Can We Rely on Pharmacy Claims Databases to Ascertain Maternal Use of Medications during Pregnancy?

Obstetric mode of delivery and risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children: insights from the Quebec pregnancy cohort

BACKGROUND

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) prevalence in Canadian children increased 3.5-fold between 1999 and 2012, influenced by genetics and perinatal environmental factors. During the same period, cesarean section rates rose from 18.7% in 1997 to 29.4% in 2018, exceeding WHO guidelines and raising health concerns for women and children.

METHODS

This study aims to investigate the association between different obstetric modes of delivery and the risk of ADHD in children. Using data from the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort, we included all singleton liveborn infants insured by the provincial public drug insurance from 1998 to 2015. The mode of delivery was classified using ICD-9-CM/ICD-10-CM diagnosis and procedure codes, into four categories: unassisted vaginal delivery, assisted vaginal delivery, elective cesarean section, and emergency cesarean section. ADHD cases were identified as having at least one diagnosis, or one prescription filled for ADHD medication. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate the association between mode of delivery and the risk of ADHD in children, adjusted for potential confounding factors.

RESULTS

Of the 229,816 eligible singletons, 72.9% were delivered through unassisted vaginal delivery, 5.9% through assisted vaginal delivery, 3.0% through elective cesarean section, and 19.5% through emergency cesarean section. The study identified 31,225 cases of ADHD (13.6%). Using unassisted vaginal delivery as reference, the adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) of ADHD was of 1.12 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.06-1.19; 1,284 exposed cases) for assisted vaginal delivery and 1.06 (95% CI, 1.03-1.10; 5,552 exposed cases) for emergency cesarean delivery. As for elective cesarean delivery, the aHR was of 0.96 (95% CI, 0.91-1.01; 1,486 exposed cases).

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that assisted vaginal delivery and emergency cesarean section are associated with an increased risk of ADHD in children, compared with unassisted vaginal delivery after adjusting for potential risk factors.

Association between levothyroxine supplementation for hypothyroidism in late pregnancy and risk of prematurity: a population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Hypothyroidism in pregnancy is associated with obstetrical and fetal complications, such as prematurity. However, whether its management by levothyroxine affects the risk of prematurity is not yet clear.

METHODS

We conducted a cohort study within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort including pregnancies with hypothyroidism from January 1, 1998, through December 31, 2015. In primary analyses, we considered levothyroxine exposure (yes/no), total duration, mean daily dose, and cumulative dose in the 2-months period before delivery (for preterm deliveries) or before 37th weeks' gestation (for term deliveries). Secondly, levothyroxine dosage before and after the beginning of the second trimester were compared, and pregnancies were categorized in increased or constant dosage groups. Lastly, levothyroxine was also defined as a time-varying daily exposure from the 14th weeks' gestation until delivery or 37th weeks' gestation, whichever came first. Prematurity was defined as giving birth before the 37th weeks' gestation. Term pregnancies were censored at 37th weeks' gestation because they were no longer at risk of prematurity afterwards. Generalized estimating equations and Cox-proportional hazard models, adjusted for potential confounders, were used to calculate adjusted relative risks (aRRs) and hazard ratios (aHRs), respectively.

RESULTS

A total of 9489 pregnant individuals with hypothyroidism were included. Among them, 6667 (70.3%) were exposed to levothyroxine in the 2-months time-window. Adjusting for potential confounders, no association was observed between levothyroxine exposure (aRR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.81-1.20) and the risk of prematurity compared to non-exposed. Also, no association between levothyroxine duration (> 30 days: aRR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.81-1.21), cumulative dose (> 7125 mcg: aRR, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.73-1.27) or mean daily dose (> 125 mcg/day: aRR, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.72-1.26) and the risk of prematurity was observed, compared to non-exposure. Finally, the risk of prematurity did not vary between increased or constant dosage groups (aRR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.67-1.05). Similarly, time-varying exposure analysis did not show any association between levothyroxine exposure and prematurity risk (aHR, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.81-1.11).

CONCLUSIONS

Levothyroxine supplementation in late pregnancy among individuals with hypothyroidism was not associated with prematurity risk. Our findings support the safe use of levothyroxine during gestation and might be useful for the current guidelines.

Opioid analgesic and antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of spontaneous preterm birth: A nested case-control study

BACKGROUND

Given the high prevalence of both mental health and acute pain conditions during pregnancy, use of antidepressants and analgesic opioids in this period is widespread. Whether single and combined use of these medications is associated with spontaneous preterm birth (sPTB) remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the association between maternal prescription opioid and antidepressant medication exposures for co-occurring mental health and acute pain management, either alone or in combination, and sPTB.

METHODS

We used Tennessee Medicaid data (2007-2019) linked to birth certificates to conduct a nested case-control study among 15- to 44-year-old pregnant patients with singleton live births. Cases were identified as spontaneous live births between 24 and <37 gestational weeks using a validated birth certificate-based algorithm. We selected up to 10 controls per case, matched on estimated pregnancy start date and other factors. We identified analgesic opioid and antidepressant pharmacy fills to define medication exposures in the 60 days before index date (case delivery date) and categorised them as unexposed, opioid-only, antidepressant-only and combined exposure. We estimated odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) using conditional logistic regression, adjusting for confounders. We assessed the additive interaction between opioids and antidepressants by estimating relative excess risk due to interaction.

RESULTS

We identified 25,406 eligible cases of sPTB and 225,771 matched controls. Opioid-only and combined exposures were associated with higher odds of sPTB relative to unexposed (adjusted OR 1.29, 95% CI 1.23, 1.35 and 1.22, 95% CI 1.06, 1.40, respectively), while antidepressant-only exposure was not (1.04, 95% CI 0.96, 1.12). No additive interaction was identified for combined exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to prescription opioids during pregnancy, but not antidepressants, was associated with increased relative odds of sPTB. Co-exposure to opioids and antidepressants did not elevate the odds of sPTB above what we observed for opioid-only exposure.

Trends in medications for autoimmune disorders during pregnancy and factors for their discontinuation: a population-based study

OBJECTIVES

The medications used for autoimmune diseases have significantly evolved in recent years, but there is limited knowledge about how treatment practices changed during pregnancy. This study aimed to describe the temporal trends of immunosuppressants, immunomodulators and biologics use during pregnancy among women with autoimmune diseases, compare their use before, during, and after pregnancy, and identify factors predicting the discontinuation of these medications during pregnancy.

METHODS

Using data from the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort (1998-2015), which included women under the RAMQ prescription drug plan for at least 12 months before and after pregnancy, the analysis focused on those with at least one International Classification of Diseases Ninth or Tenth Revision code in the year before pregnancy for inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, spondylarthropathies, connective tissue diseases, systemic lupus erythematosus, or vasculitis. Exposure to immunosuppressants, immunomodulators and biologics were evaluated before and during the pregnancy. Discontinuation during pregnancy was defined as having no prescriptions filled during pregnancy or overlapping with the first day of gestation (1DG), given that at least one prescription was filled in the year prior to pregnancy. Generalized estimating equations were applied to estimate adjusted odds ratios (aOR) for predicting medication discontinuation during pregnancy.

RESULTS

Among 441,570 pregnant women, 3,285 had autoimmune diseases. From 1998 to 2014, the use of immunomodulators increased from 3.7% to 11.9%, immunosuppressants from 4.1% to 13.7%, and biologics from 0% to 15.6%. During pregnancy, compared to before, there was a significant decrease in exposure to immunomodulators (8.6% to 5.4%), immunosuppressants (14.2% to 8.7%), and biologics (5.1% to 4.7%). Factors influencing discontinuation varied by medication type; for immunosuppressants, prior biologics use (aOR = 2.12, 95%CI 1.16-3.85) and the year of pregnancy (aOR = 0.93, 95%CI 0.89-0.98) were key factors, while for biologics, it was only the year of pregnancy (aOR = 0.68, 95%CI 0.54-0.86).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of immunomodulators, immunosuppressants, and biologics has increased over time. However, exposure during pregnancy decreased, with recent years showing a lower rate of discontinuation. Understanding the factors influencing medication discontinuation during pregnancy can improve management strategies for women with autoimmune diseases.

Trends of antiseizure medication utilization among pregnant people in four Canadian provinces from 1998 to 2023; a study from the Canadian mother-child cohort active surveillance initiative (CAMCCO)

Background

Epilepsy management during pregnancy is crucial for both the mother and fetus. The use of antiseizure medications (ASMs) during pregnancy requires careful consideration due to their potential effects on maternal and fetal health.

Methods

This study analyzed trends in ASMs use among pregnant people in four Canadian provinces over 20 years (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Quebec). Descriptive statistics were utilized to examine the characteristics of the population, with the frequency and patterns of ASM use estimated throughout each trimester. Linear regression models were developed to analyze yearly patterns of ASM utilization for the overall study population, as well as for people with and without epilepsy.

Results

Among 1,317,141 pregnant individuals across four provinces, 0.7% had epilepsy. Of the total pregnancies, 1.7% (n = 22,783) were exposed to ASMs, comprising 4,392 from pregnant people with epilepsy (PPWE) and 18,391 from those without epilepsy (PPWOE). Results demonstrated varying trends in ASM usage between provinces, with an overall increase in usage among people without epilepsy in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. ASM use among PPWOE surged significantly in Manitoba (24.2-149.1 per 10,000 pregnant people), Saskatchewan (29.4-107.0 per 10,000), and Alberta (65.7-241.7 per 10,000) (p < 0.05). In Alberta, PPWE's ASM exposure also rose, from 23.6 in 2008 to 43.0 per 10,000 pregnant people in 2021, while Quebec witnessed a decrease from 59.2 in 1998 to 45.5 per 10,000 pregnancies in 2015. Analysis of ASM use by trimester illustrated a substantial decline among PPWOE from 365 days pre-pregnancy to the third trimester in all provinces. ASM utilization by drug class showcased significant shifts, with second-generation ASMs experiencing a notable rise. Carbamazepine, once prominent, declined, making way for lamotrigine. Regional variations underscore diverse preferences, such as clonazepam's sustained popularity in Manitoba and Quebec.

Conclusion

The study identified increasing trends in ASM use, particularly the increased use of second-generation ASMs, and differences in prescription patterns for pregnant individuals with and without epilepsy. These findings reveal changing ASM use patterns, including increased second-generation ASM use and regional disparities, providing valuable insights into real-world prescription practices.

Health Canada advisory impacts on the prevalence of oral codeine use in the Pediatric Canadian population: comparative study across provinces

Health Canada (HC) has, since 2013, issued safety alerts restricting the use of codeine-containing drugs among breastfeeding women and children/adolescents under 18 years of age. These products are linked to breathing problems among ultra-rapid CYP2D6 metabolizers and early use of opioid can lead to future opioid misuse. Using a multi-province population-based cohort study, we estimate the impact of federal safety alerts on annual rates of codeine use in the Canadian pediatric population. We analyzed data from 8,156,948 children/adolescents in five Canadian provinces between 1996 and 2021, using a common protocol. Children/adolescents were categorized as: ≤ 12 years (children) or > 12 years (adolescents). We defined codeine exposure by ≥ 1 prescription filled for codeine alone or combined with other medications. For both age categories, we obtained province-specific codeine prescription filling rates per calendar year by dividing the number of children/adolescents with ≥ 1 codeine prescription filled by the number of person-time. Annual rates of codeine use per 1000 persons vary by province from 3.0 (Quebec) to 10.1 (Manitoba) in children, and from 5.5 to 51.3 in adolescents. After the 2013 HC advisory, exposure decreased in all provinces (adjusted level change from - 0.6 to - 18.4%) in children and from - 2.1 to - 17.9% in adolescents after the 2016 advisory. Annual rates declined over time in all provinces, following HC safety alerts specific to each of the two age categories.

Maternal infections and medications in pregnancy: how does self-report compare to medical records in childhood cancer case-control studies?

BACKGROUND

Studies examining the potential impact of mothers' health during pregnancy on the health of their offspring often rely on self-reported information gathered several years later. To assess the validity of this approach, we analysed data from a national case-control study of childhood cancer (diagnosed <15 years) that collected health information from both interviews and medical records.

METHODS

Mothers' interview reports of infections and medications in pregnancy were compared with primary care records. Taking clinical diagnoses and prescriptions as the reference, sensitivity and specificity of maternal recall along with kappa coefficients of agreement were calculated. Differences in the odd ratios estimated using logistic regression for each information source were assessed using the proportional change in the odds ratio (OR).

RESULTS

Mothers of 1624 cases and 2524 controls were interviewed ∼6 years (range 0-18 years) after their child's birth. Most drugs and infections were underreported; in general practitioner records, antibiotic prescriptions were nearly three times higher and infections >40% higher. Decreasing with increasing time since pregnancy, sensitivity was ⩽40% for most infections and all drugs except 'anti-epileptics and barbiturates' (sensitivity 80% among controls). ORs associated with individual drug/disease categories that were based on self-reported data varied from 26% lower to 26% higher than those based on medical records; reporting differences between mothers of cases and controls were not systematically in the same direction.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight the scale of under-reporting and poor validity of questionnaire-based studies conducted several years after pregnancy. Future research using prospectively collected data should be encouraged to minimize measurement errors.

Perinatal psychotropic dispensing: A descriptive population-based study in New Zealand

INTRODUCTION

Decisions about using psychotropics during pregnancy are complex as risks of untreated illness are balanced against risks of fetal exposure to medication. The objective was to describe perinatal psychotropic dispensing patterns in New Zealand.

METHODS

Nationwide data from the New Zealand National Maternity Collection between January 1, 2011 and December 31, 2017 identified 399 715 pregnancies. These were linked with dispensing records to determine the proportion of pregnancies during which at least 1 psychotropic was dispensed. Proportions were calculated separately for each class, year, pregnancy period, and across maternal characteristics. The pattern of dispensing (including discontinuations) was also determined for the 25 841 women who were dispensed at least 1 psychotropic drug prior to pregnancy.

RESULTS

From the 399 715 pregnancies in the study cohort, 6.6% were dispensed at least 1 psychotropic during pregnancy. Antidepressants (5.1%) were the most dispensed, followed by hypnotics (1.2%), anxiolytics (0.7%), and antipsychotics (0.7%). From the 25 841 pregnancies during which a psychotropic was dispensed pre-pregnancy, 91% and 90% discontinued hypnotics and anxiolytics respectively, prior to or during pregnancy. This was followed by lithium (71%), antipsychotics (66%), and antidepressants (66%).

DISCUSSION

Dispensing of psychotropics during pregnancy occurs in approximately 6.6% of pregnancies in New Zealand. Two-thirds of women (66%) on antidepressants or antipsychotics discontinue dispensing before or during pregnancy. This may have implications for maternal mental health, suggesting there is a need to investigate how healthcare providers and women are making decisions about psychotropic use during pregnancy.

Medically assisted reproduction and the risk of being born small and very small for gestational age: Assessing prematurity status as an effect modifier

Over the last decade, the use of medically assisted reproduction (MAR) has steadily increased but controversy remains with regards to its risks. We aimed to quantify the risk of being born small for gestational age (SGA) and very SGA (VSGA) associated with MARs overall and by type, namely ovarian stimulators (OS) and assisted reproductive technology (ART). We conducted a cohort study within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort. Pregnancies coinciding with Quebec's MAR reimbursement PROGRAM period (2010-2014) with a singleton liveborn were considered. MAR was first defined dichotomously, using spontaneous conception as the reference, and categorized into three subgroups: OS alone (categorized as clomiphene and non-clomiphene OS), ART, OS/ART combined. SGA was defined as being born with a birth weight below the 10th percentile based on sex and gestational age (GA), estimated using populational curves in Canada, while VSGA was defined as being born with a birth weight below the 3rd percentile. We then estimated odds ratios (OR) for the association between MAR and SGA as well as VSGA using generalized estimated equation (GEE) models, adjusted for potential confounders (aOR). Two independent models were conducted considering MAR exposure overall, and MAR subgroup categories, using spontaneous conceptions as the reference. The impact of prematurity status (less than 37 weeks gestation) as an effect modifier in these associations was assessed by evaluating them among term and preterm pregnancies separately. A total of 57,631 pregnancies met inclusion criteria and were considered. During the study period, 2,062 women were exposed to MARs: 420 to OS alone, 557 to ART, and 1,085 to OS/ART combined. While no association was observed between MAR and SGA nor VSGA in the study population, MAR was associated with an increased risk for SGA (aOR 1.69, 95% CI 1.08-2.66; 25 exposed cases) among preterm pregnancies; no increased risk of SGA was observed in term pregnancies. MARs are known to increase the risk of preterm birth and our results further confirm that they also increase the risk of SGA among preterm pregnancies.

The Canadian Mother-Child Cohort Active Surveillance Initiative (CAMCCO): Comparisons between Quebec, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta

Background

Given that pregnant women taking medications are excluded from clinical trials, real-world evidence is essential. We aimed to build a Canadian Mother-Child Cohort Active Surveillance Initiative (CAMCCO) and compare frequency of prematurity, low-birth-weight (LBW), major malformations, multiplicity, and gestational medication use across four provinces.

Methods

CAMCCO is a collaborative research infrastructure that uses real-world data from large provincial health care databases in Canada; developed with standardized methods to similarly construct population-based pregnancy/child cohorts with longitudinal follow-up by linking administrative/hospital/birth databases. CAMCCO also includes a common repository to i) share algorithms and case definitions based on diagnostic and procedural codes for research/training purpose, and ii) download aggregate data relevant to primary care providers, researchers, and decision makers. For this study, data from Quebec (1998–2015), Manitoba (1995–2019), Saskatchewan (1996–2020), and Alberta (2005–2018) are compared (Chi-square tests, p-values), and trends are calculated using Cochran-Armitage trend tests.

Results

Almost two-thirds (61%) of women took medications during pregnancy, mostly antibiotics (26%), asthma drugs (8%), and antidepressants (4%). Differences in the prevalence of prematurity (5.9–6.8%), LBW (4.0–5.2%), and multiplicity (1.0–2.5%) were statistically significant between provinces (p<0.001). Frequency of major malformations increased over time in Quebec (7–11%; p<0.001), Saskatchewan (5–11%; p<0.001), and Alberta (from 7–8%; p<0.001), and decreased in Manitoba (5–3%; p<0.001). Cardiovascular and musculoskeletal malformations were the most prevalent.

Interpretation

Medications are often used among Canadian pregnancies but adverse pregnancy outcomes vary across provinces. Digitized health data may help researchers and care providers understand the risk-benefit ratios related to gestational medication use, as well as province-specific trends.

Is in-utero exposure to cannabis associated with the risk of attention deficit with or without hyperactivity disorder? A cohort study within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort

IMPORTANCE AND OBJECTIVE

Prenatal cannabis effect on attention deficit with or without hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) remains to be determined. Our aim is to quantify the impact of in-utero exposure to cannabis on the risk of ADHD.

DESIGN

Cohort study.

SETTING

Questionnaires were mailed to women sampled from the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort (QPC). Data from questionnaires were then linked with their QPC (built with administrative health databases, hospital patient charts and birth certificate databases).

PARTICIPANTS

Respondents who gave birth to a singleton live born between January 1998 and December 2003 and were continuously enrolled in the Régie de l'assurance maladie du Québec (RAMQ) medication insurance plan for at least 12 months before the first day of gestation and during pregnancy.

EXPOSURE

In-utero cannabis exposure was based on mothers' answers to the question on cannabis use during pregnancy (yes/no) and categorised as occasionally, regularly exposed and unexposed if they chose one of these categories.

OUTCOMES

ADHD was defined by a diagnosis of ADHD through the RAMQ medical services or MedEcho databases or a prescription filled for ADHD medication through RAMQ pharmaceutical services between birth and the end of the follow-up period. Follow-up started at the birth and ended at the index date (first diagnosis or prescription filled for ADHD), child death (censoring), end of public coverage for medications (censoring) or the end of study period, which was December 2015 (censoring), whichever event came first.

RESULTS

A total of 2408 children met the inclusion criteria. Of these children, 86 (3.6%) were exposed to cannabis in-utero and 241 (10.0%) had an ADHD diagnosis or medication filled. After adjustments for potential confounders, no significant association was found between in-utero cannabis exposure (occasional (1.22 (95% CI 0.63 to 2.19)) or regular (1.22 (95% CI 0.42 to 2.79))) and the risk of ADHD in children.

CONCLUSIONS

In-utero exposure to cannabis seemed to not be associated with the risk ADHD in children.

Prevalence and duration of prescribed opioid use during pregnancy: a cohort study from the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort

Background

Recent studies show a rapid growth among pregnant women using high potency opioids for common pain management during their pregnancy. No study has examined the duration of treatment among strong opioid users and weak opioid users during pregnancy. We aimed to investigate the prevalence of prescribed opioid use during pregnancy, in Quebec; and to compare the duration of opioid treatment between strong opioid users and weak opioid users.

Methods

Using the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort (1998–2015), we included all pregnancies covered by the Quebec Public Prescription Drug Insurance Program. Opioid exposure was defined as filled at least one prescription for any opioid during pregnancy or before pregnancy but with a duration that overlapped the beginning of pregnancy. Prevalence of opioids use was calculated for all pregnancies, according to pregnancy outcome, trimester of exposure, and individual opioids. The duration of opioid use during pregnancy was analyzed according to 8 categories based on cumulative duration (< 90 days vs. ≥90 days), duration of action (short-acting vs. long-acting) and strength of the opioid (weak vs. strong).

Results

Of 442,079 eligible pregnancies, 20,921 (4.7%) were exposed to opioids. Among pregnancies ending with deliveries (n = 249,234), 5.4% were exposed to opioids; the prevalence increased by 40.3% from 3.9% in 1998 to 5.5% in 2015, more specifically a significant increase in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. Weak opioid, codeine was the most commonly dispensed opioid (70% of all dispensed opioids), followed by strong opioid, hydromorphone (11%), morphine (10%), and oxycodone (5%). The prevalence of codeine use decreased by 47% from 4.3% in 2005 to 2.3% in 2015, accompanied by an increased use of strong opioid, morphine (0.029 to 1.41%), hydromorphone (0.115 to 1.08%) and oxycodone (0.022 to 0.44%), from 1998 to 2015. The average durations of opioid exposure were significantly longer among pregnancies exposed to strong opioid as compared to weak opioid regardless of the cumulative duration or duration of action (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

Given the differences in the safety profile between strong opioids and the major weak opioid codeine, the increased use of strong opioids during pregnancy with longer treatment duration raises public health concerns.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-021-04270-x.

Dihydroergotamine and triptan use to treat migraine during pregnancy and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes

Migraine is prevalent during pregnancy. Antimigraine medications such as dihydroergotamine (DHE) and triptans have been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes in individual studies but lack of consensus remains. We compared the risk of prematurity, low birth weight (LBW), major congenital malformations (MCM), and spontaneous abortions (SA) associated with gestational use of DHE or triptans. Three cohort and one nested-case–control analyses were conducted within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort to assess the risk of prematurity, LBW, MCM, and SA. Exposure was defined dichotomously as use of DHE or triptan during pregnancy. Generalized estimation equations were built to quantify the associations, adjusting for potential confounders. 233,900 eligible pregnancies were included in the analyses on prematurity, LBW, and MCM; 29,104 cases of SA were identified. Seventy-eight subjects (0.03%) were exposed to DHE and 526 (0.22%) to triptans. Adjusting for potential confounders, DHE and triptans were associated with increased risks of prematurity, LBW, MCM, and SA but not all estimates were statistically significant. DHE was associated with the risk of prematurity (aRR: 4.12, 95% CI 1.21–13.99); triptans were associated with the risk of SA (aOR: 1.63, 95% CI 1.34–1.98). After considering maternal migraine, all antimigraine specific medications increased the risk of some adverse pregnancy outcomes, but estimates were unstable.

Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine Use During Pregnancy and the Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes Using Real-World Evidence

Introduction: Chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) are currently used for the prevention/treatment of malaria, and treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Although present data do not show their efficacy to treat COVID-19, they have been used as potential treatments for COVID-19. Given that pregnant women are excluded from randomized controlled trials, and present evidence are inconsistent and inconclusive, we aimed to investigate the safety of CQ or HCQ use in a large pregnancy cohort using real-world evidence.

Methods: Using Quebec Pregnancy Cohort, we identified women who delivered a singleton liveborn, 1998–2015, (n = 233,748). The exposure time window for analyses on prematurity and low birth weight (LBW) was the second/third trimesters; was any time during pregnancy; only first trimester exposure was considered for analyses on major congenital malformations (MCM). The risk of prematurity, LBW, and MCM (overall and organ-specific) were quantified using generalized estimation equations.

Results: We identified 288 pregnancies (0.12%) exposed to CQ (183, 63.5%) or HCQ (105, 36.5%) that resulted in liveborn singletons; CQ/HCQ was used for RA (17.4%), SLE (16.3%) or malaria (0.7%). CQ/HCQ was used for 71.8 days on average [standard-deviation (SD) 70.5], at a dose of 204.3 mg/d (SD, 155.6). We did not observe any increased risk related to CQ/HCQ exposure for prematurity (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.39, 95%CI 0.84–2.30), LBW (aOR 1.11, 95%CI 0.59–2.06), or MCM (aOR 1.01, 95%CI 0.67–1.52).

Conclusion: in this large CQ/HCQ exposed pregnancy cohort, we saw no clear increased risk of prematurity, LBW, or MCM, although number of exposed cases remained low.

Trajectories of Opioid Coverage After Long-Term Opioid Therapy Initiation Among a National Cohort of US Veterans

PURPOSE

The objective of this study was to identify the trajectories that patients take after initiating long-term opioid therapy (LTOT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using a retrospective cohort design, veterans with chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP) initiating LTOT were identified. Group-based trajectory models were used to identify opioid therapy trajectories based on days of opioid supply (primary outcome) and average daily morphine milligram equivalent dose (AMME; secondary outcome) in each 180-day period following initiation of LTOT.

RESULTS

A total of 438,398 veterans with CNCP initiated LTOT. Nine trajectories were identified: 33.7% with persistent, high days covered, 17.7% with persistent, moderate days covered, 16.6% with slow, persistent days-covered reduction, 2.4% with days-covered reduction followed by increase, 4.6% with delayed days-covered reduction, 4.1% with rapid days-covered reduction, 10.9% with moderate-paced discontinuation, 3.4% with delayed discontinuation, and 6.5% with rapid discontinuation. Patients following discontinuation trajectories were more likely to be younger, persons of color, use more supportive services (eg, physical therapy), and received less opioid days' supply and lower doses prior to initiating LTOT as compared to patients following persistent opioid days-covered trajectories. AMME trajectories were similar to days-covered trajectories.

CONCLUSION

Among persons initiating LTOT, nine opioid trajectories emerged which can be broadly characterized into three main trajectory groups: persistent opioid therapy (2 trajectories), reductions in opioid therapy (4 trajectories), and discontinuation (3 trajectories). A majority of patients (51.4%) maintained persistent opioid therapy. Further research is needed to assess the risks of opioid-related adverse outcomes among the identified trajectories.

Available medications used as potential therapeutics for COVID-19: What are the known safety profiles in pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Medications already available to treat other conditions are presently being studied in clinical trials as potential treatments for COVID-19. Given that pregnant women are excluded from these trials, we aimed to investigate their safety when used during pregnancy within a unique population source.

METHODS

Using the population-based Quebec Pregnancy Cohort, we identified women who delivered a singleton liveborn (1998-2015). Taking potential confounders into account including indications for use, the risk of prematurity, low birth weight (LBW), small for gestational age (SGA), and major congenital malformation (MCM) associated with COVID-19 repurposed drug use during pregnancy were quantified using generalized estimation equations.

RESULTS

Of the 231,075 eligible pregnancies, 107 were exposed to dexamethasone (0.05%), 31 to interferons (0.01%), 1,398 to heparins (0.60%), 24 to angiotensin-receptor blockers (ARB) (0.01%), 182 to chloroquine (0.08%), 103 to hydroxychloroquine (0.05%), 6,206 to azithromycin (2.70%), 230 to oseltamivir (0.10%), and 114 to HIV medications (0.05%). Adjusting for potential confounders, we observed an increased risk of prematurity related to dexamethasone (aOR 1.92, 95%CI 1.11-3.33; 15 exposed cases), anti-thrombotics (aOR 1.58, 95%CI 1.31-1.91; 177 exposed cases), and HIV medications (aOR 2.04, 95%CI 1.01-4.11; 20 exposed cases) use. An increased risk for LBW associated with anti-thrombotics (aOR 1.72, 95%CI 1.41-2.11; 152 exposed cases), and HIV medications (aOR 2.48, 95%CI 1.25-4.90; 21 exposed cases) use were also found. Gestational exposure to anti-thrombotics (aOR 1.20, 95%CI 1.00-1.44; 176 exposed cases), and HIV medications (aOR 2.61, 95%CI 1.51-4.51; 30 exposed cases) were associated with SGA. First-trimester dexamethasone (aOR 1.66, 95%CI 1.02-2.69; 20 exposed cases) and azithromycin (aOR 1.10, 95%CI 1.02-1.19; 747 exposed cases) exposures were associated with MCM.

CONCLUSIONS

Many available medications considered as treatments for COVID-19 are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Caution is warranted when considering these medications during the gestational period.

Prevalence and determinants of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medication use during pregnancy: Results from the Quebec Pregnancy/Children Cohort

AIMS

The use of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medications has grown over the past decade among pregnant women, but these treatments are not without risk. Updated prevalence of ADHD medication use and whether prescribed dosages follow guidelines are needed. The aim of this study is to describe the prevalence of ADHD medication use among pregnant women-dosages and switches-and identify determinants of ADHD medication use.

METHOD

A population-based longitudinal cohort study within the Quebec Pregnancy/Children Cohort (QPC). Women aged 15-45 years old covered by the RAMQ prescription drug plan for at least 12 months before and during pregnancy from 1998 to 2015. ADHD medication exposure was assessed before and during pregnancy. We estimated odds ratios (ORs) for determinants of ADHD medication use during pregnancy with generalized estimating equations.

RESULTS

Among 428,505 included pregnant women, 1,130 (0.26%) used ADHD medication. A 14-fold increase in the prevalence of ADHD medication use in pregnant women was observed, from 1998 (0.08%) to 2015 (1.2%). Methylphenidate was the most prevalent medication at 70.1%. ADHD medication fillings were at optimal dosage 91.8% of the time based on guidelines and 18.1% of women switched to another ADHD medication class during gestation. Main determinants of ADHD medication use during pregnancy were psychiatric disorders (aOR 2.19; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.57, 2.96), mood and anxiety disorders (aOR 1.74; 95% CI 1.32, 2.24), and calendar year.

CONCLUSIONS

The number of pregnancies exposed to ADHD medications has increased similarly to the increase reported in other countries between 1998 and 2015. In addition to the current literature, the use of ADHD medications during pregnancy is consistent with Canadian guidelines recommendations on dosage.

Maternal ADHD medication use during pregnancy and the risk of ADHD in children: Importance of genetic predispositions and impact of using a sibling analysis

Attention deficit with hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medications in pregnancy would be associated with ADHD in children, however, estimates can be confounded by genetic predispositions and environmental factors related to the mother-child pair. We aim to quantify the risk of ADHD in children associated with ADHD medication exposures during pregnancy. A prospective cohort study and sibling analysis conducted within The Quebec Pregnancy/Child Cohort (QPC). All full-term singleton live births covered by the provincial prescription drug insurance in Quebec from 1998 to 2015 were included. ADHD medication exposure during pregnancy was defined according to trimester of use and class-specific medication. ADHD in children was defined as having at least one diagnosis or one prescription filled for an ADHD medication. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to calculate crude and adjusted hazard ratios (aHR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) in the overall cohort, the sub-cohort and the sibling analysis. Of 166,047 full-term singleton live births included, 25,454 (15.3%) had ADHD. In the overall cohort, maternal exposure to ADHD medication during pregnancy was associated with ADHD in children (aHR= 1.96, 95% CI 1.22-3.15). In the ADHD pregnant women sub-cohort (aHR= 1.56; 95% CI 0.93-2.62) and the sibling control analysis (aHR= 1.14; 95% CI 0.62-1.98), ADHD medications during pregnancy was not associated with an increased risk of ADHD in children. Our findings suggest that in utero exposure to ADHD medications was not associated with an increased risk of ADHD in children. This suggests that the association is due to genetic and/or family environmental factors.

Polypharmacy and comorbidities during pregnancy in a cohort of women with migraine

OBJECTIVE

To describe longitudinal patterns of medication use throughout pregnancy in women with migraine.

METHODS

We used the IBM MarketScan healthcare claims database in the US to create a cohort of pregnancies enrolled between 2011-2015 resulting in live or stillbirth. Migraine headache was identified based on ICD-9-CM diagnosis codes or procedure codes recorded in clinical encounters. Outcomes were patterns of prescriptions filled for medications that may be used to prevent migraine (antiepileptics, antihypertensives, antidepressants) or treat acute episodes (opioids, triptans, acetaminophen) and of other comorbid conditions (hypertension, psychiatric diagnoses, epilepsy). We used group-based multi-trajectory models to cluster women into similar longitudinal patterns of prescription fills.

RESULTS

Of 859,501 pregnancies, 8168 had migraine. Within migraineurs, before pregnancy, the most commonly filled prescription was for a triptan (43.2%), followed by opioids (26.7%), acetaminophen (26.2%), antidepressants (24.9%), antiepileptics (18.6%) and antihypertensives (12.3%). Antiepileptics, antidepressants, and triptans were frequently discontinued early in pregnancy with few new users, while antihypertensives were discontinued by some users, but continued or initiated by a minority of users late in pregnancy. Opioids and acetaminophen were used intermittently throughout pregnancy. Comorbidities included hypertension (10.8%), epilepsy (4.7%), depression (14.0%), and anxiety (15.6%). Polypharmacy involving both preventive and acute medications was most common before pregnancy (31.4%) and declined in first trimester (14.7%). In all, 25.9% of women filled prescriptions for two or more acute medications before pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Medication use patterns during pregnancy for women with migraine are complex. Patterns of polypharmacy and comorbidity during pregnancy highlight an under-studied area relevant for maternal and child health outcomes.

Misleading meta-analyses of observational studies may generate unjustified alarms: The case of medications for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy

OBJECTIVES

Because observational studies often use imperfect measurements, results are prone to misclassification errors. We used as a motivating example the possible teratogenic risks of antiemetic agents in pregnancy since a large observational study recently showed that first-trimester exposure to doxylamine-pyridoxine was associated with significantly increased risk of congenital malformations as a whole, as well as central nervous system defects, and previous observational studies did not show such associations. A meta-analysis on this issue was carried out with the aim to illustrate how differential exposure and outcome misclassifications may lead to uncertain conclusions.

METHODS

Medline, searched to October 2019 for full text papers in English. Summary Odds Ratios (ORs) with confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using random-effect models. Probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed for evaluating the extension of differential misclassification required to account for the exposure-outcome association.

RESULTS

Summary ORs were 1.02 (95 % CI, 0.92-1.15), 0.99 (0.82-1.19) and 1.25 (1.08-1.44) for overall congenital, cardiocirculatory, and central nervous system malformations respectively. By assuming exposure and outcome bias factor respectively of 0.95 (i.e., newborns with congenital defects had exposure specificity 5% lower than healthy newborns) and 1.12 (i.e., exposed newborns had outcome sensitivity 12 % higher than unexposed newborns), summary OR of central nervous system defects became 1.13 (95 % CI, 0.99-1.29) and 1.17 (95 % CI, 0.99-1.38).

CONCLUSION

Observational investigations and meta-analyses of observational studies need cautious interpretations. Their susceptibility to several, often sneaky, sources of bias should be carefully evaluated.

Medically assisted reproduction and the risk of preterm birth: a case-control study using data from the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort

BACKGROUND

The use of fertility treatments has been growing over the past decade, but these treatments are not without risk. We aimed to quantify the risk of preterm birth associated with the use of ovarian stimulators (OS) and assisted reproductive technologies (ART) overall and by type of fertility treatment.

METHODS

We conducted a case-control analysis of data from the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort. We included singleton pregnancies ending in a live birth during the time when Quebec operated a universal reimbursement program for assisted reproduction (2010-2015). Fertility treatments were defined dichotomously, and pregnancies resulting from spontaneous conception were used as the reference. We categorized fertility treatments into subgroups: ovarian stimulators alone, ART alone and OS and ART combined. Preterm birth was defined as birth before 37 weeks' gestation. We estimated odds ratios (ORs) for the association between type of assisted reproduction and preterm birth using generalized estimating equation models and adjusted ORs for potential confounders.

RESULTS

A total of 57 624 pregnancies were included in the study. During the study period, 2055 pregnancies were conceived through the use of OS, ART or both: 419 involved OS alone, 150 involved ART alone and 1486 involved both OS and ART. When we adjusted for potential confounders, conception with OS, ART or both was associated with an increased risk of preterm birth (adjusted OR 1.46, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.25-1.72, 182 exposed cases). All types of assisted reproduction were associated with an increased risk of preterm birth compared with pregnancies conceived spontaneously (OS alone: adjusted OR 1.47, 95% CI 1.04-2.07; ART alone: adjusted OR 1.76, 95% CI 1.01-3.06; OS and ART combined: adjusted OR 1.43, 95% CI 1.19-1.73). Use of OS or ART or both was associated with an increased risk of late, moderate and extremely preterm birth (extremely preterm birth: adjusted OR 2.39, 95% CI 1.30-4.39).

INTERPRETATION

Compared with pregnancies conceived spontaneously, pregnancies conceived through the use of OS, ART or both were associated with a 46% increased risk of preterm birth. Physicians should advise patients of the increased risks of late, moderate and extremely preterm birth so that they can make informed choices.

Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a nested case-control study

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to determine the association between antidepressant (AD) classes, types and duration of use during pregnancy and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

DESIGN AND SETTING

A nested case-control study was conducted within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort (QPC), a Canadian provincial database which includes data on all pregnancies and children in Quebec from January 1998 to December 2015.

PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Gestational diabetes mellitus.

PARTICIPANTS

Cases of GDM were identified after week 20 of pregnancy and randomly matched 1:10 to controls on gestational age at index date (ie, calendar date of GDM) and year of pregnancy. AD exposure was assessed by filled prescriptions between the beginning of pregnancy (first day of last menstrual period) and index date. Conditional logistic regression models were used to estimate crude and adjusted odds ratios (aOR).

RESULTS

Among 20 905 cases and 209 050 matched controls, 9741 (4.2%) women were exposed to ADs. When adjusting for potential confounders, AD use was associated with an increased risk of GDM (aOR 1.19, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.30); venlafaxine (aOR 1.27, 95% CI 1.09 to 1.49) and amitriptyline (aOR 1.52, 95% CI 1.25 to 1.84) were also associated with an increased risk of GDM. Moreover, the risk of GDM was increased with longer duration of AD use, specifically for serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic ADs and combined use of two AD classes. No statistically significant association was observed for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that ADs-and specifically venlafaxine and amitriptyline-were associated with an increased risk of GDM.

Association Between Incident Exposure to Benzodiazepines in Early Pregnancy and Risk of Spontaneous Abortion

IMPORTANCE

Benzodiazepine use in early pregnancy is associated with spontaneous abortion (SA). However, to date, the association between specific benzodiazepine agent exposure and the risk of SA has not been examined.

OBJECTIVE

To quantify the risk of SA associated with gestational benzodiazepine incident use by drug class, duration of action, and specific benzodiazepine agent.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This nested case-control study within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, includes all pregnancies covered by the Quebec Prescription Drug Insurance Plan from January 1, 1998, through December 31, 2015. Each case was randomly matched with up to 5 controls. Statistical analysis was performed from January 1, 1998, through December 31, 2015.

EXPOSURES

Benzodiazepine exposure was defined as 1 or more filled prescriptions between the first day of the last menstrual period and the index date (the calendar date of the SA diagnosis). Benzodiazepine exposure was categorized by overall use, long- or short-acting benzodiazepine, and specific benzodiazepine agents.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Spontaneous abortion defined as a pregnancy loss between the beginning of the sixth week of gestation and the 19th completed week of gestation. Conditional logistic regression models were used to calculate odds ratios (OR) and 95% CIs.

RESULTS

Of the 442 066 pregnancies included in the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort, 27 149 (6.1%) ended with SA, with a mean (SD) maternal age of 24.2 (6.5) years. Among pregnancies ending with SA, 375 (1.4%) were among women exposed to benzodiazepines in early pregnancy compared with 788 (0.6%) of the 134 305 matched control pregnancies (crude OR, 2.39; 95% CI, 2.10-2.73). Adjusting for potential confounders, including maternal mood and anxiety disorders before pregnancy, and compared with nonuse, benzodiazepine exposure in early pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of SA (adjusted OR, 1.85; 95% CI, 1.61-2.12). The risk was similar among pregnancies exposed to short-acting (284 exposed cases; adjusted OR, 1.81; 95% CI, 1.55-2.12) and long-acting (98 exposed cases; adjusted OR, 1.73; 95% CI, 1.31-2.28) benzodiazepines during early pregnancy. All benzodiazepine agents were independently associated with an increased risk of SA (range of adjusted ORs, 1.13-3.43).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

An increased risk of SA was observed among early pregnancies with incident exposure to short- and long-acting benzodiazepines and all specific benzodiazepine agents during early pregnancy. Insomnia, anxiety, and mood disorders are prevalent during pregnancy; clinicians should carefully evaluate the risk-benefit ratio of prescribing benzodiazepines in early pregnancy since alternative nonpharmacologic treatments exist.

New evidence for concern over the risk of birth defects from medications for nausea and vomitting of pregnancy

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to quantify the risk of major congenital malformations (MCM) associated with first-trimester exposure to antiemetics.

STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING

Using the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort (1998-2015), first-trimester doxylamine-pyridoxine, metoclopramide, and ondansetron exposures were assessed for their association with MCM. Generalized estimating equations were used to estimate odds ratios (OR), adjusting for potential confounders (aOR).

RESULTS

Within 17 years of follow-up, the prevalence of antiemetic use during pregnancy increased by 76%. Within our cohort, 45,623 pregnancies were exposed to doxylamine-pyridoxine, 958 to metoclopramide, and 31 to ondansetron. Doxylamine-pyridoxine and metoclopramide use were associated with an increased risk of overall MCM (aOR 1.07, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.03-1.11; 3,945 exposed cases) and (aOR 1.27, 95% CI: 1.03-1.57; 105 exposed cases), respectively. Doxylamine-pyridoxine exposure was associated with increased risks of spina bifida (aOR 1.87, 95% CI: 1.11-3.14; 23 exposed cases), nervous system (aOR 1.25, 95% CI: 1.06-1.47; 225 exposed cases), and musculoskeletal system defects (aOR 1.08, 95% CI: 1.02-1.14; 1,735 exposed cases). Metoclopramide exposure was associated with an increased risk of genital organ defects (aOR 2.26, 95% CI: 1.14-4.48; 10 exposed cases). No statistically significant association was found between ondansetron exposure and the risk of overall MCM.

CONCLUSION

First-trimester doxylamine-pyridoxine and metoclopramide exposure was associated with a significantly increased risk of overall and specific MCM.

The French Pregnancy Cohort: Medication use during pregnancy in the French population

Purpose

We described the medication use during pregnancy in the French population using the French Pregnancy Cohort (FPC).

Methods

The FPC was built with the sampling of all pregnant women included in the French Echantillon généraliste des bénéficiaires (EGB), which is a 1/97^th representative sample of the population covered by the French health insurance. The EGB includes anonymized information on the socio-demographic and medical characteristics of beneficiaries, and the health care services they have received such as diagnoses and procedure codes as well as data on filled reimbursed medication; EGB also includes data on hospital stays in all public and private French health facilities. Each filled prescription record contains information on drug brand and generic names, date of prescription and date of dispensing, quantity dispensed, mode of administration, duration of prescription, dosage, and prescribing physician specialty. FPC includes data on all pregnancies of women in the EGB (2010–2013). Date of entry in the FPC is the first day of pregnancy regardless of pregnancy outcome (spontaneous abortions or planned abortions (with or without medical reasons), deliveries), and data on women are collected retrospectively for a period of one year before pregnancy, and prospectively during pregnancy, and up to one year after delivery. The prevalence of prescribed medications before, during and after pregnancy was compared; comparison was also done between trimesters. Pregnancy outcomes are described and include spontaneous and planned abortions, livebirths, and stillbirths.

Results

FPC includes data on 36,065 pregnancies. Among them, 27,253 (75.6%) resulted in a delivery including 201 stillbirths (0.7%). The total number of spontaneous abortions was 6,718 (18.6%), and planned abortions 2,094 (5.8%). The prevalence of filled medication use was 91.1%, 89.9%, and 95.6% before, during and after pregnancy, respectively. Although there was a statistically significant decrease in the proportion of use once the pregnancy was diagnosed (first trimester exposure, 76.4% vs. exposure in the year prior to pregnancy, 91.1% (p < .01)), post-pregnancy medication use was above the pre-pregnancy level (95.6%). Maternal depression was the most prevalent comorbidity during pregnancy (20%), and post-partum depression was higher in those who delivered a stillborn infant (38.8%) as well as in those with a spontaneous (19.5%) or planned abortion (22.4%) compared to those with a liveborn (12.0%).

Conclusion

FPC is an excellent tool for the study of the risk and benefit of drug use during the perinatal period. FPC has the advantage of including a representative sample of French pregnant women, and study medications only available in France in addition to others available worldwide.

Risk of preterm birth following late pregnancy exposure to NSAIDs or COX-2 inhibitors

Pregnant women may take nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), selective cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 inhibitors, or biological agents to relieve symptoms or manage disease flares in late pregnancy. We aimed to quantify the risk of prematurity associated with late pregnancy exposure to nonselective NSAIDs, selective COX-2 inhibitors, and biological agents. Using data from Quebec Pregnancy Cohort, we performed a population-based cohort study. We included all women who were covered by the Quebec Drug Plan and had a singleton live birth between January 1, 1998 and December 31, 2009. Late pregnancy exposure was defined as having filled at least 1 prescription for nonselective NSAIDs, selective COX-2 inhibitors, or biological agents in the 3 months before delivery. Prematurity was defined as <37 weeks of gestation. Crude and adjusted odds ratios (OR) were obtained using generalized estimation equation models. Covariates included maternal autoimmune diseases, demographics, concomitant drug use, history of pregnancy complications, and other comorbidities. A total of 156,531 pregnancies met inclusion criteria and were considered for analyses. In the 3 months before delivery, 391 pregnancies were exposed to nonselective NSAIDs, 55 to COX-2 inhibitors, and 12 to biological agents. After adjustment for maternal autoimmune diseases, concomitant medication use, and other risk factors, COX-2 inhibitor use in late pregnancy was associated with a 2.46-fold increased risk of prematurity (adjusted OR, 2.46; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-4.72) compared to nonuse; only late pregnancy exposure to celecoxib was found to increase the risk (adjusted OR, 3.41; 95% confidence interval, 1.29-9.02). In conclusion, celecoxib use during late pregnancy may increase the risk of prematurity.

Associations between low- and high-dose oral fluconazole and pregnancy outcomes: 3 nested case-control studies

BACKGROUND

While topical azoles are the first-line treatment for fungal infections, oral fluconazole is frequently used during pregnancy. We aimed to assess the effect of exposure to low and high doses of fluconazole during pregnancy on the occurrence of spontaneous abortions, major congenital malformations and stillbirths.

METHODS

Within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort (1998-2015), we identified women exposed to low- (≤ 150 mg) and high-dose (> 150 mg) fluconazole, and women who were not exposed. For each case of spontaneous abortion or stillbirth, up to 5 controls were randomly selected using an incidence density sampling method matched on gestational age at diagnosis of spontaneous abortion or stillbirth (index date) and the year of the last menstrual period. For cases of major congenital malformation, we considered all liveborn babies as controls. Generalized estimation equation models were used to analyze the 3 main outcomes separately.

RESULTS

Within a cohort of 441 949 pregnancies, 320 868 pregnancies were included in the analyses of spontaneous abortions, 226 599 of major congenital malformations and 7832 of stillbirths. Most (69.5%) women exposed to fluconazole in pregnancy received the common single therapeutic dose of 150 mg (low dose); the remainder received a dose of > 150 mg (high dose). Use of oral fluconazole during early pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion compared with no exposure (adjusted odds ratio [OR] for 345 cases exposed to low-dose treatment 2.23, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.96-2.54; adjusted OR for 249 cases exposed to high-dose treatment 3.20, 95% CI 2.73-3.75). Exposure to fluconazole during the first trimester did not increase the risk of overall major congenital malformations; however, exposure to a high dose during the first trimester was associated with an increased risk of cardiac septal closure anomalies (adjusted OR 1.81, 95% CI 1.04-3.14; 13 exposed cases) compared with no exposure. No association was found between exposure to fluconazole during pregnancy and the risk of stillbirth.

INTERPRETATION

Any maternal exposure to fluconazole during pregnancy may increase risk of spontaneous abortion and doses higher than 150 mg during the first trimester may increase risk of cardiac septal closure anomalies.

Use of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole during pregnancy and risk of spontaneous abortion: a nested case control study

AIMS

Data available on the fetal safety of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) exposure during pregnancy remains scarce and inconclusive. A previous study assessing the link between TMP-SMX exposure during pregnancy and the risk of spontaneous abortion (SA) did not control for protopathic bias and indication bias.

METHODS

We conducted a nested control study (n = 77 429 pregnancies including 7039 cases of SA and 70 390 controls) within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort. For each case of SA, we selected 10 controls at the index date that were matched on gestational age and year of pregnancy. TMP-SMX exposure was defined as either having filled at least one prescription between the first day of gestation (1DG) and the index date, or as having filled a prescription before pregnancy but with a duration overlapping the 1DG (102 pregnancies exposed to TMP-SMX, including 25 cases of SA and 77 controls).

RESULTS

Adjusting for potential confounders, TMP-SMX exposure was associated with an increased risk of SA (AOR 2.94, 95% C 1.89-4.57, 25 exposed cases). Similar results were found after controlling for indication bias and protopathic bias.

CONCLUSION

Given that this drug is widely use in HIV patients to prevent opportunistic infections and malaria, there is an urgent need to identify potential data sources in Africa for analysis of early pregnancy exposure to TMP-SMX.

Drug prescribing during pregnancy in a central region of Italy, 2008-2012

Background

Drug consumption during pregnancy is a matter of concern, especially regarding drugs known or suspected to be teratogens. Little is known about drug use in pregnant women in Italy. The present study is aimed at examining the prevalence, and to detect potential inappropriateness of drug prescribing among pregnant women in Latium, a region of central Italy.

Methods

This retrospective study was conducted on a cohort of women aged 18-45 years who delivered between 2008 and 2012 in public hospitals. Women were enrolled through the Regional Birth Register. After linking the regional Health Information Systems and the Regional Drug Claims Register, women’s clinical data and prescribed medications were analyzed. Italian Medicine Agency (AIFA) and US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evidence were used to investigate inappropriate prescribing and teratogenic risk.

Results

Excluding vitamins and minerals, 80.6% (n = 153,079) of the women were prescribed at least one drug during pregnancy, with an average of 4.6 medications per pregnancy. Drugs for blood and hematopoietic organs were the most commonly prescribed (53.0%,), followed by anti-infectives for systemic use (50.7%). Among the inappropriate prescriptions, progestogen supplementation was given in 20.1% of pregnancies; teratogen drugs were prescribed in 0.8%, mostly angiotensin co-enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) (0.3%).

Conclusions

In Latium, drugs are widely used in pregnancy. Prescriptions of inappropriate drugs are observed in more than a fifth of pregnancies, and teratogens are still used, despite their known risk. Continuous updates of information provided to practitioners and an increased availability of information to women might reduce inappropriate prescribing.

Leflunomide use during pregnancy and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes

OBJECTIVES

Leflunomide is known to be embryotoxic and teratogenic in rodents. However, there is less evidence in humans. We quantified the risk of major congenital malformation (MCM), prematurity, low birth weight (LBW) and spontaneous abortion associated with leflunomide exposure during pregnancy in humans.

METHODS

From a cohort of 289 688 pregnancies in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, from 1998 to 2015, first-trimester leflunomide exposure and other antirheumatic drug exposures were studied for their association with MCM and spontaneous abortions. Also second or third-trimester leflunomide exposures were examined for associations with prematurity and LBW. Logistic regression model-based generalised estimating equations were used.

RESULTS

51 pregnancies were exposed to leflunomide during the first trimester, and 21 during the second/third trimesters. Adjusting for potential confounders, use of leflunomide during the first trimester of pregnancy was not associated with the risk of MCM (adjusted OR (aOR) 0.97, 95% CI 0.81 to 1.16; 5 exposed cases). No association was found between second/third-trimester exposure to leflunomide and the risk of prematurity (aOR 4.03, 95% CI 0.91 to 17.85; 7 exposed cases) nor LBW (aOR 1.06, 95%CI 0.90 to 1.25; 8 exposed cases). Pregnancy exposure to leflunomide was also not associated with the risk of spontaneous abortion (aOR 1.09, 95% CI 0.90 to 1.32; 11 exposed cases).

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal exposure to leflunomide during pregnancy was not associated with statistically significant increased risk of MCMs, prematurity, LBW or spontaneous abortions. However, given that relatively few women were exposed to leflunomide during pregnancy in this cohort, caution remains warranted.

Antiretroviral combination use during pregnancy and the risk of major congenital malformations

OBJECTIVE

To quantify the risk of major congenital malformations (MCMs) associated with gestational combination antiretroviral use.

DESIGN

Population-based prospective cohort study.

METHODS

Using the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort from 1998 to 2015, we included women who were covered by the Quebec Drug Plan and had a singleton livebirth. All antiretroviral use alone or in combination were considered. MCMs overall and organ-specific malformations in the first year of life were identified.

RESULTS

In total, 214 240 pregnancies met inclusion criteria; 0.09% (n = 198) occurred while on antiretroviral combinations during the first trimester; 169 HIV-positive women without antiretroviral treatment were included. Compared with the general population in this cohort, the prevalence of MCMs was significantly higher in unexposed HIV-positive women (14.8 vs. 8.6%, P = 0.004) but not in antiretroviral-exposed HIV-positive women (10.3%, P = 0.41). Adjusting for potential confounders, including maternal HIV status, antiretroviral use during the first trimester was not associated with the risk of MCMs (adjusted odds ratio 0.59, 95% confidence interval 0.33-1.06). However, antiretroviral combination use during the first trimester was associated with an increased risk of defects of the small intestine (adjusted odds ratio 10.32, 95% confidence interval 2.85-37.38, P = 0.0004).

CONCLUSION

Antiretroviral therapy during the first trimester was not associated with the risk of overall MCMs but may be associated with an increased risk of defects of the small intestine. However, HIV-positive pregnant women who are not treated with antiretrovirals during pregnancy seem to have a higher risk of malformations; this is not seen among those who are treated, which could indicate that the underlying condition puts women at risk and not the treatment.

Use of antibiotics during pregnancy and the risk of major congenital malformations: a population based cohort study

AIMS

Few studies have investigated the link between individual antibiotics and major congenital malformations (MCMs) including specific malformations owing to small sample size. We aimed to quantify the association between exposure to gestational antibiotic and the risk of MCMs.

METHODS

Using the Quebec pregnancy cohort (1998-2008), we included a total of 139 938 liveborn singleton alive whose mothers were covered by the "Régie de l'assurance maladie du Québec" drug plan for at least 12 months before and during pregnancy. Antibiotic exposure was assessed in the first trimester and MCMs were identified within the first year of life.

RESULTS

After adjusting for potential confounders, clindamycin exposure was associated with an increased risk of MCMs (aOR 1.34, 95% CI 1.02-1.77, 60 exposed cases), musculoskeletal system malformations (aOR 1.67, 95% CI 1.12-2.48, 29 exposed cases) and ventricular/atrial septal defect (aOR 1.81, 95% CI 1.04-3.16, 13 exposed cases). Doxycycline exposure increased the risk of circulatory system malformation, cardiac malformations and ventricular/atrial septal defect (aOR 2.38, 95% CI 1.21-4.67, 9 exposed cases; aOR 2.46, 95% CI 1.21-4.99, 8 exposed cases; aOR 3.19, 95% CI 1.57-6.48, 8 exposed cases, respectively). Additional associations were seen with quinolone (1 defect), moxifloxacin (1 defect), ofloxacin (1 defect), macrolide (1 defect), erythromycin (1 defect) and phenoxymethylpenicillin (1 defect). No link was observed with amoxicillin, cephalosporins and nitrofurantoin. Similar results were found when penicillins were used as the comparator group.

CONCLUSIONS

Clindamycin, doxycycline, quinolones, macrolides and phenoxymethylpenicillin in utero exposure were linked to organ-specific malformations. Amoxicillin, cephalosporins and nitrofurantoin were not associated with MCMs.

Use of antibiotics during pregnancy and risk of spontaneous abortion

BACKGROUND

Although antibiotics are widely used during pregnancy, evidence regarding their fetal safety remains limited. Our aim was to quantify the association between antibiotic exposure during pregnancy and risk of spontaneous abortion.

METHODS

We conducted a nested case-control study within the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort (1998-2009). We excluded planned abortions and pregnancies exposed to fetotoxic drugs. Spontaneous abortion was defined as having a diagnosis or procedure related to spontaneous abortion before the 20th week of pregnancy. The index date was defined as the calendar date of the spontaneous abortion. Ten controls per case were randomly selected and matched by gestational age and year of pregnancy. Use of antibiotics was defined by filled prescriptions between the first day of gestation and the index date and was compared with (a) non-exposure and (b) exposure to penicillins or cephalosporins. We studied type of antibiotics separately using the same comparator groups.

RESULTS

After adjustment for potential confounders, use of azithromycin (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 1.65, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.34-2.02; 110 exposed cases), clarithromycin (adjusted OR 2.35, 95% CI 1.90-2.91; 111 exposed cases), metronidazole (adjusted OR 1.70, 95% CI 1.27-2.26; 53 exposed cases), sulfonamides (adjusted OR 2.01, 95% CI 1.36-2.97; 30 exposed cases), tetracyclines (adjusted OR 2.59, 95% CI 1.97-3.41; 67 exposed cases) and quinolones (adjusted OR 2.72, 95% CI 2.27-3.27; 160 exposed cases) was associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. Similar results were found when we used penicillins or cephalosporins as the comparator group.

INTERPRETATION

After adjustment for potential confounders, use of macro-lides (excluding erythromycin), quinolones, tetracyclines, sulfonamides and metronidazole during early pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. Our findings may be of use to policy-makers to update guidelines for the treatment of infections during pregnancy.

Administrative Claims Data Versus Augmented Pregnancy Data for the Study of Pharmaceutical Treatments in Pregnancy

Purpose of Review

Administrative claims databases, which collect reimbursement-related information generated from healthcare encounters, are increasingly used to evaluate medication safety in pregnancy. We reviewed the strengths and limitations of claims-only databases and how other data sources may be used to improve the accuracy and completeness of information critical for studying medication safety in pregnancy.

Recent Findings

Research on medication safety in pregnancy requires information on pregnancy episodes, mother-infant linkage, medication exposure, gestational age, maternal and birth outcomes, confounding factors, and (in some studies) long-term follow-up data. Claims data reliably identifies live births and possibly other pregnancies. It allows mother-infant linkage and has prospectively collected prescription medication information. Its diagnosis and procedure information allows estimation of gestational age. It captures maternal medical conditions but generally has incomplete data on reproductive and lifestyle factors. It has information on certain, typically short-term maternal and infant outcomes that may require chart review confirmation. Other data sources including electronic health records and birth registries can augment claims data or be analyzed alone. Interviews, surveys, or biological samples provide additional information. Nationwide and regional birth and pregnancy registries, such as those in several European and North American countries, generally contain more complete information essential for pregnancy research compared to claims-only databases.

Summary

Claims data offers several advantages in medication safety in pregnancy research. Its limitations can be partially addressed by linking it with other data sources or supplementing with primary data collection. Rigorous assessment of data quality and completeness is recommended regardless of data sources.

SSRI and SNRI use during pregnancy and the risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn

AIM

The use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in late pregnancy may be associated with an increased risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN). Limited data are available on the risk of PPHN associated with serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). We aimed to quantify both associations.

METHODS

Using data from the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort between 1998 and 2009, we included women covered by the provincial drug plan who had a singleton live birth. Exposure categories were SSRI, SNRI and other antidepressant use; non-users were considered as the reference category. Generalized estimating equation models were used to obtain risk estimates and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Confounding by indication was minimized by adjusting for history of maternal depression/anxiety before pregnancy.

RESULTS

Overall, 143 281 pregnancies were included; PPHN was identified in 0.2% of newborns. Adjusting for maternal depression, and other potential confounders, SSRI use during the second half of pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of PPHN [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 4.29, 95% CI 1.34, 13.77] compared with non-use of antidepressants; SNRI use during the same time window was not statistically associated with the risk of PPHN (aOR 0.59, 95% CI 0.06, 5.62). Use of SSRIs and SNRIs before the 20th week of gestation was not associated with the risk of PPHN.

CONCLUSIONS

Use of SSRIs in the second half of pregnancy was associated with the risk of PPHN. Given our results on SNRIs and the lack of statistical power for these analyses, it is unclear whether SNRI use during pregnancy also increases the risk of PPHN.

Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of major congenital malformations in a cohort of depressed pregnant women: an updated analysis of the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort

OBJECTIVE

Antidepressant use during gestation has been associated with risk of major congenital malformations but estimates can lack statistical power or be confounded by maternal depression. We aimed to determine the association between first-trimester exposure to antidepressants and the risk of major congenital malformations in a cohort of depressed/anxious women.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Data were obtained from the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort (QPC). All pregnancies with a diagnosis of depression or anxiety, or exposed to antidepressants in the 12 months before pregnancy, and ending with a live-born singleton were included.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Antidepressant classes (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRI), tricyclic antidepressants (TCA) and other antidepressants) and types were individually compared with non-exposure during the first trimester (depressed untreated). Major congenital malformations overall and organ-specific malformations in the first year of life were identified.

RESULTS

18 487 pregnant women were included. When looking at the specific types of antidepressant used during the first trimester, only citalopram was increasing the risk of major congenital malformations (adjusted OR, (aOR) 1.36, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.73; 88 exposed cases), although there was a trend towards increased risk for the most frequently used antidepressants. Antidepressants with serotonin reuptake inhibition effect (SSRI, SNRI, amitriptyline (the most used TCA)) increased the risk of certain organ-specific defects: paroxetine increased the risk of cardiac defects (aOR 1.45, 95% CI 1.12 to 1.88), and ventricular/atrial septal defects (aOR 1.39, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.93); citalopram increased the risk of musculoskeletal defects (aOR 1.92, 95% CI 1.40 to 2.62), and craniosynostosis (aOR 3.95, 95% CI 2.08 to 7.52); TCA was associated with eye, ear, face and neck defects (aOR 2.45, 95% CI 1.05 to 5.72), and digestive defects (aOR 2.55, 95% CI 1.40 to 4.66); and venlafaxine was associated with respiratory defects (aOR 2.17, 95% CI 1.07 to 4.38).

CONCLUSIONS

Antidepressants with effects on serotonin reuptake during embryogenesis increased the risk of some organ-specific malformations in a cohort of pregnant women with depression.

The Quebec Pregnancy Cohort--prevalence of medication use during gestation and pregnancy outcomes

PURPOSE

We evaluated the potential and the validity of the Quebec Pregnancy Cohort (QPC) as a research tool in perinatal pharmacoepidemiology.

METHODS

The QPC was built by linking four administrative databases: RAMQ (medical and pharmaceutical data), Med-Echo (hospitalizations), ISQ (births/deaths), and MELS (Ministry of Education data). A self-administered questionnaire was sent to a random sample of women to collect lifestyle information. The QPC includes data on all pregnancies of women covered by the Quebec provincial prescription drug insurance between 1998 and 2008. Date of entry in the QPC is the first day of pregnancy, and women are followed during and after pregnancy; children are followed after birth up until 2009. The prevalence of prescribed medications before, during and after pregnancy was compared between time-window. Pregnancy outcomes were also estimated among pregnancies ending with a live born infant.

RESULTS

The QPC included 289,688 pregnancies of 186,165 women. Among them, 167,398 ended with a delivery representing 19.4% of all deliveries occurring in the Province of Quebec between 1998-2009. The total frequency of abortions was 35.9% in the QPC comparable to the 36.4% observed in the Province of Quebec. The prevalence of prescribed medication use was 74.6%, 59.0%, and 79.6% before, during and after pregnancy, respectively. Although there was a statistically significant decrease in the proportion of use once the pregnancy was diagnosed (p<.01), post-pregnancy prescribed medication use returned above the pre-pregnancy level. The prevalence of pregnancy outcomes found in the QPC were similar to those observed in the Province of Quebec.

CONCLUSION

The QPC is an excellent tool for the study of the risk and benefit of drug use during the perinatal period. This cohort has the advantage of including a validated date of beginning of pregnancy giving the possibility of assigning the exact gestational age at the time of maternal exposure.