Galloflavin (CAS 568-80-9): a novel inhibitor of lactate dehydrogenase

Metabolic Rewiring in Cancer: Small Molecule Inhibitors in Colorectal Cancer Therapy

Alterations in cellular metabolism, such as dysregulation in glycolysis, lipid metabolism, and glutaminolysis in response to hypoxic and low-nutrient conditions within the tumor microenvironment, are well-recognized hallmarks of cancer. Therefore, understanding the interplay between aerobic glycolysis, lipid metabolism, and glutaminolysis is crucial for developing effective metabolism-based therapies for cancer, particularly in the context of colorectal cancer (CRC). In this regard, the present review explores the complex field of metabolic reprogramming in tumorigenesis and progression, providing insights into the current landscape of small molecule inhibitors targeting tumorigenic metabolic pathways and their implications for CRC treatment.

LDHB contributes to the regulation of lactate levels and basal insulin secretion in human pancreatic β cells

Using 13C6 glucose labeling coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and 2D 1H-13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence NMR spectroscopy, we have obtained a comparative high-resolution map of glucose fate underpinning β cell function. In both mouse and human islets, the contribution of glucose to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle is similar. Pyruvate fueling of the TCA cycle is primarily mediated by the activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase, with lower flux through pyruvate carboxylase. While the conversion of pyruvate to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) can be detected in islets of both species, lactate accumulation is 6-fold higher in human islets. Human islets express LDH, with low-moderate LDHA expression and β cell-specific LDHB expression. LDHB inhibition amplifies LDHA-dependent lactate generation in mouse and human β cells and increases basal insulin release. Lastly, cis-instrument Mendelian randomization shows that low LDHB expression levels correlate with elevated fasting insulin in humans. Thus, LDHB limits lactate generation in β cells to maintain appropriate insulin release.

Reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages by metabolites generated from tumor microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment comprises both tumor and non-tumor stromal cells, including tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), endothelial cells, and carcinoma-associated fibroblasts. TAMs, major components of non-tumor stromal cells, play a crucial role in creating an immunosuppressive environment by releasing cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and immune checkpoint proteins that inhibit T cell activity. During tumors develop, cancer cells release various mediators, including chemokines and metabolites, that recruit monocytes to infiltrate tumor tissues and subsequently induce an M2-like phenotype and tumor-promoting properties. Metabolites are often overlooked as metabolic waste or detoxification products but may contribute to TAM polarization. Furthermore, macrophages display a high degree of plasticity among immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, enabling them to either inhibit or facilitate cancer progression. Therefore, TAM-targeting has emerged as a promising strategy in tumor immunotherapy. This review provides an overview of multiple representative metabolites involved in TAM phenotypes, focusing on their role in pro-tumoral polarization of M2.

Lactic acid in macrophage polarization: A factor in carcinogenesis and a promising target for cancer therapy

Cancer remains a formidable challenge, continually revealing its intricate nature and demanding novel treatment approaches. Within this intricate landscape, the tumor microenvironment and its dynamic components have gained prominence, particularly macrophages that can adopt diverse polarization states, exerting a profound influence on cancer progression. Recent revelations have spotlighted lactic acid as a pivotal player in this complex interplay. This review systematically explores lactic acid's multifaceted role in macrophage polarization, focusing on its implications in carcinogenesis. We commence by cultivating a comprehensive understanding of the tumor microenvironment and the pivotal roles played by macrophages. The dynamic landscape of macrophage polarization, typified by M1 and M2 phenotypes, is dissected to reveal its substantial impact on tumor progression. Lactic acid, a metabolic byproduct, emerges as a key protagonist, and we meticulously unravel the mechanisms underpinning its generation within cancer cells, shedding light on its intimate association with glycolysis and its transformative effects on the tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, we decipher the intricate molecular framework that underlies lactic acid's pivotal role in facilitating macrophage polarization. Our review underscores lactic acid's dual role in carcinogenesis, orchestrating tumor growth and immune modulation within the tumor microenvironment, thereby profoundly influencing the balance between pro-tumor and anti-tumor immune responses. This duality highlights the therapeutic potential of selectively manipulating lactic acid metabolism for cancer treatment. Exploring strategies to inhibit lactic acid production by tumor cells, novel approaches to impede lactic acid transport in the tumor microenvironment, and the burgeoning field of immunotherapeutic cancer therapies utilizing lactic acid-induced macrophage polarization form the core of our investigation.

The determinants of metabolic discrepancies in aerobic glycolysis: Providing potential targets for breast cancer treatment

Altered aerobic glycolysis is the robust mechanism to support cancer cell survival and proliferation beyond the maintenance of cellular energy metabolism. Several investigators portrayed the important role of deregulated glycolysis in different cancers, including breast cancer. Breast cancer is the most ubiquitous form of cancer and the primary cause of cancer death in women worldwide. Breast cancer with increased glycolytic flux is hampered to eradicate with current therapies and can result in tumor recurrence. In spite of the low order efficiency of ATP production, cancer cells are highly addicted to glycolysis. The glycolytic dependency of cancer cells provides potential therapeutic strategies to preferentially kill cancer cells by inhibiting glycolysis using antiglycolytic agents. The present review emphasizes the most recent research on the implication of glycolytic enzymes, including glucose transporters (GLUTs), hexokinase (HK), phosphofructokinase (PFK), pyruvate kinase (PK), lactate dehydrogenase-A (LDHA), associated signalling pathways and transcription factors, as well as the antiglycolytic agents that target key glycolytic enzymes in breast cancer. The potential activity of glycolytic inhibitors impinges cancer prevalence and cellular resistance to conventional drugs even under worse physiological conditions such as hypoxia. As a single agent or in combination with other chemotherapeutic drugs, it provides the feasibility of new therapeutic modalities against a wide spectrum of human cancers.

Potential therapies targeting nuclear metabolic regulation in cancer

The interplay between genetic alterations and metabolic dysregulation is increasingly recognized as a pivotal axis in cancer pathogenesis. Both elements are mutually reinforcing, thereby expediting the ontogeny and progression of malignant neoplasms. Intriguingly, recent findings have highlighted the translocation of metabolites and metabolic enzymes from the cytoplasm into the nuclear compartment, where they appear to be intimately associated with tumor cell proliferation. Despite these advancements, significant gaps persist in our understanding of their specific roles within the nuclear milieu, their modulatory effects on gene transcription and cellular proliferation, and the intricacies of their coordination with the genomic landscape. In this comprehensive review, we endeavor to elucidate the regulatory landscape of metabolic signaling within the nuclear domain, namely nuclear metabolic signaling involving metabolites and metabolic enzymes. We explore the roles and molecular mechanisms through which metabolic flux and enzymatic activity impact critical nuclear processes, including epigenetic modulation, DNA damage repair, and gene expression regulation. In conclusion, we underscore the paramount significance of nuclear metabolic signaling in cancer biology and enumerate potential therapeutic targets, associated pharmacological interventions, and implications for clinical applications. Importantly, these emergent findings not only augment our conceptual understanding of tumoral metabolism but also herald the potential for innovative therapeutic paradigms targeting the metabolism-genome transcriptional axis.

Histone lactylation regulates cancer progression by reshaping the tumor microenvironment

As a major product of glycolysis and a vital signaling molecule, many studies have reported the key role of lactate in tumor progression and cell fate determination. Lactylation is a newly discovered post-translational modification induced by lactate. On the one hand, lactylation introduced a new era of lactate metabolism in the tumor microenvironment (TME), and on the other hand, it provided a key breakthrough point for elucidation of the interaction between tumor metabolic reprogramming and epigenetic modification. Studies have shown that the lactylation of tumor cells, tumor stem cells and tumor-infiltrating immune cells in TME can participate in the development of cancer through downstream transcriptional regulation, and is a potential and promising tumor treatment target. This review summarized the discovery and effects of lactylation, as well as recent research on histone lactylation regulating cancer progression through reshaping TME. We also focused on new strategies to enhance anti-tumor effects via targeting lactylation. Finally, we discussed the limitations of existing studies and proposed new perspectives for future research in order to further explore lactylation targets. It may provide a new way and direction to improve tumor prognosis.

Natural compounds as lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors: potential therapeutics for lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors-related diseases

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a crucial enzyme involved in energy metabolism and present in various cells throughout the body. Its diverse physiological functions encompass glycolysis, and its abnormal activity is associated with numerous diseases. Targeting LDH has emerged as a vital approach in drug discovery, leading to the identification of LDH inhibitors among natural compounds, such as polyphenols, alkaloids, and terpenoids. These compounds demonstrate therapeutic potential against LDH-related diseases, including anti-cancer effects. However, challenges concerning limited bioavailability, poor solubility, and potential toxicity must be addressed. Combining natural compounds with LDH inhibitors has led to promising outcomes in preclinical studies. This review highlights the promise of natural compounds as LDH inhibitors for treating cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Lactate metabolic pathway regulates tumor cell metastasis and its use as a new therapeutic target

Abnormal energy metabolism is one of the ten hallmarks of tumors, and tumor cell metabolism provides energy and a suitable microenvironment for tumorigenesis and metastasis. Tumor cells can consume large amounts of glucose and produce large amounts of lactate through glycolysis even in the presence of oxygen, a process called aerobic glycolysis, also known as the Warburg effect. Lactate is the end product of the aerobic glycolysis. Lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA), which is highly expressed in cancer cells, promotes lactate production and transports lactate to the tumor microenvironment and is taken up by surrounding stromal cells under the action of monocarboxylate transporter 1/4 (MCT1/4), which in turn influences the immune response and enhances the invasion and metastasis of cancer cells. Therapeutic strategies targeting lactate metabolism have been intensively investigated, focusing on its metastasis-promoting properties and various target inhibitors; AZD3965, an MCT1 inhibitor, has entered phase I clinical trials, and the LDHA inhibitor N-hydroxyindole (NHI) has shown cancer therapeutic activity in pre-clinical studies. Interventions targeting lactate metabolism are emerging as a promising option for cancer therapy, with chemotherapy or radiotherapy combined with lactate-metabolism-targeted drugs adding to the effectiveness of cancer treatment. Based on current research, this article outlines the role of lactate metabolism in tumor metastasis and the potential value of inhibitors targeting lactate metabolism in cancer therapy.

Small molecule inhibitors for cancer metabolism: promising prospects to be explored

BACKGROUND

Abnormal metabolism is the main hallmark of cancer, and cancer metabolism plays an important role in tumorigenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. Therefore, studying the changes of tumor metabolic pathways is beneficial to find targets for the treatment of cancer diseases. The success of metabolism-targeted chemotherapy suggests that cancer metabolism research will provide potential new targets for the treatment of malignant tumors.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to systemically review recent research findings on targeted inhibitors of tumor metabolism. In addition, we summarized new insights into tumor metabolic reprogramming and discussed how to guide the exploration of new strategies for cancer-targeted therapy.

CONCLUSION

Cancer cells have shown various altered metabolic pathways, providing sufficient fuel for their survival. The combination of these pathways is considered to be a more useful method for screening multilateral pathways. Better understanding of the clinical research progress of small molecule inhibitors of potential targets of tumor metabolism will help to explore more effective cancer treatment strategies.

Lactate Dehydrogenase Inhibitors Suppress Borrelia burgdorferi Growth In Vitro

Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, has a highly reduced genome and relies heavily on glycolysis for carbon metabolism. As such, established inhibitors of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were evaluated in cultures to determine the extent of their impacts on B. burgdorferi growth. Both racemic and enantiopure (AT-101) gossypol, as well as oxamate, galloflavin, and stiripentol, caused the dose-dependent suppression of B. burgdorferi growth in vitro. Racemic gossypol and AT-101 were shown to fully inhibit spirochetal growth at concentrations of 70.5 and 187.5 μM, respectively. Differences between racemic gossypol and AT-101 efficacy may indicate that the dextrorotatory enantiomer of gossypol is a more effective inhibitor of B. burgdorferi growth than the levorotatory enantiomer. As a whole, LDH inhibition appears to be a promising mechanism for suppressing Borrelia growth, particularly with bulky LDH inhibitors like gossypol.

A study of the interaction space of two lactate dehydrogenase isoforms (LDHA and LDHB) and some of their inhibitors using proteochemometrics modeling

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a tetramer enzyme that converts pyruvate to lactate reversibly. This enzyme becomes important because it is associated with diseases such as cancers, heart disease, liver problems, and most importantly, corona disease. As a system-based method, proteochemometrics does not require knowledge of the protein's three-dimensional structure, but rather depends on the amino acid sequence and protein descriptors. Here, we applied this methodology to model a set of LDHA and LDHB isoenzyme inhibitors. To implement the proteochemetrics method, the camb package in the R Studio Server programming environment was used. The activity of 312 compounds of LDHA and LDHB isoenzyme inhibitors from the valid Binding DB database was retrieved. The proteochemometrics method was applied to three machine learning algorithms gradient amplification model, random forest, and support vector machine as regression methods to find the best model. Through the combination of different models into an ensemble (greedy and stacking optimization), we explored the possibility of improving the performance of models. For the RF best ensemble model of inhibitors of LDHA and LDHB isoenzymes, and were 0.66 and 0.62, respectively. LDH inhibitory activation is influenced by Morgan fingerprints and topological structure descriptors.

A Spatiotemporal Compartmentalization of Glucose Metabolism Guides Mammalian Gastrulation Progression

Gastrulation is considered the sine qua non of embryogenesis, establishing a multidimensional structure and the spatial coordinates upon which all later developmental events transpire. At this time, the embryo adopts a heavy reliance on glucose metabolism to support rapidly accelerating changes in morphology, proliferation, and differentiation. However, it is currently unknown how this conserved metabolic shift maps onto the three-dimensional landscape of the growing embryo and whether it is spatially linked to the orchestrated cellular and molecular processes necessary for gastrulation. Here we identify that glucose is utilised during mouse gastrulation via distinct metabolic pathways to instruct local and global embryonic morphogenesis, in a cell type and stage-specific manner. Through detailed mechanistic studies and quantitative live imaging of mouse embryos, in parallel with tractable in vitro stem cell differentiation models and embryo-derived tissue explants, we discover that cell fate acquisition and the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) relies on the Hexosamine Biosynthetic Pathway (HBP) branch of glucose metabolism, while newly-formed mesoderm requires glycolysis for correct migration and lateral expansion. This regional and tissue-specific difference in glucose metabolism is coordinated with Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF) activity, demonstrating that reciprocal crosstalk between metabolism and growth factor signalling is a prerequisite for gastrulation progression. We expect these studies to provide important insights into the function of metabolism in other developmental contexts and may help uncover mechanisms that underpin embryonic lethality, cancer, and congenital disease.

Lactate mediated metabolic crosstalk between cancer and immune cells and its therapeutic implications

Metabolism is central to energy generation and cell signaling in all life forms. Cancer cells rely heavily on glucose metabolism wherein glucose is primarily converted to lactate even in adequate oxygen conditions, a process famously known as "the Warburg effect." In addition to cancer cells, Warburg effect was found to be operational in other cell types, including actively proliferating immune cells. According to current dogma, pyruvate is the end product of glycolysis that is converted into lactate in normal cells, particularly under hypoxic conditions. However, several recent observations suggest that the final product of glycolysis may be lactate, which is produced irrespective of oxygen concentrations. Traditionally, glucose-derived lactate can have three fates: it can be used as a fuel in the TCA cycle or lipid synthesis; it can be converted back into pyruvate in the cytosol that feeds into the mitochondrial TCA; or, at very high concentrations, accumulated lactate in the cytosol may be released from cells that act as an oncometabolite. In immune cells as well, glucose-derived lactate seems to play a major role in metabolism and cell signaling. However, immune cells are much more sensitive to lactate concentrations, as higher lactate levels have been found to inhibit immune cell function. Thus, tumor cell-derived lactate may serve as a major player in deciding the response and resistance to immune cell-directed therapies. In the current review, we will provide a comprehensive overview of the glycolytic process in eukaryotic cells with a special focus on the fate of pyruvate and lactate in tumor and immune cells. We will also review the evidence supporting the idea that lactate, not pyruvate, is the end product of glycolysis. In addition, we will discuss the impact of glucose-lactate-mediated cross-talk between tumor and immune cells on the therapeutic outcomes after immunotherapy.

Tumor microenvironment signaling and therapeutics in cancer progression

Tumor development and metastasis are facilitated by the complex interactions between cancer cells and their microenvironment, which comprises stromal cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) components, among other factors. Stromal cells can adopt new phenotypes to promote tumor cell invasion. A deep understanding of the signaling pathways involved in cell-to-cell and cell-to-ECM interactions is needed to design effective intervention strategies that might interrupt these interactions. In this review, we describe the tumor microenvironment (TME) components and associated therapeutics. We discuss the clinical advances in the prevalent and newly discovered signaling pathways in the TME, the immune checkpoints and immunosuppressive chemokines, and currently used inhibitors targeting these pathways. These include both intrinsic and non-autonomous tumor cell signaling pathways in the TME: protein kinase C (PKC) signaling, Notch, and transforming growth factor (TGF-β) signaling, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) stress response, lactate signaling, Metabolic reprogramming, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) and Siglec signaling pathways. We also discuss the recent advances in Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 (PD-1), Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte Associated Protein 4 (CTLA4), T-cell immunoglobulin mucin-3 (TIM-3) and Lymphocyte Activating Gene 3 (LAG3) immune checkpoint inhibitors along with the C-C chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4)- C-C class chemokines 22 (CCL22)/ and 17 (CCL17), C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2)- chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5)- chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 3 (CCL3) chemokine signaling axis in the TME. In addition, this review provides a holistic understanding of the TME as we discuss the three-dimensional and microfluidic models of the TME, which are believed to recapitulate the original characteristics of the patient tumor and hence may be used as a platform to study new mechanisms and screen for various anti-cancer therapies. We further discuss the systemic influences of gut microbiota in TME reprogramming and treatment response. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of the diverse and most critical signaling pathways in the TME, highlighting the associated newest and critical preclinical and clinical studies along with their underlying biology. We highlight the importance of the most recent technologies of microfluidics and lab-on-chip models for TME research and also present an overview of extrinsic factors, such as the inhabitant human microbiome, which have the potential to modulate TME biology and drug responses.

Targeted lactate dehydrogenase genes silencing in probiotic lactic acid bacteria: A possible paradigm shift in colorectal cancer treatment?

Even though the pathophysiology of colorectal cancer (CRC) is complicated and poorly understood, interactions between risk factors appear to be key in the development and progression of the malignancy. The popularity of using lactic acid bacteria (LAB) prebiotics and probiotics to modulate the tumor microenvironment (TME) has grown widely over the past decade. The objective of this study was therefore to determine the detrimental effects of LAB-derived lactic acid in the colonic mucosa in colorectal cancer management. Six library databases and a web search engine were used to execute a structured systematic search of the existing literature, considering all publications published up until August 2022. A total of 7817 papers were screened, all of which were published between 1995 and August 2022. However, only 118 articles met the inclusion criterion. Lactic acid has been directly linked to the massive proliferation of cancerous cells since the glycolytic pathway provides cancerous cells with not only ATP, but also biosynthetic intermediates for rapid growth and proliferation. Our research suggests that targeting LAB metabolic pathways is capable of suppressing tumor growth and that the LDH gene is critical for tumorigenesis. Silencing of Lactate dehydrogenase, A (LDHA), B (LDHB), (LDHL), and hicD genes should be explored to inhibit fermentative glycolysis yielding lactic acid as the by-product. More studies are necessary for a solid understanding of this topic so that LAB and their corresponding lactic acid by-products do not have more adverse effects than their widely touted positive outcomes in CRC management.

Rationale for LDH-targeted cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapies have significantly improved the survival of patients in many cancers over the last decade. However, primary and secondary resistances are encountered in most patients. Unravelling resistance mechanisms to cancer immunotherapies is an area of active investigation. Elevated levels of circulating enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) have been historically considered in oncology as a marker of bad prognosis, usually attributed to elevated tumour burden and cancer metabolism. Recent evidence suggests that elevated LDH levels could be independent from tumour burden and contain a negative predictive value, which could help in guiding treatment strategies in immuno-oncology. In this review, we decipher the rationale supporting the potential of LDH-targeted therapeutic strategies to tackle the direct immunosuppressive effects of LDH on a wide range of immune cells, and enhance the survival of patients treated with cancer immunotherapies.

Engineering lactate-modulating nanomedicines for cancer therapy

Lactate in tumors has long been considered "metabolic junk" derived from the glycolysis of cancer cells and utilized only as a biomarker of malignancy, but is presently believed to be a pivotal regulator of tumor development, maintenance and metastasis. Indeed, tumor lactate can be a "fuel" for energy supply and functions as a signaling molecule, which actively contributes to tumor progression, angiogenesis, immunosuppression, therapeutic resistance, etc., thus providing promising opportunities for cancer treatment. However, the current approaches for regulating lactate homeostasis with available agents are still challenging, which is mainly due to the short half-life, low bioavailability and poor specificity of these agents and their unsatisfactory therapeutic outcomes. In recent years, lactate modulation nanomedicines have emerged as a charming and efficient strategy for fighting cancer, which play important roles in optimizing the delivery of lactate-modulating agents for more precise and effective modulation and treatment. Integrating specific lactate-modulating functions in diverse therapeutic nanomedicines may overcome the intrinsic restrictions of different therapeutic modalities by remodeling the pathological microenvironment for achieving enhanced cancer therapy. In this review, the most recent advances in the engineering of functional nanomedicines that can modulate tumor lactate for cancer therapy are summarized and discussed, and the fundamental mechanisms by which lactate modulation benefits various therapeutics are elucidated. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of this emerging strategy in the anti-tumor field are highlighted.

Tumor lactic acid: a potential target for cancer therapy

Tumor development is influenced by circulating metabolites and most tumors are exposed to substantially elevated levels of lactic acid and low levels of nutrients, such as glucose and glutamine. Tumor-derived lactic acid, the major circulating carbon metabolite, regulates energy metabolism and cancer cell signaling pathways, while also acting as an energy source and signaling molecule. Recent studies have yielded new insights into the pro-tumorigenic action of lactic acid and its metabolism. These insights suggest an anti-tumor therapeutic strategy targeting the oncometabolite lactic acid, with the aim of improving the efficacy and clinical safety of tumor metabolism inhibitors. This review describes the current understanding of the multifunctional roles of tumor lactic acid, as well as therapeutic approaches targeting lactic acid metabolism, including lactate dehydrogenase and monocarboxylate transporters, for anti-cancer therapy.

Long noncoding RNAs: glycolysis regulators in gynaecologic cancers

The three most common gynaecologic cancers that seriously threaten female lives and health are ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, and endometrial cancer. Glycolysis plays a vital role in gynaecologic cancers. Several long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are known to function as oncogenic molecules. LncRNAs impact downstream target genes by acting as ceRNAs, guides, scaffolds, decoys, or signalling molecules. However, the role of glycolysis-related lncRNAs in regulating gynaecologic cancers remains poorly understood. In this review, we emphasize the functional roles of many lncRNAs that have been found to promote glycolysis in gynaecologic cancers and discuss reasonable strategies for future research.

Role of LDH in tumor glycolysis: Regulation of LDHA by small molecules for cancer therapeutics

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is one of the crucial enzymes in aerobic glycolysis, catalyzing the last step of glycolysis, i.e. the conversion of pyruvate to lactate. Most cancer cells are characterized by an enhanced rate of tumor glycolysis to ensure the energy demand of fast-growing cancer cells leading to increased lactate production. Excess lactate creates extracellular acidosis which facilitates invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis and affects the immune response. Lactate shuttle and lactate symbiosis is established in cancer cells, which may further increase the poor prognosis. Several genetic and phenotypic studies established the potential role of lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) or LDH5, the one homo-tetramer of subunit A, in cancer development and metastasis. The LDHA is considered a viable target for drug design and discovery. Several small molecules have been discovered to date exhibiting significant LDHA inhibitory activities and anticancer activities, therefore the starvation of cancer cells by targeting tumor glycolysis through LDHA inhibition with improved selectivity can generate alternative anticancer therapeutics. This review provides an overview of the role of LDHA in metabolic reprogramming and its association with proto-oncogenes and oncogenes. This review also aims to deliver an update on significant LDHA inhibitors with anticancer properties and future direction in this area.

Lactic Acidosis in Patients with Solid Cancer

Significance: Cancer-associated tissue-specific lactic acidosis stimulates and mediates tumor invasion and metastasis and is druggable. Rarely, malignancy causes systemic lactic acidosis, the role of which is poorly understood. Recent Advances: The understanding of the role of lactate has shifted dramatically since its discovery. Long recognized as only a waste product, lactate has become known as an alternative metabolism substrate and a secreted nutrient that is exchanged between the tumor and the microenvironment. Tissue-specific lactic acidosis is targeted to improve the host body's anticancer defense and serves as a tool that allows the targeting of anticancer compounds. Systemic lactic acidosis is associated with poor survival. In patients with solid cancer, systemic lactic acidosis is associated with an extremely poor prognosis, as revealed by the analysis of 57 published cases in this study. Although it is considered a pathology worth treating, targeting systemic lactic acidosis in patients with solid cancer is usually inefficient. Critical Issues: Research gaps include simple questions, such as the unknown nuclear pH of the cancer cells and its effects on chemotherapy outcomes, pH sensitivity of glycosylation in cancer cells, in vivo mechanisms of response to acidosis in the absence of lactate, and overinterpretation of in vitro results that were obtained by using cells that were not preadapted to acidic environments. Future Directions: Numerous metabolism-targeting anticancer compounds induce lactatemia, lactic acidosis, or other types of acidosis. Their potential to induce acidic environments is largely overlooked, although the acidosis might contribute to a substantial portion of the observed clinical effects. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 37, 1130-1152.

Isosorbide Fatty Acid Diesters Have Synergistic Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Cytokine-Induced Tissue Culture Models of Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic disease in which epidermal barrier disruption triggers Th2-mediated eruption of eczematous lesions. Topical emollients are a cornerstone of chronic management. This study evaluated efficacy of two plant-derived oil derivatives, isosorbide di-(linoleate/oleate) (IDL) and isosorbide dicaprylate (IDC), using AD-like tissue culture models. Treatment of reconstituted human epidermis with cytokine cocktail (IL-4 + IL-13 + TNF-α + IL-31) compromised the epidermal barrier, but this was prevented by co-treatment with IDL and IDC. Cytokine stimulation also dysregulated expression of keratinocyte (KC) differentiation genes whereas treatment with IDC or IDL + IDC up-regulated genes associated with early (but not late) KC differentiation. Although neither IDL nor IDC inhibited Th2 cytokine responses, both compounds repressed TNF-α-induced genes and IDL + IDC led to synergistic down-regulation of inflammatory (IL1B, ITGA5) and neurogenic pruritus (TRPA1) mediators. Treatment of cytokine-stimulated skin explants with IDC decreased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) secretion by more than 50% (more than observed with cyclosporine) and in vitro LDH activity was inhibited by IDL and IDC. These results demonstrate anti-inflammatory mechanisms of isosorbide fatty acid diesters in AD-like skin models. Our findings highlight the multifunctional potential of plant oil derivatives as topical ingredients and support studies of IDL and IDC as therapeutic candidates.

Targeting lactate-related cell cycle activities for cancer therapy

Lactate has long been considered as a metabolic by-product of aerobic glycolysis for cancer. However, more and more studies have shown that lactate can regulate cancer progression via multiple mechanisms such as cell cycle regulation, immune suppression, energy metabolism and so on. A recent discovery of lactylation attracted a lot of attention and is already a hot topic in the cancer field. In this review, we summarized the latest functions of lactate and its underlying mechanisms in cancer. We also included our analysis of protein lactylation in different rat organs and compared them with other published lactylation data. The unresolved challenges in this field were discussed, and the potential application of these new discoveries of lactate-related cell cycle activities for cancer target therapy was speculated.

Tumor glycolysis, an essential sweet tooth of tumor cells

Cancer cells undergo metabolic alterations to meet the immense demand for energy, building blocks, and redox potential. Tumors show glucose-avid and lactate-secreting behavior even in the presence of oxygen, a process known as aerobic glycolysis. Glycolysis is the backbone of cancer cell metabolism, and cancer cells have evolved various mechanisms to enhance it. Glucose metabolism is intertwined with other metabolic pathways, making cancer metabolism diverse and heterogeneous, where glycolysis plays a central role. Oncogenic signaling accelerates the metabolic activities of glycolytic enzymes, mainly by enhancing their expression or by post-translational modifications. Aerobic glycolysis ferments glucose into lactate which supports tumor growth and metastasis by various mechanisms. Herein, we focused on tumor glycolysis, especially its interactions with the pentose phosphate pathway, glutamine metabolism, one-carbon metabolism, and mitochondrial oxidation. Further, we describe the role and regulation of key glycolytic enzymes in cancer. We summarize the role of lactate, an end product of glycolysis, in tumor growth, and the metabolic adaptations during metastasis. Lastly, we briefly discuss limitations and future directions to improve our understanding of glucose metabolism in cancer.

The multiple roles of LDH in cancer

High serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels are typically associated with a poor prognosis in many cancer types. Even the most effective drugs, which have radically improved outcomes in patients with melanoma over the past decade, provide only marginal benefit to those with high serum LDH levels. When viewed separately from the oncological, biochemical, biological and immunological perspectives, serum LDH is often interpreted in very different ways. Oncologists usually see high serum LDH only as a robust biomarker of a poor prognosis, and biochemists are aware of the complexity of the various LDH isoforms and of their key roles in cancer metabolism, whereas LDH is typically considered to be oncogenic and/or immunosuppressive by cancer biologists and immunologists. Integrating these various viewpoints shows that the regulation of the five LDH isoforms, and their enzymatic and non-enzymatic functions is closely related to key oncological processes. In this Review, we highlight that serum LDH is far more than a simple indicator of tumour burden; it is a complex biomarker associated with the activation of several oncogenic signalling pathways as well as with the metabolic activity, invasiveness and immunogenicity of many tumours, and constitutes an extremely attractive target for cancer therapy.

Natural products targeting human lactate dehydrogenases for cancer therapy: A mini review

Reprogramming cancer metabolism has become the hallmark of cancer progression. As the key enzyme catalyzing the conversion of pyruvate to lactate in aerobic glycolysis of cancer cells, human lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) has been a promising target in the discovery of anticancer agents. Natural products are important sources of new drugs. Up to now, some natural compounds have been reported with the activity to target LDH. To give more information on the development of LDH inhibitors and application of natural products, herein, we reviewed the natural compounds with inhibition of LDH from diverse structures and discussed the future direction of the discovery of natural LDH inhibitors for cancer therapy.

Lactate dehydrogenase A inhibitors with a 2,8-dioxabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane scaffold: A contribution to molecular therapies for primary hyperoxalurias

Human lactate dehydrogenase A (hLDHA) is one of the main enzymes involved in the pathway of oxalate synthesis in human liver and seems to contribute to the pathogenesis of disorders with endogenous oxalate overproduction, such as primary hyperoxaluria (PH), a rare life-threatening genetic disease. Recent published results on the knockdown of LDHA gene expression as a safe strategy to ameliorate oxalate build-up in PH patients are encouraging for an approach of hLDHA inhibition by small molecules as a potential pharmacological treatment. Thus, we now report on the synthesis and hLDHA inhibitory activity of a new family of compounds with 2,8-dioxabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane core (23-42), a series of twenty analogues to A-type proanthocyanidin natural products. Nine of them (25-27, 29-34) have shown IC₅₀ values in the range of 8.7-26.7 µM, based on a UV spectrophotometric assay, where the hLDHA inhibition is measured according to the decrease in absorbance of the cofactor β-NADH (340 nm). Compounds 25, 29, and 31 were the most active hLDHA inhibitors. In addition, the inhibitory activities of those nine compounds against the hLDHB isoform were also evaluated, finding that all of them were more selective inhibitors of hLDHA versus hLDHB. Among them, compounds 32 and 34 showed the highest selectivity. Moreover, the most active hLDHA inhibitors (25, 29, 31) were evaluated for their ability to decrease the oxalate production by hyperoxaluric mouse hepatocytes (PH1, PH2 and PH3) in vitro, and the relative oxalate output at 24 h was 16% and 19 % for compounds 25 and 31, respectively, in Hoga1^-/- mouse primary hepatocyte cells (a model for PH3). These values improve those of the reference compound used (stiripentol). Compounds 25 and 31 have in common the presence of two hydroxyl groups at rings B and D and an electron-withdrawing group (NO₂ or Br) at ring A, pointing to the structural features to be taken into account in future structural optimization.

Lactate metabolism in human health and disease

The current understanding of lactate extends from its origins as a byproduct of glycolysis to its role in tumor metabolism, as identified by studies on the Warburg effect. The lactate shuttle hypothesis suggests that lactate plays an important role as a bridging signaling molecule that coordinates signaling among different cells, organs and tissues. Lactylation is a posttranslational modification initially reported by Professor Yingming Zhao’s research group in 2019. Subsequent studies confirmed that lactylation is a vital component of lactate function and is involved in tumor proliferation, neural excitation, inflammation and other biological processes. An indispensable substance for various physiological cellular functions, lactate plays a regulatory role in different aspects of energy metabolism and signal transduction. Therefore, a comprehensive review and summary of lactate is presented to clarify the role of lactate in disease and to provide a reference and direction for future research. This review offers a systematic overview of lactate homeostasis and its roles in physiological and pathological processes, as well as a comprehensive overview of the effects of lactylation in various diseases, particularly inflammation and cancer.

MYCN and Metabolic Reprogramming in Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma is a pediatric cancer responsible for approximately 15% of all childhood cancer deaths. Aberrant MYCN activation, as a result of genomic MYCN amplification, is a major driver of high-risk neuroblastoma, which has an overall survival rate of less than 50%, despite the best treatments currently available. Metabolic reprogramming is an integral part of the growth-promoting program driven by MYCN, which fuels cell growth and proliferation by increasing the uptake and catabolism of nutrients, biosynthesis of macromolecules, and production of energy. This reprogramming process also generates metabolic vulnerabilities that can be exploited for therapy. In this review, we present our current understanding of metabolic reprogramming in neuroblastoma, focusing on transcriptional regulation as a key mechanism in driving the reprogramming process. We also highlight some important areas that need to be explored for the successful development of metabolism-based therapy against high-risk neuroblastoma.

Discovery of novel human lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors: Structure-based virtual screening studies and biological assessment

Most cancer cells switch their metabolism from mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation to aerobic glycolysis to generate ATP and precursors for the biosynthesis of key macromolecules. The aerobic conversion of pyruvate to lactate, coupled to oxidation of the nicotinamide cofactor, is a primary hallmark of cancer and is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), a central effector of this pathological reprogrammed metabolism. Hence, inhibition of LDH is a potential new promising therapeutic approach for cancer. In the search for new LDH inhibitors, we carried out a structure-based virtual screening campaign. Here, we report the identification of a novel specific LDH inhibitor, the pyridazine derivative 18 (RS6212), that exhibits potent anticancer activity within the micromolar range in multiple cancer cell lines and synergizes with complex I inhibition in the suppression of tumor growth. Altogether, our data support the conclusion that compound 18 deserves to be further investigated as a starting point for the development of LDH inhibitors and for novel anticancer strategies based on the targeting of key metabolic steps.

Phytochemicals as Regulators of Tumor Glycolysis and Hypoxia Signaling Pathways: Evidence from In Vitro Studies

The full understanding of the complex nature of cancer still faces many challenges, as cancers arise not as a result of a single target disruption but rather involving successive genetic and epigenetic alterations leading to multiple altered metabolic pathways. In this light, the need for a multitargeted, safe and effective therapy becomes essential. Substantial experimental evidence upholds the potential of plant-derived compounds to interfere in several important pathways, such as tumor glycolysis and the upstream regulating mechanisms of hypoxia. Herein, we present a comprehensive overview of the natural compounds which demonstrated, in vitro studies, an effective anticancer activity by affecting key regulators of the glycolytic pathway such as glucose transporters, hexokinases, phosphofructokinase, pyruvate kinase or lactate dehydrogenase. Moreover, we assessed how phytochemicals could interfere in HIF-1 synthesis, stabilization, accumulation, and transactivation, emphasizing PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK/ERK pathways as important signaling cascades in HIF-1 activation. Special consideration was given to cell culture-based metabolomics as one of the most sensitive, accurate, and comprising approaches for understanding the response of cancer cell metabolome to phytochemicals.

Hypoxia-driven metabolic heterogeneity and immune evasive behaviour of gastrointestinal cancers: Elements of a recipe for disaster

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers refer to a group of malignancies associated with the GI tract (GIT). Like other solid tumors, hypoxic regions consistently feature inside the GI tumor microenvironment (TME) and contribute towards metabolic reprogramming of tumor-resident cells by modulating hypoxia-induced factors. We highlight here how the metabolic crosstalk between cancer cells and immune cells generate immunosuppressive environment inside hypoxic tumors. Given the fluctuating nature of tumor hypoxia, the metabolic fluxes between immune cells and cancer cells change dynamically. These changes alter cellular phenotypes and functions, resulting in the acceleration of cancer progression. These evolved properties of hypoxic tumors make metabolism-targeting monotherapy approaches or immunotherapy-measures unsuccessful. The current review highlights the advantages of combined immunometabolic treatment strategies to target hypoxic GI cancers and also identifies research areas to develop better combinational therapeutics for future.

The Lactate and the Lactate Dehydrogenase in Inflammatory Diseases and Major Risk Factors in COVID-19 Patients

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a terminating enzyme in the metabolic pathway of anaerobic glycolysis with end product of lactate from glucose. The lactate formation is crucial in the metabolism of glucose when oxygen is in inadequate supply. Lactate can also be formed and utilised by different cell types under fully aerobic conditions. Blood LDH is the marker enzyme, which predicts mortality in many conditions such as ARDS, serious COVID-19 and cancer patients. Lactate plays a critical role in normal physiology of humans including an energy source, a signaling molecule and a pH regulator. Depending on the pH, lactate exists as the protonated acidic form (lactic acid) at low pH or as sodium salt (sodium lactate) at basic pH. Lactate can affect the immune system and act as a signaling molecule, which can provide a “danger” signal for life. Several reports provide evidence that the serum lactate represents a chemical marker of severity of disease similar to LDH under inflammatory conditions. Since the mortality rate is much higher among COVID-19 patients, associated with high serum LDH, this article is aimed to review the LDH as a therapeutic target and lactate as potential marker for monitoring treatment response of inflammatory diseases. Finally, the review summarises various LDH inhibitors, which offer potential applications as therapeutic agents for inflammatory diseases, associated with high blood LDH. Both blood LDH and blood lactate are suggested as risk factors for the mortality of patients in serious inflammatory diseases.

Targeting Energy Metabolism in Cancer Treatment

Cancer is the second most common cause of death worldwide after cardiovascular diseases. The development of molecular and biochemical techniques has expanded the knowledge of changes occurring in specific metabolic pathways of cancer cells. Increased aerobic glycolysis, the promotion of anaplerotic responses, and especially the dependence of cells on glutamine and fatty acid metabolism have become subjects of study. Despite many cancer treatment strategies, many patients with neoplastic diseases cannot be completely cured due to the development of resistance in cancer cells to currently used therapeutic approaches. It is now becoming a priority to develop new treatment strategies that are highly effective and have few side effects. In this review, we present the current knowledge of the enzymes involved in the different steps of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway, and possible targeted therapies. The review also focuses on presenting the differences between cancer cells and normal cells in terms of metabolic phenotype. Knowledge of cancer cell metabolism is constantly evolving, and further research is needed to develop new strategies for anti-cancer therapies.

Construction of a Lactate-Related Prognostic Signature for Predicting Prognosis, Tumor Microenvironment, and Immune Response in Kidney Renal Clear Cell Carcinoma

Kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC) is one of the most prevalent primary malignancies with high heterogeneity in the urological system. Growing evidence implies that lactate is a significant carbon source for cell metabolism and plays a vital role in tumor development, maintenance, and therapeutic response. However, the global influence of lactate-related genes (LRGs) on prognostic significance, tumor microenvironment characteristics, and therapeutic response has not been comprehensively elucidated in patients with KIRC. In the present study, we collected RNA sequencing and clinical data of KIRC from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), E-MTAB-1980, and GSE22541 cohorts. Unsupervised clustering of 17 differentially expressed LRG profiles divided the samples into three clusters with distinct immune characteristics. Three genes (FBP1, HADH, and TYMP) were then identified to construct a lactate-related prognostic signature (LRPS) using the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and Cox regression analyses. The novel signature exhibited excellent robustness and predictive ability for the overall survival of patients. In addition, the constructed nomogram based on the LRPS-based risk scores and clinical factors (age, gender, tumor grade, and stage) showed a robust predictive performance. Furthermore, patients classified by risk scores had distinguishable immune status, tumor mutation burden, response to immunotherapy, and sensitivity to drugs. In conclusion, we developed an LRPS for KIRC that was closely related to the immune landscape and therapeutic response. This LRPS may guide clinicians to make more precise and personalized treatment decisions for KIRC patients.

Targeting pancreatic cancer with combinatorial treatment of CPI-613 and inhibitors of lactate metabolism

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer death, with a 5-year survival rate of 10%. A stagnant high mortality rate over the last decades highlights the need for innovative therapeutic approaches. Pancreatic tumors pursue an altered metabolism in order to maintain energy generation under low nutrient influx and hypoxic conditions. Targeting these metabolic strategies might therefore be a reasonable therapeutic approach for pancreatic cancer. One promising agent is CPI- 613, a potent inhibitor of two enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. The present study evaluated the anti-cancerous efficacy of CPI-613 in combination with galloflavin, a lactate dehydrogenase inhibitor or with alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid, an inhibitor of monocarboxylate transporters. The efficacy of both combination therapies was tested in vitro on one human and two murine pancreatic cancer cell lines and in vivo in an orthotopic pancreatic cancer model. Tumor progression was evaluated by MRI and 18F-FDG PET-CT. Both combinatorial treatments demonstrated in vitro a significant inhibition of pancreatic cancer cell proliferation and induction of cell death. In contrast to the in vitro results, both combination therapies did not significantly reduce tumor growth in vivo. The in vitro results suggest that a combined inhibition of different metabolic pathways might be a promising approach for cancer therapy. However, the in vivo experiments indicate that applying a higher dosage or using other drugs targeting these metabolic pathways might be more promising.

Voluntary wheel running behaviour as a tool to assess the severity in a mouse pancreatic cancer model

Laboratory animals frequently undergo routine experimental procedures such as handling, restraining and injections. However, as a known source of stress, these procedures potentially impact study outcome and data quality. In the present study, we, therefore, performed an evidence-based severity assessment of experimental procedures used in a pancreatic cancer model including surgical tumour induction and subsequent chemotherapeutic treatment via repeated intraperitoneal injections. Cancer cell injection into the pancreas was performed during a laparotomy under general anaesthesia. After a four-day recovery phase, mice received either drug treatment (galloflavin and metformin) or the respective vehicle substances via daily intraperitoneal injections. In addition to clinical scoring, an automated home-cage monitoring system was used to assess voluntary wheel running (VWR) behaviour as an indicator of impaired well-being. After surgery, slightly elevated clinical scores and minimal body weight reductions, but significantly decreased VWR behaviour were observed. During therapy, body weight declined in response to chemotherapy, but not after vehicle substance injection, while VWR activity was decreased in both cases. VWR behaviour differed between treatment groups and revealed altered nightly activity patterns. In summary, by monitoring VWR a high impact of repeated injections on the well-being of mice was revealed and substance effects on well-being were distinguishable. However, no differences in tumour growth between treatment groups were observed. This might be due to the severity of the procedures uncovered in this study, as exaggerated stress responses are potentially confounding factors in preclinical studies. Finally, VWR was a more sensitive indicator of impairment than clinical scoring in this model.

Murburn precepts for lactic-acidosis, Cori cycle, and Warburg effect: Interactive dynamics of dehydrogenases, protons, and oxygen

It is unresolved why lactate is transported to the liver for further utilization within the physiological purview of Cori cycle, when muscles have more lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) than liver. We point out that the answer lies in thermodynamics/equilibriums. While the utilization of NADH for the reduction of pyruvate to lactate can be mediated via the classical mechanism, the oxidation of lactate (with/without the uphill reduction of NAD⁺ ) necessitates alternative physiological approaches. The latter pathway occurs via interactive equilibriums involving the enzyme, protons and oxygen or diffusible reactive oxygen species (DROS). Since liver has high DROS, the murburn activity at LDH would enable the cellular system to tide over the unfavorable energy barriers of the forward reaction (~476 kJ/mol; earlier miscalculated as ~26 kJ/mole). Further, the new mechanism does not necessitate any "smart decision-making" or sophisticated control by/of proteins. The DROS-based murburn theory explains the invariant active-site structure of LDH isozymes and their multimeric nature. The theoretical insights, in silico evidence and analyses of literature herein also enrich our understanding of the underpinnings of "lactic acidosis" (lowering of physiological pH accompanied by lactate production), Warburg effect (increased lactate production at high pO₂ by cancer cells) and approach for cancer therapy.

Identification of the first highly selective inhibitor of human lactate dehydrogenase B

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) catalyses the conversion of pyruvate to lactate and NADH to NAD⁺; it has two isoforms, LDHA and LDHB. LDHA is a promising target for cancer therapy, whereas LDHB is necessary for basal autophagy and cancer cell proliferation in oxidative and glycolytic cancer cells. To the best of our knowledge, selective inhibitors for LDHB have not yet been reported. Here, we developed a high-throughput mass spectrometry screening system using an LDHB enzyme assay by detecting NADH and NAD⁺. As a result, we identified a small-molecule LDHB selective inhibitor AXKO-0046, an indole derivative. This compound exhibited uncompetitive LDHB inhibition (EC₅₀ = 42 nM). X-ray crystallography revealed that AXKO-0046 bound to the potential allosteric site away from the LDHB catalytic active site, suggesting that targeting the tetramerisation interface of the two dimers is critical for the enzymatic activity. AXKO-0046 and its derivatives can be used to validate LDHB-associated pathways in cancer metabolism.

Lactate in the tumour microenvironment: From immune modulation to therapy

Disordered metabolic states, which are characterised by hypoxia and elevated levels of metabolites, particularly lactate, contribute to the immunosuppression in the tumour microenvironment (TME). Excessive lactate secreted by metabolism-reprogrammed cancer cells regulates immune responses via causing extracellular acidification, acting as an energy source by shuttling between different cell populations, and inhibiting the mechanistic (previously ‘mammalian’) target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway in immune cells. This review focuses on recent advances in the regulation of immune responses by lactate, as well as therapeutic strategies targeting lactate anabolism and transport in the TME, such as those involving glycolytic enzymes and monocarboxylate transporter inhibitors. Considering the multifaceted roles of lactate in cancer metabolism, a comprehensive understanding of how lactate and lactate-targeting therapies regulate immune responses in the TME will provide insights into the complex relationships between metabolism and antitumour immunity.

Evaluation of Apigenin Inhibiting Lactate Dehydrogenase Activity Based on CdTe Quantum Dots Fluorescence

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is one of key enzymes in glucose metabolism pathway, which plays a critical role in cell metabolism. Inhibition of LDH can inhibit glycolysis process, thereby inhibiting the occurrence and development of tumor cells. Two kinds of LDH inhibitors, apigenin and emodin, were obtained by testing the IC₅₀ of several natural products in LDH enzyme reaction. The IC₅₀ of apigenin was about 1/3 of LDH inhibitor sodium oxalate. A new method to evaluate the performance of LDH inhibitors based on CdTe QDs was established at the same time, which provides a new idea for research on LDH enzyme inhibitors.

Phytocompounds Targeting Metabolic Reprogramming in Cancer: An Assessment of Role, Mechanisms, Pathways, and Therapeutic Relevance

The metabolism of cancer is remarkably different from that of normal cells and confers a variety of benefits, including the promotion of other cancer hallmarks. As the rewired metabolism is a near-universal property of cancer cells, efforts are underway to exploit metabolic vulnerabilities for therapeutic benefits. In the continued search for safer and effective ways of cancer treatment, structurally diverse plant-based compounds have gained substantial attention. Here, we present an extensive assessment of the role of phytocompounds in modulating cancer metabolism and attempt to make a case for the use of plant-based compounds in targeting metabolic vulnerabilities of cancer. We discuss the pharmacological interactions of phytocompounds with major metabolic pathways and evaluate the role of phytocompounds in the regulation of growth signaling and transcriptional programs involved in the metabolic transformation of cancer. Lastly, we examine the potential of these compounds in the clinical management of cancer along with limitations and challenges.

Discovery of uncompetitive inhibitors of SapM that compromise intracellular survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

SapM is a secreted virulence factor from Mycobacterium tuberculosis critical for pathogen survival and persistence inside the host. Its full potential as a target for tuberculosis treatment has not yet been exploited because of the lack of potent inhibitors available. By screening over 1500 small molecules, we have identified new potent and selective inhibitors of SapM with an uncompetitive mechanism of inhibition. The best inhibitors share a trihydroxy-benzene moiety essential for activity. Importantly, the inhibitors significantly reduce mycobacterial burden in infected human macrophages at 1 µM, and they are selective with respect to other mycobacterial and human phosphatases. The best inhibitor also reduces intracellular burden of Francisella tularensis, which secretes the virulence factor AcpA, a homologue of SapM, with the same mechanism of catalysis and inhibition. Our findings demonstrate that inhibition of SapM with small molecule inhibitors is efficient in reducing intracellular mycobacterial survival in host macrophages and confirm SapM as a potential therapeutic target. These initial compounds have favourable physico-chemical properties and provide a basis for exploration towards the development of new tuberculosis treatments. The efficacy of a SapM inhibitor in reducing Francisella tularensis intracellular burden suggests the potential for developing broad-spectrum antivirulence agents to treat microbial infections.

Cell Metabolism and DNA Repair Pathways: Implications for Cancer Therapy

DNA repair and metabolic pathways are vital to maintain cellular homeostasis in normal human cells. Both of these pathways, however, undergo extensive changes during tumorigenesis, including modifications that promote rapid growth, genetic heterogeneity, and survival. While these two areas of research have remained relatively distinct, there is growing evidence that the pathways are interdependent and intrinsically linked. Therapeutic interventions that target metabolism or DNA repair systems have entered clinical practice in recent years, highlighting the potential of targeting these pathways in cancer. Further exploration of the links between metabolic and DNA repair pathways may open new therapeutic avenues in the future. Here, we discuss the dependence of DNA repair processes upon cellular metabolism; including the production of nucleotides required for repair, the necessity of metabolic pathways for the chromatin remodeling required for DNA repair, and the ways in which metabolism itself can induce and prevent DNA damage. We will also discuss the roles of metabolic proteins in DNA repair and, conversely, how DNA repair proteins can impact upon cell metabolism. Finally, we will discuss how further research may open therapeutic avenues in the treatment of cancer.

Lactate modulation of immune responses in inflammatory versus tumour microenvironments

The microenvironment in cancerous tissues is immunosuppressive and pro-tumorigenic, whereas the microenvironment of tissues affected by chronic inflammatory disease is pro-inflammatory and anti-resolution. Despite these opposing immunological states, the metabolic states in the tissue microenvironments of cancer and inflammatory diseases are similar: both are hypoxic, show elevated levels of lactate and other metabolic by-products and have low levels of nutrients. In this Review, we describe how the bioavailability of lactate differs in the microenvironments of tumours and inflammatory diseases compared with normal tissues, thus contributing to the establishment of specific immunological states in disease. A clear understanding of the metabolic signature of tumours and inflammatory diseases will enable therapeutic intervention aimed at resetting the bioavailability of metabolites and correcting the dysregulated immunological state, triggering beneficial cytotoxic, inflammatory responses in tumours and immunosuppressive responses in chronic inflammation.