Ecogeographical associations between climate and human body composition: analyses based on anthropometry and skinfolds

Human adaptation to cold and warm climatic conditions: A comparison between two geographically diverse Indigenous populations

OBJECTIVES

The present study aims to compare body adiposity and blood pressure (BP) in two climatically and ethnically diverse populations, examining whether thermoregulatory adaptive mechanism may protect Indigenous populations from exhibiting adverse consequences of increased adiposity.

METHODS

A cross sectional sample of 404 subjects, of which 200 were Monpa and 204 were Santhal, from two ethnically and geographically distinct populations of India were studied. Body mass index (BMI; kg/m2 ), fat mass (FM; kg), fat free mass (kg), and percent body fat (%BF) were calculated for evaluation of body adiposity. Multivariate multiple regression analysis was adopted to examine the influence of age and sex of populations under study, on body adiposity and BP variables.

RESULTS

BMI, %BF, and FM were found to be significantly higher (p ˂ .001) among the Monpa males and females compared with their Santhal counterparts. In contrast, the prevalence of hypertension among Monpa and Santhal is comparable (3.5%Monpa vs. 3.9%Santhal for systolic BP; 8.5%Monpa vs. 8.3%Santhal for diastolic BP). Adiposity, as quantitated by the fat mass index and %BF was significantly (p ˂ .001) correlated to age and sex of study population, explaining ~75.3% and ~75.4% of total variations of these variables, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall the present study suggests that modern human populations follow thermoregulatory mechanism for adaptation to different climatic conditions. Consequently, greater adiposity was evident among the Monpa who adapt to the cold climate, in comparison to their Santhal counterparts who dwell in warm climate.

To the extreme! How biological anthropology can inform exercise physiology in extreme environments

The fields of biological anthropology and exercise physiology are closely related and can provide mutually beneficial insights into human performance. These fields often use similar methods and are both interested in how humans function, perform, and respond in extreme environments. However, these two fields have different perspectives, ask different questions, and work within different theoretical frameworks and timescales. Biological anthropologists and exercise physiologists can greatly benefit from working together when examining human adaptation, acclimatization, and athletic performance in the extremes of heat, cold, and high-altitude. Here we review the adaptations and acclimatizations in these three different extreme environments. We then examine how this work has informed and built upon exercise physiology research on human performance. Finally, we present an agenda for moving forward, hopefully, with these two fields working more closely together to produce innovative research that improves our holistic understanding of human performance capacities informed by evolutionary theory, modern human acclimatization, and the desire to produce immediate and direct benefits.

Estimated energetic demands of thermoregulation during ancient canoe passages from Tahiti to Hawaii and New Zealand, a simulation analysis

Prehistoric colonization of East Polynesia represents the last and most extensive of human migrations into regions previously uninhabited. Although much of East Polynesia is tropical, the southern third, dominated by New Zealand-by far the largest Polynesian landmass-ranges from a warm- to cool-temperate climate with some islands extending into the Subantarctic. The substantial latitudinal variation implies questions about biocultural adaptations of tropical people to conditions in which most of their familiar resources were absent and their agriculture marginal. Perhaps the most basic question, but one which has never been explored, is the extent to which sailing out of the tropics on long-distance colonizing voyages imposed physiological stress on canoe crews and passengers. In this paper we use trajectories of simulated voyages from Tahiti to New Zealand and Tahiti to Hawaii to obtain along-trip environmental parameters which are then used to model the energy expenditure of these long overseas journeys. Results show that travelers to New Zealand are exposed to much harsher environmental conditions, leading to significantly greater in-trip thermoregulatory demands. For both destinations, travelers with larger body sizes exhibit lower modeled heat loss and hence obtain an energetic advantage, with greater gains for females. Such physiological features, notably of Samoans who probably formed the founding population in East Polynesia, may help explain successful voyaging to temperate latitudes.

Do maternal grandmothers influence breastfeeding duration and infant nutrition? Evidence from Merida, Mexico

OBJECTIVES

Breast-feeding is sensitive to somatic, hormonal, behavioral and psychological components of maternal capital. However, through grandmothering, older women may also influence breast-feeding by transferring informational resources to their daughters. We hypothesized that mothers with prolonged instrumental support from their own mother are more likely to have received advice and to have favorable attitudes/practices regarding breastfeeding, compared to those lacking such support, with implications for the grandchild's somatic capital.

METHODS

We recruited 90 mother-infant dyads (52 with grandmaternal support, 38 without) in Merida, Yucatan, Mexico. All children were first-borns, aged ~2 years. Anthropometry and body composition were assessed. Data on grandmother's breastfeeding advice and maternal breastfeeding duration were obtained by questionnaire. Maternal attitudes to breast-feeding were assessed using the Iowa Infant Feeding Attitude Scale.

RESULTS

Women with instrumental support were more likely to have received grandmaternal advice during pregnancy/infancy on exclusive breast-feeding duration (60% vs. 37%, p = 0.033) and the type of first complementary food (81% vs. 47%, p = 0.001). However, women with support had a less favorable attitude to breastfeeding than those without and breastfed their children for less time (median 5 vs. 10.5 months, p = 0.01). No group differences were found in children's length, weight, skinfolds or lean mass z-score.

DISCUSSION

Although grandmothers providing instrumental support provided advice regarding breastfeeding, their attitudes may reflect issues beyond nutritional health. Advice of maternal grandmothers did not promote extended breastfeeding, however the differences in breastfeeding attitudes were not associated with the children's nutritional status. Grandmothers should be included in public health interventions promoting breastfeeding.

Is the World Health Organization’s multicentre child growth standard an appropriate growth reference for assessing optimal growth of South African mixed-ancestry children?

In South Africa (SA), it has been estimated that one-third of boys and 25% of girls under the age of 5 years are stunted, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) Multicentre Growth Reference Study. During the past decade, research in developed and developing countries has shown that the international growth standard overestimates stunting and/or wasting when compared with population-specific growth references. Population-specific growth references typically incorporate genetic and environmental factors and can therefore better inform public health by identifying children who may be at risk for malnutrition, or who may be ill. Using the universal growth standard in SA may not be accurately assessing growth. In this article, environmental and genetic factors, and their influence on growth, are reviewed. These points are illustrated through a brief history of the peopling of SA, with an understanding of the socioeconomic and political climate – past and present. We discuss the uniqueness of certain population groups in SA, with contributions regarding some of the shortest peoples in the world and a history of sociopolitical inequities, which may mean that children from certain population groups who are perfectly healthy would underperform using the universal growth standard. Therefore, we suggest that a local population-specific growth reference would serve to better inform public health policies, and address childhood health equity and physical developmental pathways to adult health risk status.  

Substantial but Misunderstood Human Sexual Dimorphism Results Mainly From Sexual Selection on Males and Natural Selection on Females

Human sexual dimorphism has been widely misunderstood. A large literature has underestimated the effect of differences in body composition and the role of male contest competition for mates. It is often assumed that sexually dimorphic traits reflect a history of sexual selection, but natural selection frequently builds different phenotypes in males and females. The relatively small sex difference in stature (∼7%) and its decrease during human evolution have been widely presumed to indicate decreased male contest competition for mates. However, females likely increased in stature relative to males in order to successfully deliver large-brained neonates through a bipedally-adapted pelvis. Despite the relatively small differences in stature and body mass (∼16%), there are marked sex differences in body composition. Across multiple samples from groups with different nutrition, males typically have 36% more lean body mass, 65% more muscle mass, and 72% more arm muscle than women, yielding parallel sex differences in strength. These sex differences in muscle and strength are comparable to those seen in primates where sexual selection, arising from aggressive male mating competition, has produced high levels of dimorphism. Body fat percentage shows a reverse pattern, with females having ∼1.6 times more than males and depositing that fat in different body regions than males. We argue that these sex differences in adipose arise mainly from natural selection on women to accumulate neurodevelopmental resources.

Evolution of Lactase Persistence: Turbo-Charging Adaptation in Growth Under the Selective Pressure of Maternal Mortality?

The emergence of the capacity to digest milk in some populations represents a landmark in human evolution, linking genetic change with a component of niche construction, namely dairying. Alleles promoting continued activity of the enzyme lactase through the life-course (lactase persistence) evolved in several global regions within the last 7,000 years. In some European regions, these alleles underwent rapid selection and must have profoundly affected fertility or mortality. Elsewhere, alleles spread more locally. However, the functional benefits underlying the rapid spread of lactase persistence remain unclear. Here, we set out the hypothesis that lactase persistence promoted skeletal growth, thereby offering a generic rapid solution to childbirth complications arising from exposure to ecological change, or to new environments through migration. Since reduced maternal growth and greater neonatal size both increase the risk of obstructed labour, any ecological exposure impacting these traits may increase maternal mortality risk. Over many generations, maternal skeletal dimensions could adapt to new ecological conditions through genetic change. However, this adaptive strategy would fail if ecological change was rapid, including through migration into new niches. We propose that the combination of consuming milk and lactase persistence could have reduced maternal mortality by promoting growth of the pelvis after weaning, while high calcium intake would reduce risk of pelvic deformities. Our conceptual framework provides locally relevant hypotheses to explain selection for lactase persistence in different global regions. For any given diet and individual genotype, the combination of lactase persistence and milk consumption would divert more energy to skeletal growth, either increasing pelvic dimensions or buffering them from worsening ecological conditions. The emergence of lactase persistence among dairying populations could have helped early European farmers adapt rapidly to northern latitudes, East African pastoralists adapt to sudden climate shifts to drier environments, and Near Eastern populations counteract secular declines in height associated with early agriculture. In each case, we assume that lactase persistence accelerated the timescale over which maternal skeletal dimensions could change, thus promoting both maternal and offspring survival. Where lactase persistence did not emerge, birth weight was constrained at lower levels, and this contributes to contemporary variability in diabetes risk.

Does maternal grandmother's support improve maternal and child nutritional health outcomes? Evidence from Merida, Yucatan, Mexico

In humans, high levels of investment are required to raise offspring, because of the prolonged developmental period and short interbirth intervals. The costs borne by individual mothers may be mitigated by obtaining social support from others. This strategy could be particularly valuable for first-time mothers, who lack first-hand experience and whose offspring have higher mortality risk than later-born siblings. As raising children is potentially stressful, mothers may gain from others sharing their experience, providing knowledge/information and emotional support. Being genetically related to both mother and grandchild, maternal grandmothers may be especially well placed to provide such support, while also gaining fitness benefits. We tested the over-arching hypothesis that first-time mothers and their young children supported by the maternal grandmother would have lower levels of stress and better health outcomes, compared to mother-infant dyads lacking such grandmaternal support. A cohort of 90 mother-infant dyads (52 with grandmaternal support, 38 without) was recruited in Merida, Mexico. We assessed anthropometry and body composition in both mother and child, along with maternally perceived stress and child temperament, and documented maternal social relationships. No differences were found in perceived stress/temperament or anthropometry of either mothers or children, according to the presence/absence of grandmaternal support. However, a composite score of whether grandmothers provided advice on infant feeding was positively associated with child nutritional status. Mothers without grandmaternal support reported seeking more informational and emotional support from other female relatives for childcare, potentially compensating for limited/absent grandmaternal support. Our findings may help develop interventions to improve maternal and child health by targeting the dynamics of maternal social networks. This article is part of the theme issue 'Multidisciplinary perspectives on social support and maternal-child health'.

Energetics as a driver of human morphological thermal adaptation; evidence from female ultra-endurance athletes

Functional benefits of the morphologies described by Bergmann's and Allen's rules in human males have recently been reported. However, the functional implications of ecogeographical patterning in females remain poorly understood. Here, we report the findings of preliminary work analysing the association between body shape and performance in female ultramarathon runners (n = 36) competing in hot and cold environments. The body shapes differed between finishers of hot and cold races, and also between hot race finishers and non-finishers. Variability in race performance across different settings supports the notion that human phenotype is adapted to different thermal environments as ecogeographical patterns have reported previously. This report provides support for the recent hypothesis that the heightened thermal strain associated with prolonged physical activity in hot/cold environments may have driven the emergence of thermally adaptive phenotypes in our evolutionary past. These results also tentatively suggest that the relationship between morphology and performance may be stronger in female vs. male athletes. This potential sex difference is discussed with reference to the evolved unique energetic context of human female reproduction. Further work, with a larger sample size, is required to investigate the observed potential sex differences in the strength of the relationship between phenotype and performance.

Population history and ecology, in addition to climate, influence human stature and body proportions

Worldwide variation in human stature and limb proportions is widely accepted to reflect thermal adaptation, but the contribution of population history to this variation is unknown. Furthermore, stature and relative lower limb length (LLL) show substantial plastic responses to environmental stressors, e.g., nutrition, pathogen load, which covary with climate. Thus ecogeographic patterns may go beyond temperature-based selection. We analysed global variation in stature, sitting height and absolute and relative LLL using large worldwide samples of published anthropometric data from adult male (n = 571) and female (n = 268) populations in relation to temperature, humidity, and net primary productivity (NPP). Population history was modeled using spatial eigenvector mapping based on geographic distances reflecting the hypothesized pattern for the spread of modern humans out of Africa. Regression models account for ~ 50% of variation in most morphological variables. Population history explains slightly more variation in stature, sitting height and LLL than the environmental/climatic variables. After adjusting for population history, associations between (usually maximum) temperature and LLL are consistent with Allen's "rule" and may drive similar relationships with stature. NPP is a consistent negative predictor of anthropometry, which may reflect the growth-limiting effects of lower environmental resource accessibility (inversely related to NPP) and/or pathogen load.

Metabolic features of adiposity and glucose homoeostasis among school-aged inuit children from Nunavik (Northern Quebec, Canada)

In contrast to most Indigenous people in Canada, Inuit appeared until recently to have been protected from type 2 diabetes (T2D) related to obesity. We assessed the associations of metabolites (amino acids, acylcarnitines) with adiposity and biomarkers of T2D in school-aged Inuit children of Nunavik (Canada). Concentrations of metabolite were measured in plasma samples from a cross-sectional analysis of 248 children (mean age = 10.8 years). We assessed associations of plasma metabolites with adiposity measures (BMI, skinfold thicknesses) and T2D markers (insulin, glucose, adiponectin). Plasma concentrations of valine and tyrosine were higher in obese and overweight children compared to those of normal weight children (P < 0.05). An increment of 1-SD in BMI (SD = 3.3 kg/m²) was statistically associated with an increment of 0.21 (95% CI: 0.08, 0.33) for valine, 0.15 (95% CI: 0.02, 0.27) for isoleucine and 0.17 (95% CI: 0.04, 0.29) for tyrosine. Insulin concentration increased with concentrations of all amino acids (P < 0.05) except methionine. None of the acylcarnitines measured were statistically significantly associated with adiposity or T2D biomarkers A signature of metabolites, particularly higher levels of branched-chain amino acids, might allow for early detection of T2D among school-aged Inuit children.

A biocultural examination of home food production and child growth in highland Peru

OBJECTIVES

Chronic malnutrition remains a persistent global health issue. This mixed methods investigation in rural Peru examines the role of home food production (HFP) in reducing child malnutrition by testing the following hypotheses: (a) higher HFP will be associated with higher infant z-scores than those with less HFP and (b) infants with higher HFP will exhibit improved longitudinal growth outcomes across 6 months.

METHODS

Ethnographic methods include semi-structured interviews and participant observation. A household survey and anthropometric data were collected twice, from 86 infants under of 24 months old. A HFP index (HFI) was generated based on reports of animals for meat consumption, eggs, milk, and agricultural products for home consumption. Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to examine patterns of HFI and infant anthropometrics. Multivariate regressions were used to examine the relationships between HFP and infant height for age (HAZ), weight for age (WAZ), and triceps skinfold for age (TSAZ) in both rounds and 6-month change between rounds (6MΔ).

RESULTS

There were no relationships between HFI and infant z-scores in round one, however, HFI was significantly positively related to HAZ (B = 0.091, P < .039) in round two and with 6MΔ in HAZ (B = 0.09, P < .047). HFI did not predict WAZ or TSAZ in either round.

CONCLUSIONS

HFP represents an important influence of infant growth in Nuñoa, likely through nutritional improvement due to increased availability of animal-sourced foods and through contribution to household economy and maternal empowerment.

Human athletic paleobiology; using sport as a model to investigate human evolutionary adaptation

The use of sport as a conceptual framework offers unprecedented opportunities to improve our understanding of what the body does, shedding new light on our evolutionary trajectory, our capacity for adaptation, and the underlying biological mechanisms. This approach has gained traction over recent years. To date, sport has facilitated exploration not only of the evolutionary history of our species as a whole, but also of human variation and adaptation at the interindividual and intraindividual levels. At the species level, analysis of lower and upper limb biomechanics and energetics with respect to walking, running and throwing have led to significant advances in the understanding of human adaptations relative to other hominins. From an interindividual perspective, investigation of physical activity patterns and endurance running performance is affording greater understanding of evolved constraints of energy expenditure, thermoregulatory energetics, signaling theory, and morphological variation. Furthermore, ultra-endurance challenges provoke functional trade-offs, allowing new ground to be broken in the study of life history trade-offs and human adaptability. Human athletic paleobiology-the recruitment of athletes as study participants and the use of contemporary sports as a model for studying evolutionary theory-has great potential. Here, we draw from examples in the literature to provide a review of how the use of athletes as a model system is enhancing understanding of human evolutionary adaptation.

Ultra-endurance athletic performance suggests that energetics drive human morphological thermal adaptation

Both extinct and extant hominin populations display morphological features consistent with Bergmann's and Allen's Rules. However, the functional implications of the morphologies described by these ecological laws are poorly understood. We examined this through the lens of endurance running. Previous research concerning endurance running has focused on locomotor energetic economy. We considered a less-studied dimension of functionality, thermoregulation. The performance of male ultra-marathon runners (n = 88) competing in hot and cold environments was analysed with reference to expected thermoregulatory energy costs and the optimal morphologies predicted by Bergmann's and Allen's Rules. Ecogeographical patterning supporting both principles was observed in thermally challenging environments. Finishers of hot-condition events had significantly longer legs than finishers of cold-condition events. Furthermore, hot-condition finishers had significantly longer legs than those failing to complete hot-condition events. A degree of niche-picking was evident; athletes may have tailored their event entry choices in accordance with their previous race experiences. We propose that the interaction between prolonged physical exertion and hot or cold climates may induce powerful selective pressures driving morphological adaptation. The resulting phenotypes reduce thermoregulatory energetic expenditure, allowing diversion of energy to other functional outcomes such as faster running.

The diabesity epidemic in the light of evolution: insights from the capacity-load model

The global nutrition transition, which embraces major changes in how food is produced, distributed and consumed, is associated with rapid increases in the prevalence of obesity, but the implications for diabetes differ between populations. A simple conceptual model treats diabetes risk as the function of two interacting traits: 'metabolic capacity,' which promotes glucose homeostasis, and 'metabolic load', which challenges glucose homoeostasis. Population variability in diabetes prevalence is consistent with this conceptual model, indicating that the effect of obesity varies by ethnicity. Evolutionary life history theory can help explain why variability in metabolic capacity and metabolic load emerges. At the species level (hominin evolution), across human populations and within individual life courses, phenotypic variability emerges under selective pressure to maximise reproductive fitness rather than metabolic health. Those exposed to adverse environments may express or develop several metabolic traits that are individually beneficial for reproductive fitness, but which cumulatively increase diabetes risk. Public health interventions can help promote metabolic capacity, but there are limits to the benefits that can emerge within a single generation. This means that efforts to curb metabolic load (obesity, unhealthy lifestyles) must remain at the forefront of diabetes prevention. Such efforts should go beyond individuals and target the broader food system and socioeconomic factors, in order to maximise their efficacy.

Anthropometric heritability and child growth in a Caribbean village: A quantitative genetic analysis of longitudinal height, weight, and body mass index in Bwa Mawego, Dominica

OBJECTIVES

Body size and composition vary widely among individuals and populations, and long-term research in diverse contexts informs our understanding of genetic, cultural, and environmental impacts on this variation. We analyze longitudinal measures of height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) from a Caribbean village, estimating the extent to which these anthropometrics are shaped by genetic variance in a small-scale population of mixed ancestry.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Longitudinal data from a traditionally horticultural village in Dominica document height and weight in a non-Western population that is transitioning to increasingly Westernized lifestyles, and an 11-generation pedigree enables us to estimate the proportions of phenotypic variation in height, weight, and BMI attributed to genetic variation. We assess within-individual variation across growth curves as well as heritabilities of these traits for 260 individuals using Bayesian variance component estimation.

RESULTS

Age, sex, and secular trends account for the majority of anthropometric variation in these longitudinal data. Independent of age, sex, and secular trends, our analyses show high repeatabilities for the remaining variation in height, weight, and BMI growth curves (>0.75), and moderate heritabilities (h² _height = 0.68, h² _weight = 0.64, h² _BMI = 0.49) reveal clear genetic signals that account for large proportions of the variation in body size observed between families. Secular trends show increases of 6.5% in height and 16.0% in weight from 1997 to 2017.

DISCUSSION

This horticultural Caribbean population has transitioned to include more Westernized foods and technologies over the decades captured in this analysis. BMI varies widely between individuals and is significantly shaped by genetic variation, warranting future exploration with other physiological correlates and associated genetic variants.

Beyond Bergmann's rule: Global variability in human body composition is associated with annual average precipitation and annual temperature volatility

OBJECTIVES

Human populations exhibit substantial geographical variability in body size and shape. However, the ecological stresses underlying this morphological variability remain poorly understood. The prevailing evolutionary explanation, "Bergmann's rule" assumes that morphological variability represents an adaptive response to average thermal conditions. We hypothesized that other climate factors-annual average precipitation, a marker of ecological productivity and inter-annual temperature volatility, a marker of infectious disease spikes-may also contribute to variability in body composition.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We explored this hypothesis by examining associations between these climate factors and geographic variability in body composition across 133 male and 105 female populations from nonindustrialized settings. We used monthly climate data over 113 years (1901-2013) to develop new climate indices for all worldwide land areas. We stratified our analyses by hot/cold setting (>/<20°C).

RESULTS

In hot environments, lean mass increased as predicted in association with ecological productivity, and decreased in association with ecological volatility. Conversely, levels of body fat increased in association with temperature volatility and precipitation. However, in cold settings, equivalent associations were only partially consistent with our hypotheses, and there was suggestive evidence of sex differences in these associations.

DISCUSSION

Beyond associations with mean annual temperature predicted by Bergmann's rule, variability in human body composition is also associated with mean annual temperature and inter-annual temperature volatility, with these associations further differing between hot and cold settings. Collectively, our results suggest that associations of human body composition with climate are complex for both physique (fat-free mass) and energy stores (adiposity).

Life history trade-offs and the partitioning of maternal investment: Implications for health of mothers and offspring

Lay Summary: This review sets out the hypothesis that life history trade-offs in the maternal generation favour the emergence of similar trade-offs in the offspring generation, mediated by the partitioning of maternal investment between pregnancy and lactation, and that these trade-offs help explain widely reported associations between growth trajectories and NCD risk. Growth patterns in early life predict the risk of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), but adaptive explanations remain controversial. It is widely assumed that NCDs occur either because of physiological adjustments to early constraints, or because early ecological cues fail to predict adult environmental conditions (mismatch). I present an inter-generational perspective on developmental plasticity, based on the over-arching hypothesis that a key axis of variability in maternal metabolism derives from life history trade-offs, which influence how individual mothers partition nutritional investment in their offspring between pregnancy and lactation. I review evidence for three resulting predictions: (i) Allocating relatively more energy to growth during development promotes the capacity to invest in offspring during pregnancy. Relevant mechanisms include greater fat-free mass and metabolic turnover, and a larger physical space for fetal growth. (ii) Allocating less energy to growth during development constrains fetal growth of the offspring, but mothers may compensate by a tendency to attain higher adiposity around puberty, ecological conditions permitting, which promotes nutritional investment during lactation. (iii) Since the partitioning of maternal investment between pregnancy and lactation impacts the allocation of energy to 'maintenance' as well as growth, it is expected to shape offspring NCD risk as well as adult size and body composition. Overall, this framework predicts that life history trade-offs in the maternal generation favour the emergence of similar trade-offs in the offspring generation, mediated by the partitioning of maternal investment between pregnancy and lactation, and that these trade-offs help explain widely reported associations between growth trajectories and NCD risk.

Estimating body mass and composition from proximal femur dimensions using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry

Body mass prediction from the skeleton most commonly employs femoral head diameter (FHD). However, theoretical predictions and empirical data suggest the relationship between mass and FHD is strongest in young adults, that bone dimensions reflect lean mass better than body or fat mass and that other femoral measurements may be superior. Here, we generate prediction equations for body mass and its components using femoral head, neck and proximal shaft diameters and body composition data derived from dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans of young adults (n = 155, 77 females and 78 males, mean age 22.7 ± 1.3 years) from the Andhra Pradesh Children and Parents Study, Hyderabad, India. Sex-specific regression of log-transformed data on femoral measurements predicted lean mass with smaller standard errors of estimate (SEEs) than body mass (12-14% and 16-17% respectively), while none of the femoral measurements were significant predictors of fat mass. Subtrochanteric mediolateral shaft diameter gave lower SEEs for lean mass in both sexes and for body mass in males than FHD, while FHD was a better predictor of body mass in women. Our results provide further evidence that lean mass is more closely related to proximal femur dimensions than body or fat mass and that proximal shaft diameter is a better predictor than FHD of lean but not always body mass. The mechanisms underlying these relationships have implications for selecting the most appropriate measurement and reference sample for estimating body or lean mass, which also depend on the question under investigation.

Relationship between body mass, lean mass, fat mass, and limb bone cross-sectional geometry: Implications for estimating body mass and physique from the skeleton

OBJECTIVES

Estimating body mass from skeletal dimensions is widely practiced, but methods for estimating its components (lean and fat mass) are poorly developed. The ability to estimate these characteristics would offer new insights into the evolution of body composition and its variation relative to past and present health. This study investigates the potential of long bone cross-sectional properties as predictors of body, lean, and fat mass.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Humerus, femur and tibia midshaft cross-sectional properties were measured by peripheral quantitative computed tomography in sample of young adult women (n = 105) characterized by a range of activity levels. Body composition was estimated from bioimpedance analysis.

RESULTS

Lean mass correlated most strongly with both upper and lower limb bone properties (r values up to 0.74), while fat mass showed weak correlations (r ≤ 0.29). Estimation equations generated from tibial midshaft properties indicated that lean mass could be estimated relatively reliably, with some improvement using logged data and including bone length in the models (minimum standard error of estimate = 8.9%). Body mass prediction was less reliable and fat mass only poorly predicted (standard errors of estimate ≥11.9% and >33%, respectively).

DISCUSSION

Lean mass can be predicted more reliably than body mass from limb bone cross-sectional properties. The results highlight the potential for studying evolutionary trends in lean mass from skeletal remains, and have implications for understanding the relationship between bone morphology and body mass or composition.

Body size and body composition effects on heat loss from the hands during severe cold exposure

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the influence of body size and composition on maintaining hand temperature during severe cold exposure. The hand's high surface area-to-volume ratio predisposes the hand to heat loss, increasing the risk of cold injury and even hypothermia, which are major selective pressures in cold environments. While vasoregulation may reduce heat loss from the hand, the effect of body form, tissue thermogenesis, and body insulation on heat loss is unknown.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thermal imaging was used to determine heat loss during a 3-min ice-water hand immersion test carried out on 114 volunteers (female = 63, male = 51). Established anthropometric measures were used to quantify body size, and bioelectrical impedance analysis determined skeletal muscle and fat mass.

RESULTS

Skeletal muscle mass relative to body mass was a highly significant predictor of heat loss, while body mass, fat mass, and stature were not. Body composition and body size had little to no significant influence during rewarming after immersion.

DISCUSSION

The thermogenic properties of muscle mass support maintenance of hand temperature during severe cold exposure. The findings here suggest that muscular individuals are less susceptible to heat loss and cold injury, and may be better at manual tasks in cold conditions than nonmuscular individuals.

Obesity is not just elevated adiposity, it is also a state of metabolic perturbation

Nettle et al. miss the crucial difference between adaptive models of storing energy and explanations for the pathological metabolic state of obesity. I suggest that the association of food insecurity with obesity in women from industrialized settings is most likely due to reverse causation: Poverty reduces agency to resist obesogenic foods, and this scenario is compounded by perturbations of insulin metabolism stemming from high adiposity and lipogenic diets.

Body composition and susceptibility to type 2 diabetes: an evolutionary perspective

Type 2 diabetes is rapidly increasing in prevalence worldwide, in concert with epidemics of obesity and sedentary behavior that are themselves tracking economic development. Within this broad pattern, susceptibility to diabetes varies substantially in association with ethnicity and nutritional exposures through the life-course. An evolutionary perspective may help understand why humans are so prone to this condition in modern environments, and why this risk is unequally distributed. A simple conceptual model treats diabetes risk as the function of two interacting traits, namely 'metabolic capacity' which promotes glucose homeostasis, and 'metabolic load' which challenges glucose homoeostasis. This conceptual model helps understand how long-term and more recent trends in body composition can be considered to have shaped variability in diabetes risk. Hominin evolution appears to have continued a broader trend evident in primates, towards lower levels of muscularity. In addition, hominins developed higher levels of body fatness, especially in females in relative terms. These traits most likely evolved as part of a broader reorganization of human life history traits in response to growing levels of ecological instability, enabling both survival during tough periods and reproduction during bountiful periods. Since the emergence of Homo sapiens, populations have diverged in body composition in association with geographical setting and local ecological stresses. These long-term trends in both metabolic capacity and adiposity help explain the overall susceptibility of humans to diabetes in ways that are similar to, and exacerbated by, the effects of nutritional exposures during the life-course.

How much do universal anthropometric standards bias the global monitoring of obesity and undernutrition?

Each year, hundreds of articles in population health and nutrition, many in high-profile journals, use standard cutoffs based on weight and height as assessments of obesity and undernutrition. These global efforts to monitor overweight and underweight often rest on the assumption that ethnic differences in underlying body form are sufficiently small to permit universal anthropometric cutoffs for comparing excess and insufficient body fat across populations. However, a century of work in human biological variation suggests that human populations can vary dramatically in underlying body form in a way that may require population-sensitive cutoffs for monitoring. Here, we describe recently developed methods that can provide population-sensitive assessments of both excess and insufficient energy reserves in a wide range of countries. We use this approach to illustrate how worldwide variation in human body form is far more widespread than previously thought, and that it can occur at several geographic scales, including the level of world regions, countries and populations within countries. The findings also suggest that using standard cutoffs that ignore this variation can underestimate current obesity levels in adults by more than 400-500 million while also incorrectly prioritizing high-risk areas for undernutrition in children in key regions around the world.

Evidence of Polygenic Adaptation in the Systems Genetics of Anthropometric Traits

Many signals of natural selection have been identified in the human genome. However, except for some single-locus mechanisms, most molecular processes generating these adaptation signals are still unknown. We developed an approach that integrates datasets related to genome-wide association studies (GWAS) with information about systems biology and genetic signatures of natural selection to identify evidence of polygenic adaptation. Specifically, we focused on five anthropometric measurements: body mass index (BMI), height, waist-to-hip ratio adjusted for BMI (WHR), and waist circumference adjusted for BMI (WC), and sex differences for WHR and WC. We performed an enrichment analysis for signals of natural selection in protein interaction networks associated with anthropometric traits in European populations. The adaptation signals-enriched gene networks associated highlighted epistatic interactions in the context of polygenic selection for the investigated traits. These polygenic mechanisms indicated intriguing selective mechanisms related to the anthropometric traits: adult locomotory behavior for BMI, infection resistance for height, interplay between lipid transport and immune systems for WHR, and female-specific polygenic adaptation for WHR and WC. In conclusion, we observed evidence of polygenic adaptation in the context of systems genetics of anthropometric traits that indicates polygenic mechanisms related to the natural selection in European populations.

Between Scylla and Charybdis: renegotiating resolution of the 'obstetric dilemma' in response to ecological change

Hominin evolution saw the emergence of two traits-bipedality and encephalization-that are fundamentally linked because the fetal head must pass through the maternal pelvis at birth, a scenario termed the 'obstetric dilemma'. While adaptive explanations for bipedality and large brains address adult phenotype, it is brain and pelvic growth that are subject to the obstetric dilemma. Many contemporary populations experience substantial maternal and perinatal morbidity/mortality from obstructed labour, yet there is increasing recognition that the obstetric dilemma is not fixed and is affected by ecological change. Ecological trends may affect growth of the pelvis and offspring brain to different extents, while the two traits also differ by a generation in the timing of their exposure. Two key questions arise: how can the fit between the maternal pelvis and the offspring brain be 'renegotiated' as the environment changes, and what nutritional signals regulate this process? I argue that the potential for maternal size to change across generations precludes birthweight being under strong genetic influence. Instead, fetal growth tracks maternal phenotype, which buffers short-term ecological perturbations. Nevertheless, rapid changes in nutritional supply between generations can generate antagonistic influences on maternal and offspring traits, increasing the risk of obstructed labour.

Genetic population structure accounts for contemporary ecogeographic patterns in tropic and subtropic-dwelling humans

Contemporary human populations conform to ecogeographic predictions that animals will become more compact in cooler climates and less compact in warmer ones. However, it remains unclear to what extent this pattern reflects plastic responses to current environments or genetic differences among populations. Analyzing anthropometric surveys of 232,684 children and adults from across 80 ethnolinguistic groups in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and the Americas, we confirm that body surface-to-volume correlates with contemporary temperature at magnitudes found in more latitudinally diverse samples (Adj. R² = 0.14-0.28). However, far more variation in body surface-to-volume is attributable to genetic population structure (Adj. R² = 0.50-0.74). Moreover, genetic population structure accounts for nearly all of the observed relationship between contemporary temperature and body surface-to-volume among children and adults. Indeed, after controlling for population structure, contemporary temperature accounts for no more than 4% of the variance in body form in these groups. This effect of genetic affinity on body form is also independent of other ecological variables, such as dominant mode of subsistence and household wealth per capita. These findings suggest that the observed fit of human body surface-to-volume with current climate in this sample reflects relatively large effects of existing genetic population structure of contemporary humans compared to plastic response to current environments.

Ethnic variability in body size, proportions and composition in children aged 5 to 11 years: is ethnic-specific calibration of bioelectrical impedance required?

Background

Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) has the potential to be used widely as a method of assessing body fatness and composition, both in clinical and community settings. BIA provides bioelectrical properties, such as whole-body impedance which ideally needs to be calibrated against a gold-standard method in order to provide accurate estimates of fat-free mass. UK studies in older children and adolescents have shown that, when used in multi-ethnic populations, calibration equations need to include ethnic-specific terms, but whether this holds true for younger children remains to be elucidated. The aims of this study were to examine ethnic differences in body size, proportions and composition in children aged 5 to 11 years, and to establish the extent to which such differences could influence BIA calibration.

Methods

In a multi-ethnic population of 2171 London primary school-children (47% boys; 34% White, 29% Black African/Caribbean, 25% South Asian, 12% Other) detailed anthropometric measurements were performed and ethnic differences in body size and proportion were assessed. Ethnic differences in fat-free mass, derived by deuterium dilution, were further evaluated in a subsample of the population (n = 698). Multiple linear regression models were used to calibrate BIA against deuterium dilution.

Results

In children <11 years of age, Black African/Caribbean children were significantly taller, heavier and had larger body size than children of other ethnicities. They also had larger waist and limb girths and relatively longer legs. Despite these differences, ethnic-specific terms did not contribute significantly to the BIA calibration equation (Fat-free mass = 1.12+0.71*(height²/impedance)+0.18*weight).

Conclusion

Although clear ethnic differences in body size, proportions and composition were evident in this population of young children aged 5 to 11 years, an ethnic-specific BIA calibration equation was not required.

Relationships between neonatal weight, limb lengths, skinfold thicknesses, body breadths and circumferences in an Australian cohort

Background

Low birth weight has been consistently associated with adult chronic disease risk. The thrifty phenotype hypothesis assumes that reduced fetal growth impacts some organs more than others. However, it remains unclear how birth weight relates to different body components, such as circumferences, adiposity, body segment lengths and limb proportions. We hypothesized that these components vary in their relationship to birth weight.

Methods

We analysed the relationship between birth weight and detailed anthropometry in 1270 singleton live-born neonates (668 male) from the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (Brisbane, Australia). We tested adjusted anthropometry for correlations with birth weight. We then performed stepwise multiple regression on birth weight of: body lengths, breadths and circumferences; relative limb to neck-rump proportions; or skinfold thicknesses. All analyses were adjusted for sex and gestational age, and used logged data.

Results

Circumferences, especially chest, were most strongly related to birth weight, while segment lengths (neck-rump, thigh, upper arm, and especially lower arm and lower leg) were relatively weakly related to birth weight, and limb lengths relative to neck-rump length showed no relationship. Skinfolds accounted for 36% of birth weight variance, but adjusting for size (neck-rump, thigh and upper arm lengths, and head circumference), this decreased to 10%. There was no evidence that heavier babies had proportionally thicker skinfolds.

Conclusions

Neonatal body measurements vary in their association with birth weight: head and chest circumferences showed the strongest associations while limb segment lengths did not relate strongly to birth weight. After adjusting for body size, subcutaneous fatness accounted for a smaller proportion of birth weight variance than previously reported. While heavier babies had absolutely thicker skinfolds, this was proportional to their size. Relative limb to trunk length was unrelated to birth weight, suggesting that limb proportions at birth do not index factors relevant to prenatal life.

Area-level socioeconomic disparities impact adult overweight and obesity risks of Han ethnicity in China

OBJECTIVES

The profound socioeconomic processes occurring in developing countries have been accompanied by the notable increase of overweight and obese populations. This study for the first time investigates the impact of area-based socioeconomic status (SES) on adult overweight and obesity for both sexes of Han ethnicity in China.

METHODS

We investigated 6,221 adult participants of Han ethnicity from 18 geographic areas in China, and measured stature and weight for each participant. The mean annual income per individual was chosen as the area-level SES index. We adopted logistic regression analysis to explore the relationship of area-level SES with overweight and obesity.

RESULTS

The age-adjusted overweight and obesity prevalence was 32.46% for men and 29.27% for women respectively. Substantial area-level SES disparity in overweight and obesity risks for both sexes exist in China. The overweight and obesity prevalence rates increased with increasing SES levels in men rather than in women.

CONCLUSION

Men living in high SES areas as well as women living at the lowest SES areas were most likely to be at the highest risk of overweight and obesity in China.

Toward body composition reference data for infants, children, and adolescents

Growth charts for weight and height have provided the basis for assessment of children's nutritional status for over half a century, with charts for body mass index (BMI) introduced in the 1990s. However, BMI does not provide information on the proportions of fat and lean mass; and within the past decade, growth charts for children's body composition have been produced by using techniques such as skinfold thicknesses, body circumferences, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). For public health research, BIA and skinfold thicknesses show negligible average bias but have wider limits of agreement than specialized techniques. For patients, DXA is the best individual method, but multicomponent models remain ideal because they address perturbations in lean mass composition. Data can be expressed in age- and sex-specific SD scores, in some cases adjusting for height. Most such reference data derive from high-income countries, but techniques such as air-displacement plethysmography allow infant body composition growth charts to be developed in low- and middle-income settings, where the data may improve understanding of the effects of low birth weight, wasting, and stunting on body composition. Recent studies suggest that between-population variability in body composition may derive in part from genetic factors, suggesting a universal human body composition reference may not be viable. Body composition growth charts may be extended into adult life to evaluate changes in fat and lean mass through the entire life course. These reference data will improve the understanding of the association between growth, body composition, health, and disease.

Stunting, adiposity, and the individual-level "dual burden" among urban lowland and rural highland Peruvian children

Background

The causes of the “dual burden” of stunting and obesity remain unclear, and its existence at the individual level varies between populations. We investigate whether the individual dual burden differentially affects low socioeconomic status Peruvian children from contrasting environments (urban lowlands and rural highlands), and whether tibia length can discount the possible autocorrelation between adiposity proxies and height due to height measurement error.

Methods

Stature, tibia length, weight, and waist circumference were measured in children aged 3–8.5 years (n = 201). Height and body mass index (BMI) z scores were calculated using international reference data. Age-sex-specific centile curves were also calculated for height, BMI, and tibia length. Adiposity proxies (BMI z score, waist circumference-height ratio (WCHtR)) were regressed on height and also on tibia length z scores.

Results

Regression model interaction terms between site (highland vs. lowland) and height indicate that relationships between adiposity and linear growth measures differed significantly between samples (P < 0.001). Height was positively associated with BMI among urban lowland children, and more weakly with WCHtR. Among rural highland children, height was negatively associated with WCHtR but unrelated to BMI. Similar results using tibia length rather than stature indicate that stature measurement error was not a major concern.

Conclusions

Lowland and rural highland children differ in their patterns of stunting, BMI, and WCHtR. These contrasts likely reflect environmental differences and overall environmental stress exposure. Tibia length or knee height can be used to assess the influence of measurement error in height on the relationship between stature and BMI or WCHtR.

Disentangling basal and accumulated body mass for cross-population comparisons

Measures of human body mass confound 1) well-established population differences in body form and 2) exposure to obesogenic environments, posing challenges for using body mass index (BMI) in cross-population studies of body form, energy reserves, and obesity-linked disease risk. We propose a method for decomposing population BMI by estimating basal BMI (bBMI) among young adults living in extremely poor, rural households where excess body mass accumulation is uncommon. We test this method with nationally representative, cross-sectional Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) collected from 69,916 rural women (20-24 years) in 47 low-income countries. Predicting BMI by household wealth, we estimate country-level bBMI as the average BMI of young women (20-24 years) living in rural households with total assets <400 USD per capita. Above 400 USD per capita, BMI increases with both wealth and age. Below this point, BMI hits a baseline floor showing little effect of either age or wealth. Between-country variation in bBMI (range of 4.3 kg m(-2) ) is reliable across decades and age groups (R(2)  = 0.83-0.88). Country-level estimates of bBMI show no relation to diabetes prevalence or country-level GDP (R(2)  < 0.05), supporting its independence from excess body mass. Residual BMI (average BMI minus bBMI) shows better fit with both country-level GDP (R(2)  = 0.55 vs. 0.40) and diabetes prevalence (R(2)  = 0.23 vs. 0.17) than does conventional BMI. This method produces reliable estimates of bBMI across a wide range of nationally representative samples, providing a new approach to investigating population variation in body mass.

Body composition from birth to 6 mo of age in Ethiopian infants: reference data obtained by air-displacement plethysmography

BACKGROUND

Data on body composition in infancy may improve the understanding of the relation between variability in fetal and infant growth and disease risk through the life course. Although new assessment techniques have recently become available, body composition is rarely described in infants from low-income settings.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to provide reference data for fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) from birth to the age of 6 mo from an urban African population.

DESIGN

We conducted a prospective cohort study among infants from Jimma, Ethiopia. FM and FFM were measured at birth and at 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, and 6 mo of age with air-displacement plethysmography (ADP) validated against a stable isotope method in a subsample. Reference charts and reference tables with z scores and percentiles for FM, FFM, FM index (FMI; in kg/m(2)), and FFM index (FFMI: in kg/m(2)) were constructed with the lambda-mu-sigma method.

RESULTS

Body composition growth charts were based on a total of 2026 measurements of body composition obtained from 378 infants. FM and FMI gain progressed in a logarithmic-shaped curve and variation increased with increasing age, whereas FFM increased in an almost linear manner with a minor deceleration at around 3 mo of age. The FFMI curve showed a very modest exponential increase with age.

CONCLUSIONS

By presenting z scores and centile reference charts for an apparently healthy urban Ethiopian infant population, this study represents a first step toward providing reference data on FM and FFM for an urban African context, which is important for future clinical care and research. This study was registered at www.controlled-trials.com as ISRCTN46718296.

A reassessment of Bergmann's rule in modern humans

It is widely accepted that modern humans conform to Bergmann's rule, which holds that body size in endothermic species will increase as temperature decreases. However, there are reasons to question the reliability of the findings on which this consensus is based. One of these is that the main studies that have reported that modern humans conform to Bergmann's rule have employed samples that contain a disproportionately large number of warm-climate and northern hemisphere groups. With this in mind, we used latitudinally-stratified and hemisphere-specific samples to re-assess the relationship between modern human body size and temperature. We found that when groups from north and south of the equator were analyzed together, Bergmann's rule was supported. However, when groups were separated by hemisphere, Bergmann's rule was only supported in the northern hemisphere. In the course of exploring these results further, we found that the difference between our northern and southern hemisphere subsamples is due to the limited latitudinal and temperature range in the latter subsample. Thus, our study suggests that modern humans do conform to Bergmann's rule but only when there are major differences in latitude and temperature among groups. Specifically, groups must span more than 50 degrees of latitude and/or more than 30°C for it to hold. This finding has important implications for work on regional variation in human body size and its relationship to temperature.

Different associations of subscapular and triceps skinfold thicknesses with pathogen load: an ecogeographical analysis

OBJECTIVES

The dominant evolutionary perspective on adipose tissue has considered it a relatively inert energy store. However, variability in adipose tissue distribution has recently been associated with age, parity, thermal environment and immune function. Genes regulating the innate immune system are more strongly expressed in deep-lying than peripheral adipose tissue. We hypothesized that central adiposity would correlate more strongly than peripheral adiposity with pathogen load across populations.

METHODS

Primary outcomes were subscapular and triceps skinfolds from 133 male and 106 female populations. National values for disability-adjusted life years lost, attributable to infectious diseases, were used to index pathogen load. Linear mixed-effects models were fitted, including a random effect term by country to investigate the association of each skinfold with pathogen load, adjusting for the other skinfold, mean annual temperature and clustering of the populations across countries.

RESULTS

Adjusting for subscapular skinfold, triceps skinfold was not associated with pathogen load in either sex. Adjusting for triceps skinfold, subscapular skinfold was negatively associated with pathogen load in both sexes (P < 0.02). These associations were independent of variability in annual temperature. Adjusting for pathogen load and temperature, Oceanic populations had a different fat distribution compared to other populations.

CONCLUSIONS

Across populations, higher pathogen load was associated with reduced central but not peripheral skinfolds, supporting the hypothesis that central adiposity is more closely associated with immune function. This scenario might explain why some populations increase disproportionately in central adiposity when the environment shifts from low-energy high-pathogen status to high-energy low-pathogen status.

Ethnic variability in adiposity, thrifty phenotypes and cardiometabolic risk: addressing the full range of ethnicity, including those of mixed ethnicity

Ethnic groups vary in cardiometabolic risk, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Several components of body composition variability (fat/lean ratio, fat distribution, lean mass composition and metabolism, and adipose tissue biology) are increasingly linked with cardiometabolic risk and vary substantially across ethnic groups. Constituents of lean mass are proposed to contribute to 'metabolic capacity', a generic trait favouring the maintenance of homeostasis. Adiposity is proposed to contribute to 'metabolic load', which at higher levels challenges metabolic homeostasis, elevating cardiometabolic risk. Ethnic differences in body composition, representing different load-capacity ratios, may therefore contribute to ethnic variability in cardiometabolic risk. Ecological and evolutionary factors potentially contributing to ethnic variability in body composition are explored. In contemporary populations, clinicians encounter an increasing range of ethnicity, along with many individuals of mixed-ethnic ancestry. Increasing understanding of the contribution of body composition to cardiometabolic risk may reduce the need to treat ethnic groups as qualitatively different. A conceptual model is proposed, treating insulin sensitivity and stroke risk as composite functions of body composition variables. Operationalizing this model may potentially improve the ability to assess cardiovascular risk across the full ethnicity spectrum, and to predict cardiometabolic consequences of excess weight gain.

The obstetric dilemma: an ancient game of Russian roulette, or a variable dilemma sensitive to ecology?

The difficult birth process of humans, often described as the "obstetric dilemma," is commonly assumed to reflect antagonistic selective pressures favoring neonatal encephalization and maternal bipedal locomotion. However, cephalo-pelvic disproportion is not exclusive to humans, and is present in some primate species of smaller body size. The fossil record indicates mosaic evolution of the obstetric dilemma, involving a number of different evolutionary processes, and it appears to have shifted in magnitude between Australopithecus, Pleistocene Homo, and recent human populations. Most attention to date has focused on its generic nature, rather than on its variability between populations. We re-evaluate the nature of the human obstetric dilemma using updated hominin and primate literature, and then consider the contribution of phenotypic plasticity to variability in its magnitude. Both maternal pelvic dimensions and fetal growth patterns are sensitive to ecological factors such as diet and the thermal environment. Neonatal head girth has low plasticity, whereas neonatal mass and maternal stature have higher plasticity. Secular trends in body size may therefore exacerbate or decrease the obstetric dilemma. The emergence of agriculture may have exacerbated the dilemma, by decreasing maternal stature and increasing neonatal growth and adiposity due to dietary shifts. Paleodemographic comparisons between foragers and agriculturalists suggest that foragers have considerably lower rates of perinatal mortality. In contemporary populations, maternal stature remains strongly associated with perinatal mortality in many populations. Long-term improvements in nutrition across future generations may relieve the dilemma, but in the meantime, variability in its magnitude is likely to persist.

The evolution of human adiposity and obesity: where did it all go wrong?

Because obesity is associated with diverse chronic diseases, little attention has been directed to the multiple beneficial functions of adipose tissue. Adipose tissue not only provides energy for growth, reproduction and immune function, but also secretes and receives diverse signaling molecules that coordinate energy allocation between these functions in response to ecological conditions. Importantly, many relevant ecological cues act on growth and physique, with adiposity responding as a counterbalancing risk management strategy. The large number of individual alleles associated with adipose tissue illustrates its integration with diverse metabolic pathways. However, phenotypic variation in age, sex, ethnicity and social status is further associated with different strategies for storing and using energy. Adiposity therefore represents a key means of phenotypic flexibility within and across generations, enabling a coherent life-history strategy in the face of ecological stochasticity. The sensitivity of numerous metabolic pathways to ecological cues makes our species vulnerable to manipulative globalized economic forces. The aim of this article is to understand how human adipose tissue biology interacts with modern environmental pressures to generate excess weight gain and obesity. The disease component of obesity might lie not in adipose tissue itself, but in its perturbation by our modern industrialized niche. Efforts to combat obesity could be more effective if they prioritized 'external' environmental change rather than attempting to manipulate 'internal' biology through pharmaceutical or behavioral means.

Geographic variation in body form of prehistoric Jomon males in the Japanese archipelago: its ecogeographic implications

Diversity of human body size and shape is often biogeographically interpreted in association with climatic conditions. According to Bergmann's and Allen's rules, populations in regions with a cold climate are expected to display an overall larger body and smaller/shorter extremities than those in warm/hot environments. In the present study, the skeletal limb size and proportions of prehistoric Jomon hunter-gatherers, who extensively inhabited subarctic to subtropical areas in the ancient Japanese archipelago, were examined to evaluate whether or not the inter-regional differences follow such ecogeographic patterns. Results showed that the Jomon intralimb proportions including relative distal limb lengths did not differ significantly among five regions from northern Hokkaido to the southern Okinawa Islands. This suggests a limited co-variability of the intralimb proportions with climate, particularly within genealogically close populations. In contrast, femoral head breadth (associated with body mass) and skeletal limb lengths were found to be significantly and positively correlated with latitude, suggesting a north-south geographical cline in the body size. This gradient therefore comprehensively conforms to Bergmann's rule, and may stem from multiple potential factors such as phylogenetic constraints, microevolutionary adaptation to climatic/geographic conditions during the Jomon period, and nutritional and physiological response during ontogeny. Specifically, the remarkably small-bodied Jomon in the Okinawa Islands can also be explained as an adjustment to subtropical and insular environments. Thus, the findings obtained in this study indicate that Jomon people, while maintaining fundamental intralimb proportions, displayed body size variation in concert with ambient surroundings.