealed that Rh2@HMnO₂-AM enhanced the secretion of IL-6, IFN-γ and TNF-α in serum and inhibited the generation of FOXP3⁺ T cells (Tregs) in tumors. Moreover, the Rh2@HMnO₂-AM treatment significant restricted tumor growth in-situ tumor-bearing mice. Therefore, Rh2@HMnO₂-AM may serve as an effective and bio-friendly nanoparticle platform combined with immunotherapy and chemodynamic therapy to provide a novel approach to osteosarcoma therapy.

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Ginsenoside Rh2 was loaded in Hollow MnO₂ NPs for enhancing its bioavailability.

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The orthotopic tumor model exhibits a convincing therapeutic effect of nanosystems.

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Alendronate/cell membranes enhance osteosarcoma targeting and tumor-homing ability.

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Tumor microenvironment-induced NPs degradation can release immune stimulant and Mn²⁺.

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The NPs had excellent immuno-chemodynamic combination osteosarcoma therapy effect.

Genetic Engineering of Dendritic Cells Using Partially Zwitterionic Dendrimer-Entrapped Gold Nanoparticles Boosts Efficient Tumor Immunotherapy

Effective processing and cross-priming of tumor neoantigen by dendritic cells (DCs) to T cells for spontaneous immune response generation to effectively kill cancer cells remain challenging in cancer immunotherapy. Here, we report a general approach to genetically engineer DCs through silencing their YTHDF1 protein (an important reader protein responsible for RNA m⁶A methylation) expression via a dendrimeric non-viral vector to boost effective tumor immunotherapy. Poly(amidoamine) dendrimers of generation 5 were partially decorated with mannose and 1,3-propanesultone and then entrapped with gold (Au) nanoparticles. The created dendrimer nanoplatform has an Au core size of 1.8 nm; possesses desired stability, good cytocompatibility, and excellent YTHDF1 siRNA compression ability; and enables targeted gene silencing of DCs overexpressing mannose receptors to upregulate the expression of CD80 and CD86, markers of DCs maturation, potentially leading to tumor antigen cross-presentation. With these properties owned, the combination of YTHDF1 silencing of DCs with programmed cell death-ligand 1 antibody can boost the best immunotherapy of a xenografted melanoma tumor model through the created antitumor immune responses. Findings in this study demonstrate a general approach of genetic engineering of DCs via a dendrimeric non-viral vector to effectively boost antitumor immunotherapy.

Reversing the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Metastatic Cancer Cells Using CD146-Targeted Black Phosphorus Nanosheets and a Mild Photothermal Treatment

Cancer metastasis leads to most deaths in cancer patients, and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is the key mechanism that endows the cancer cells with strong migratory and invasive abilities. Here, we present a nanomaterial-based approach to reverse the EMT in cancer cells by targeting an EMT inducer, CD146, using engineered black phosphorus nanosheets (BPNSs) and a mild photothermal treatment. We demonstrate this approach can convert highly metastatic, mesenchymal-type breast cancer cells to an epithelial phenotype (i.e., reversing EMT), leading to a complete stoppage of cancer cell migration. By using advanced nanomechanical and super-resolution imaging, complemented by immunoblotting, we validate the phenotypic switch in the cancer cells, as evidenced by the altered actin organization and cell morphology, downregulation of mesenchymal protein markers, and upregulation of epithelial protein markers. We also elucidate the molecular mechanism behind the reversal of EMT. Our results reveal that CD146-targeted BPNSs and a mild photothermal treatment synergistically contribute to EMT reversal by downregulating membrane CD146 and perturbing its downstream EMT-related signaling pathways. Considering CD146 overexpression has been confirmed on the surface of a variety of metastatic, mesenchymal-like cancer cells, this approach could be applicable for treating various cancer metastasis via modulating the phenotype switch in cancer cells.

Fibronectin-Coated Metal-Phenolic Networks for Cooperative Tumor Chemo-/Chemodynamic/Immune Therapy via Enhanced Ferroptosis-Mediated Immunogenic Cell Death

The development of nanomedicine formulations to overcome the disadvantages of traditional chemotherapeutic drugs and integrate cooperative theranostic modes still remains challenging. Herein, we report the facile construction of a multifunctional theranostic nanoplatform based on doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded tannic acid (TA)-iron (Fe) networks (for short, TAF) coated with fibronectin (FN) for combination tumor chemo-/chemodynamic/immune therapy under the guidance of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. We show that the DOX-TAF@FN nanocomplexes created through in situ coordination of TA and Fe(III) and physical coating with FN have a mean particle size of 45.0 nm, are stable, and can release both DOX and Fe in a pH-dependent manner. Due to the coexistence of the TAF network and DOX, significant immunogenic cell death can be caused through enhanced ferroptosis of cancer cells via cooperative Fe-based chemodynamic therapy and DOX chemotherapy. Through further treatment with programmed cell death ligand 1 antibody for an immune checkpoint blockade, the tumor treatment efficacy and the associated immune response can be further enhanced. Meanwhile, with FN-mediated targeting, the DOX-TAF@FN platform can specifically target tumor cells with high expression of α_vβ₃ integrin. Finally, the TAF network also enables the DOX-TAF@FN to have an r₁ relaxivity of 6.1 mM^-1 s^-1 for T₁-weighted MR imaging of tumors. The developed DOX-TAF@FN nanocomplexes may represent an updated multifunctional nanosystem with simple compositions for cooperative MR imaging-guided targeted chemo-/chemodynamic/immune therapy of tumors.