Potent Anti-Inflammatory and Pro-Resolving Effects of Anabasum in a Human Model of Self-Resolving Acute Inflammation

Cannabidiol acts as molecular switch in innate immune cells to promote the biosynthesis of inflammation-resolving lipid mediators

Cannabinoids are phytochemicals from cannabis with anti-inflammatory actions in immune cells. Lipid mediators (LM), produced from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), are potent regulators of the immune response and impact all stages of inflammation. How cannabinoids influence LM biosynthetic networks is unknown. Here, we reveal cannabidiol (CBD) as a potent LM class-switching agent that stimulates the production of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) but suppresses pro-inflammatory eicosanoid biosynthesis. Detailed metabololipidomics analysis in human monocyte-derived macrophages showed that CBD (i) upregulates exotoxin-stimulated generation of SPMs, (ii) suppresses 5-lipoxygenase (LOX)-mediated leukotriene production, and (iii) strongly induces SPM and 12/15-LOX product formation in resting cells by stimulation of phospholipase A2-dependent PUFA release and through Ca2+-independent, allosteric 15-LOX-1 activation. Finally, in zymosan-induced murine peritonitis, CBD increased SPM and 12/15-LOX products and suppressed pro-inflammatory eicosanoid levels in vivo. Switching eicosanoid to SPM production is a plausible mode of action of CBD and a promising inflammation-resolving strategy.

Nano-encapsulated anandamide reduces inflammatory cytokines in vitro and lesion severity in a murine model of cutaneous lupus erythematosus

Cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE) is a heterogeneous autoimmune skin disease which occurs independently and in conjunction with systemic lupus erythematosus. Drug development for CLE is severely lacking. Anandamide (AEA) is a primary endocannabinoid which exhibits immunomodulatory effects through mixed cannabinoid receptor agonism. We evaluated AEA as topical treatment for CLE and assessed benefits of nanoparticle encapsulation (AEA-NP) on cutaneous drug penetration, delivery and biological activity. Compared to untreated controls, AEA-NP decreased IL-6 and MCP-1 in UVB-stimulated keratinocytes (p < 0.05) in vitro. In BALB/c mice, AEA-NP displayed improved cutaneous penetration, extended release and persistence of AEA in the follicular unit extending to the base after 24 h. Utilizing the MRL-lpr lupus murine model, twice weekly treatment of lesions with topical AEA-NP for 10 weeks led to decreased clinical and histologic lesion scores compared to unencapsulated AEA and untreated controls (p < 0.05). Prophylactic application of AEA-NP to commonly involved areas on MRL-lpr mice similarly resulted in decreased clinical and histologic scores when compared to controls (p < 0.05), and reduced C3 and IBA-1 in lesional tissue (p < 0.05). The demonstrated clinical and immunomodulatory effects of treatment with AEA support its potential as therapy for CLE. This work also suggests that encapsulation of AEA improves penetration and treatment efficacy. Future studies will be conducted to assess full therapeutic potential.

The therapeutic potential of resolvins in pulmonary diseases

Uncontrolled inflammation leads to nonspecific destruction and remodeling of tissues and can contribute to many human pathologies, including pulmonary diseases. Stimulation of inflammatory resolution is considered an important process that protects against the progression of chronic inflammatory diseases. Resolvins generated from essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have been demonstrated to be signaling molecules in inflammation with important pro-resolving and anti-inflammatory capabilities. By binding to specific receptors, resolvins can modulate inflammatory processes such as neutrophil migration, macrophage phagocytosis and the presence of pro-inflammatory mediators to reduce inflammatory pathologies. The discovery of these pro-resolving mediators has led to a shift in drug research from suppressing pro-inflammatory molecules to investigating compounds that promote resolution to treat inflammation. The exploration of inflammatory resolution also provided the opportunity to further understand the pathophysiology of pulmonary diseases. Alterations of resolution are now linked to both the development and exacerbation of diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, cancer and COVID-19. These findings have resulted in the rise of novel design and testing of innovative resolution-based therapeutics to treat diseases. Hence, this paper reviews the generation and mechanistic actions of resolvins and investigates their role and therapeutic potential in several pulmonary diseases that may benefit from resolution-based pharmaceuticals.

Efficacy and Safety of Lenabasum, a Cannabinoid Type 2 Receptor Agonist, in a Phase 3 Randomized Trial in Diffuse Cutaneous Systemic Sclerosis

OBJECTIVE

This phase 3 study was undertaken to investigate the efficacy and safety of lenabasum, a cannabinoid type 2 receptor agonist, in patients with diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis (dcSSc).

METHODS

A multinational double-blind study was conducted in 365 dcSSc patients who were randomized and dosed 1:1:1 with lenabasum 20 mg, lenabasum 5 mg, or placebo, each twice daily and added to background treatments, including immunosuppressive therapies (IST).

RESULTS

The primary end point, the American College of Rheumatology combined response index in dcSSc (CRISS) at week 52 for lenabasum 20 mg twice a day versus placebo, was not met, with CRISS score of 0.888 versus 0.887 (P = 0.4972, using mixed models repeated measures [MMRM]). The change in the modified Rodnan skin thickness score (MRSS) at week 52 for lenabasum 20 mg twice a day versus placebo was -6.7 versus -8.1 (P = 0.1183, using MMRM). Prespecified analyses showed higher CRISS scores, greater improvement in MRSS, and lower decline in forced vital capacity in patients on background mycophenolate and those who were taking IST for ≤1 year. No deaths or excess in serious or severe adverse events related to lenabasum were observed.

CONCLUSION

A benefit of lenabasum in dcSSc was not demonstrated. Most patients were treated with background IST, and treatment with mycophenolate mofetil in particular was associated with better outcomes. These findings support the use of IST in the treatment of dcSSc and highlight the challenge of demonstrating a treatment effect when investigational treatment is added to standard of care IST. These findings have relevance to trial design in SSc, as well as to clinical care.

Cannabinoid CB2 receptor orthologues; in vitro function and perspectives for preclinical to clinical translation

Cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonists are in development as therapeutic agents, including for immune modulation and pain relief. Despite promising results in rodent preclinical studies, efficacy in human clinical trials has been marginal to date. Fundamental differences in ligand engagement and signalling responses between the human CB2 receptor and preclinical model species orthologues may contribute to mismatches in functional outcomes. This is a tangible possibility for the CB2 receptor in that there is a relatively large degree of primary amino acid sequence divergence between human and rodent. Here, we summarise CB2 receptor gene and protein structure, assess comparative molecular pharmacology between CB2 receptor orthologues, and review the current status of preclinical to clinical translation for drugs targeted at the CB2 receptor, focusing on comparisons between human, mouse and rat receptors. We hope that raising wider awareness of, and proposing strategies to address, this additional challenge in drug development will assist in ongoing efforts toward successful therapeutic translation of drugs targeted at the CB2 receptor.

Resolvins and cysteinyl-containing pro-resolving mediators activate resolution of infectious inflammation and tissue regeneration

This review is a synopsis of the main points from the opening presentation by the authors in the Resolution of Inflammation session at the 8th European Workshop on Lipid Mediators held at the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, June 29th, 2022. Specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPM) promote tissue regeneration, control infections and resolution of inflammation. These include resolvins, protectins, maresins and the newly identified conjugates in tissue regeneration (CTRs). We reported mechanisms of CTRs in activating primordial regeneration pathways in planaria using RNA-sequencing. Also, the 4S,5S-epoxy-resolvin intermediate in the biosynthesis of resolvin D3 and resolvin D4 was prepared by total organic synthesis. Human neutrophils convert this to resolvin D3 and resolvin D4, while human M2 macrophages transformed this labile epoxide intermediate to resolvin D4 and a novel cysteinyl-resolvin that is a potent isomer of RCTR1. The novel cysteinyl-resolvin significantly accelerates tissue regeneration with planaria and inhibits human granuloma formation.

Mesenchymal stromal cells and alpha-1 antitrypsin have a strong synergy in modulating inflammation and its resolution

Rationale: Trauma, surgery, and infection can cause severe inflammation. Both dysregulated inflammation intensity and duration can lead to significant tissue injuries, organ dysfunction, mortality, and morbidity. Anti-inflammatory drugs such as steroids and immunosuppressants can dampen inflammation intensity, but they derail inflammation resolution, compromise normal immunity, and have significant adverse effects. The natural inflammation regulator mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have high therapeutic potential because of their unique capabilities to mitigate inflammation intensity, enhance normal immunity, and accelerate inflammation resolution and tissue healing. Furthermore, clinical studies have shown that MSCs are safe and effective. However, they are not potent enough, alone, to completely resolve severe inflammation and injuries. One approach to boost the potency of MSCs is to combine them with synergistic agents. We hypothesized that alpha-1 antitrypsin (A1AT), a plasma protein used clinically and has an excellent safety profile, was a promising candidate for synergism. Methods: This investigation examined the efficacy and synergy of MSCs and A1AT to mitigate inflammation and promote resolution, using in vitro inflammatory assay and in vivo mouse acute lung injury model. The in vitro assay measured cytokine releases, inflammatory pathways, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) production by neutrophils and phagocytosis in different immune cell lines. The in vivo model monitored inflammation resolution, tissue healing, and animal survival. Results: We found that the combination of MSCs and A1AT was much more effective than each component alone in i) modulating cytokine releases and inflammatory pathways, ii) inhibiting ROS and NETs production by neutrophils, iii) enhancing phagocytosis and, iv) promoting inflammation resolution, tissue healing, and animal survival. Conclusion: These results support the combined use of MSCs, and A1AT is a promising approach for managing severe, acute inflammation.

Cannabinoids And Cannabinoid-Like Compounds: Biochemical Characterization And Pharmacological Perspectives

Publication interest in cannabinoids, including phytocannabinoids, endogenous cannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids and cannabinomimetic compounds, is due to the therapeutic potential of these compounds in inflammatory pathology. Since recent years, scientific interest was focused on compounds with cannabinomimetic activity. The therapeutic use of phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids is somewhat limited due to unresolved issues of dosing, toxicity and safety in humans, while cannabinoid-like compounds combine similar therapeutic effects with a high confirmed safety. Targets for endocannabinoids and phytocannabinoids are endocannabinoid receptors 1 and 2, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), and transient receptor potential ion channels (TRPs). Non-endocannabinoid N-acylethanolamines do not interact with cannabinoid receptors and exhibit agonist activity towards non-cannabinoid receptors, such as PPARs, GPCRs and TRPs. This literature review includes contemporary information on the biological activity, metabolism and pharmacological properties of cannabinoids and cannabinoid-like compounds, as well as their receptors. We established that only a few studies were devoted to the relationship of non-endocannabinoid N-acylethanolamines with non-cannabinoid receptors, such as PPARs, GPCRs, and also with TRPs. We have focused on issues that were insufficiently covered in the published sources in order to identify gaps in existing knowledge and determine the prospects for scientific research.

Allosteric Activation of 15-Lipoxygenase-1 by Boswellic Acid Induces the Lipid Mediator Class Switch to Promote Resolution of Inflammation

Specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPM), primarily produced in innate immune cells, exert crucial bioactions for resolving inflammation. Among various lipoxygenases (LOX), 15-LOX-1 is key for SPM biosynthesis, but cellular activation principles of 15-LOX-1 are unexplored. It was shown that 3-O-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) shifts 5-LOX regiospecificity from 5- to 12-lipoxygenation products. Here, it is demonstrated that AKBA additionally activates cellular 15-LOX-1 via an allosteric site accomplishing robust SPM formation in innate immune cells, particularly in M2 macrophages. Compared to ionophore, AKBA-induced LOX activation is Ca2+ - and phosphorylation-independent, with modest induction of 5-LOX products. AKBA docks into a groove between the catalytic and regulatory domains of 15-LOX-1 interacting with R98; replacement of R98 by alanine abolishes AKBA-induced 15-LOX product formation in HEK293 cells. In zymosan-induced murine peritonitis, AKBA strikingly elevates SPM levels and promotes inflammation resolution. Together, targeted allosteric modulation of LOX activities governs SPM formation and offers new concepts for inflammation resolution pharmacotherapy.

Cannabinoid Compounds as a Pharmacotherapeutic Option for the Treatment of Non-Cancer Skin Diseases

The endocannabinoid system has been shown to be involved in various skin functions, such as melanogenesis and the maintenance of redox balance in skin cells exposed to UV radiation, as well as barrier functions, sebaceous gland activity, wound healing and the skin's immune response. In addition to the potential use of cannabinoids in the treatment and prevention of skin cancer, cannabinoid compounds and derivatives are of interest as potential systemic and topical applications for the treatment of various inflammatory, fibrotic and pruritic skin conditions. In this context, cannabinoid compounds have been successfully tested as a therapeutic option for the treatment of androgenetic alopecia, atopic and seborrhoeic dermatitis, dermatomyositis, asteatotic and atopic eczema, uraemic pruritis, scalp psoriasis, systemic sclerosis and venous leg ulcers. This review provides an insight into the current literature on cannabinoid compounds as potential medicines for the treatment of skin diseases.

Therapeutic Effects of Medicinal Cannabinoids on the Gastrointestinal System in Pediatric Patients: A Systematic Review

Changes in cannabis legalization have generated interest in medicinal cannabinoids for therapeutic uses, including those that target the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. These effects are mediated through interactions with the endocannabinoid system. Given the increasing societal awareness of the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids, it is important to ensure pediatric representation in clinical studies investigating cannabinoid use. This systematic review aims to assess the efficacy of medicinal cannabinoids in treating GI symptoms in pediatric patients. A literature search of Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library was performed from inception until June 23, 2020. Study design, patient characteristics, type, dose and duration of medicinal cannabinoid therapy, and GI outcomes were extracted. From 7303 records identified, 5 studies met all inclusion criteria. Included studies focused on chemotherapy-induced nausea, inflammatory bowel disease, and GI symptoms associated with severe complex motor disorders. Results varied based on the symptom being treated, the type of cannabinoid, and the patient population. Medicinal cannabinoids may have a potential role in treating specific GI symptoms in specific patient populations. The limited number and heterogenicity of included studies highlight the demand for future research to distinguish effects among different cannabinoid types and patient populations and to examine drug interactions. As interest increases, higher quality studies are needed to understand the efficacy of cannabinoids as a pediatric GI treatment and whether these benefits outweigh the associated risks (Registration Number: PROSPERO CRD42020202486).

Safety and Efficacy of Lenabasum, a Cannabinoid Receptor Type 2 Agonist, in Patients with Dermatomyositis with Refractory Skin Disease: A Randomized Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

Treatment options are limited for skin disease in dermatomyositis. Lenabasum is a cannabinoid receptor type 2 agonist that triggers the resolution of inflammation.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of lenabasum in patients with refractory cutaneous dermatomyositis.

DESIGN

This study was a single-center, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 2 study conducted from July 2015 to August 2017.

POPULATION

The population included subjects aged ≥18 years with at least moderately active dermatomyositis skin activity by Cutaneous Dermatomyositis Disease Area and Severity Index activity ≥ 14 and failure or intolerance to hydroxychloroquine.

INTERVENTION

Participants received 20 mg lenabasum daily for 28 days and then 20 mg twice per day for 56 days or placebo.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was a change in Cutaneous Dermatomyositis Disease Area and Severity Index activity. Safety and other secondary efficacy assessments were performed till day 113.

RESULTS

A total of 22 subjects were randomized to lenabasum (n = 11) or placebo (n = 11). No serious or severe adverse events were related to lenabasum, and no participants discontinued the study. The adjusted least-squares mean for Cutaneous Dermatomyositis Disease Area and Severity Index activity decreased more for lenabasum, and the difference was significant on day 113 (least-squares mean [standard error] difference = ‒6.5 [3.1], P = 0.038). Numerically greater improvements were seen in multiple secondary efficacy outcomes and biomarkers with lenabasum.

CONCLUSION

Lenabasum treatment was well tolerated and was associated with greater improvement in Cutaneous Dermatomyositis Disease Area and Severity Index activity and multiple efficacy outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02466243.

Analysis of Anti-Cancer and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of 25 High-THC Cannabis Extracts

Cannabis sativa is one of the oldest cultivated plants. Many of the medicinal properties of cannabis are known, although very few cannabis-based formulations became prescribed drugs. Previous research demonstrated that cannabis varieties are very different in their medicinal properties, likely due to the entourage effect-the synergistic or antagonistic effect of various cannabinoids and terpenes. In this work, we analyzed 25 cannabis extracts containing high levels of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). We used HCC1806 squamous cell carcinoma and demonstrated various degrees of efficiency of the tested extracts, from 66% to 92% of growth inhibition of cancer cells. Inflammation was tested by induction of inflammation with TNF-α/IFN-γ in WI38 human lung fibroblasts. The efficiency of the extracts was tested by analyzing the expression of COX2 and IL6; while some extracts aggravated inflammation by increasing the expression of COX2/IL6 by 2-fold, other extracts decreased inflammation, reducing expression of cytokines by over 5-fold. We next analyzed the level of THC, CBD, CBG and CBN and twenty major terpenes and performed clustering and association analysis between the chemical composition of the extracts and their efficiency in inhibiting cancer growth and curbing inflammation. A positive correlation was found between the presence of terpinene (pval = 0.002) and anti-cancer property; eucalyptol came second, with pval of 0.094. p-cymene and β-myrcene positively correlated with the inhibition of IL6 expression, while camphor correlated negatively. No significant correlation was found for COX2. We then performed a correlation analysis between cannabinoids and terpenes and found a positive correlation for the following pairs: α-pinene vs. CBD, p-cymene vs. CBGA, terpenolene vs. CBGA and isopulegol vs. CBGA. Our work, thus, showed that most of high-THC extracts demonstrate anti-cancer activity, while only certain selected extracts showed anti-inflammatory activity. Presence of certain terpenes, such as terpinene, eucalyptol, cymene, myrcene and camphor, appear to have modulating effects on the activity of cannabinoids.

Lenabasum Reduces Porphyromonas gingivalis-Driven Inflammation

The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential anti-inflammatory and anti-resorptive effects of lenabasum in the context of Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg)-induced inflammation. Lenabasum or ajulemic acid (1',1'-dimethylheptyl-THC-11-oic-acid), a synthetic analog of THC-11-oic acid, has already demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties for the treatment of several inflammatory diseases. In vitro, the cytocompatibility of lenabasum was evaluated in human oral epithelial cells (EC), oral fibroblasts and osteoblasts by metabolic activity assay. The effect of lenabasum (5 µM) treatment of Pg-LPS- and P. gingivalis-infected EC on the pro- and anti-inflammatory markers was studied through RTqPCR. In vivo, lenabasum was injected subcutaneously in a P. gingivalis-induced calvarial abscess mouse model to assess its pro-healing effect. Concentrations of lenabasum up to 5 µM were cytocompatible in all cell types. Treatment of Pg-LPS and Pg-infected EC with lenabasum (5 µM; 6 h) reduced the gene expression of TNF-α, COX-2, NF-κB, and RANKL, whereas it increased the expression of IL-10 and resolvin E1 receptor respectively (p < 0.05). In vivo, the Pg-elicited inflammatory lesions' clinical size was significantly reduced by lenabasum injection (30 µM) vs untreated controls (45%) (p < 0.05). Histomorphometric analysis exhibited improved quantity and quality of bone (with reduced lacunae) and significantly reduced calvarial soft tissue inflammatory score in mice treated with lenabasum (p < 0.05). Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase activity assay (TRAP) also demonstrated decreased osteoclastic activity in the treatment group compared to that in the controls. Lenabasum showed promising anti-inflammatory and pro-resolutive properties in the management of Pg-elicited inflammation, and thus, its potential as adjuvant periodontal treatment should be further investigated.

Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Dermatologic Conditions

In recent years, cannabinoid (CB) products have gained popularity among the public. The anti-inflammatory properties of CBs have piqued the interest of researchers and clinicians because they represent promising avenues for the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory skin disorders that may be refractory to conventional therapy. The objective of this study was to review the existing literature regarding CBs for dermatologic conditions. A primary literature search was conducted in October 2020, using the PubMed and Embase databases, for all articles published from 1965 to October 2020. Review articles, studies using animal models, and nondermatologic and pharmacologic studies were excluded. From 248 nonduplicated studies, 26 articles were included. There were 13 articles on systemic CBs and 14 reports on topical CBs. Selective CB receptor type 2 agonists were found to be effective in treating diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis and dermatomyositis. Dronabinol showed efficacy for trichotillomania. Sublingual cannabidiol and Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol were successful in treating the pain associated with epidermolysis bullosa. Available evidence suggests that CBs may be effective for the treatment of various inflammatory skin disorders. Although promising, additional research is necessary to evaluate efficacy and to determine dosing, safety, and long-term treatment guidelines.

Emerging Therapeutics in the Management of Connective Tissue Disease. Part II. Dermatomyositis and Scleroderma

The management of connective tissue diseases is dramatically evolving with the advent of biologics and novel oral systemic therapeutics. Despite involvement in the care of these complex patients, there is a knowledge gap in the field of dermatology regarding these emerging agents. The second article in this continuing medical education series discusses new and emerging therapeutics for dermatomyositis and scleroderma that target cells, intracellular signaling pathways, and cytokines.

The Dynamic Role of Microglia and the Endocannabinoid System in Neuroinflammation

Microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain, can take on a range of pro- or anti-inflammatory phenotypes to maintain homeostasis. However, the sustained activation of pro-inflammatory microglia can lead to a state of chronic neuroinflammation characterized by high concentrations of neurotoxic soluble factors throughout the brain. In healthy brains, the inflammatory processes cease and microglia transition to an anti-inflammatory phenotype, but failure to halt the pro-inflammatory processes is a characteristic of many neurological disorders. The endocannabinoid system has been identified as a promising therapeutic target for chronic neuroinflammation as there is evidence that synthetic and endogenously produced cannabinoids temper the pro-inflammatory response of microglia and may encourage a switch to an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Activation of cannabinoid type 2 (CB₂) receptors has been proposed as the mechanism of action responsible for these effects. The abundance of components of the endocannabinoid system in microglia also change dynamically in response to several brain pathologies. This can impact the ability of microglia to synthesize and degrade endocannabinoids or react to endogenous and exogenous cannabinoids. Cannabinoid receptors also participate in the formation of receptor heteromers which influences their function specifically in cells that express both receptors, such as microglia. This creates opportunities for drug-drug interactions between CB₂ receptor-targeted therapies and other classes of drugs. In this article, we review the roles of pro- and anti-inflammatory microglia in the development and resolution of neuroinflammation. We also discuss the fluctuations observed in the components of the endocannabinoid in microglia and examine the potential of CB₂ receptors as a therapeutic target in this context.

The role of antifibrotic therapies in the treatment of systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a rare autoimmune condition with complex pathogenesis characterized by a heterogeneous presentation and different disease courses. Fibrosis of multiple organs including the lungs favored by inflammation and vasculopathy is the hallmark of SSc. SSc-associated interstitial lung disease (SSc-ILD) is common and can be associated with poor outcomes, this complication being the leading cause of death in recent series. Because of its huge heterogeneity, SSc-ILD management can be very challenging. Immunosuppressive therapy has long been used to prevent SSc-ILD progression with modest effects in clinical trials. However, thanks to a better understating of SSc pathogenesis, innovative therapies including antifibrotics are increasingly being developed. The achievement of the Safety and Efficacy of Nintedanib in Systemic SClerosIS (SENSCIS) trial has led to the approval by drug agencies of the first antifibrotic drug for SSc-ILD. In parallel, other antifibrotics are being investigated as possible beneficial therapies in SSc-ILD. An important unmet need remains to clarify the positioning of the various strategies, such as the added value of combination of immunosuppressants and antifibrotic therapies in patients at high risk of progression. Indeed, irreversible lung injury or self-perpetuated progression highlights the concept of a window of opportunity in SSc-ILD patients. Herewith, we provide an overview of the most significant clinical trials with antifibrotic drugs developed in recent years for the management of SSc-ILD and a viewpoint about their positioning in treatment algorithms.

Update on Myositis Therapy: from Today's Standards to Tomorrow's Possibilities

Inflammatory myopathies, in short, myositis, are heterogeneous disorders that are characterized by inflammation of skeletal muscle and weakness of arms and legs. Research over the past few years has led to a new understanding regarding the pathogenesis of myositis. The new insights include different pathways of the innate and adaptive immune response during the pathogenesis of myositis. The importance of non-inflammatory mechanisms such as cell stress and impaired autophagy has been recently described. New target-specific drugs for myositis have been developed and are currently being tested in clinical trials. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of action of pharmacological standards in myositis and provide an outlook of future treatment approaches.

Resolution of inflammation: An organizing principle in biology and medicine

The resolution of inflammation has emerged as a critical endogenous process that protects host tissues from prolonged or excessive inflammation that can become chronic. Failure of the resolution of inflammation is a key pathological mechanism that drives the progression of numerous inflammation-driven diseases. Essential polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-derived autacoid mediators termed 'specialized pro-resolving mediators' (SPMs) regulate endogenous resolution programs by limiting further neutrophil tissue infiltration and stimulating local immune cell (e.g., macrophage)-mediated clearance of apoptotic polymorphonuclear neutrophils, cellular debris, and microbes, as well as counter-regulating eicosanoid/cytokine production. The SPM superfamily encompasses lipoxins, resolvins, protectins, and maresins. Our understanding of the resolution phase of acute inflammation has grown exponentially in the past three decades with the discovery of novel pro-resolving lipid mediators, their pro-efferocytosis mechanisms, and their receptors. Technological advancement has further facilitated lipid mediator metabolipidomic based profiling of healthy and diseased human tissues, highlighting the extraordinary therapeutic potential of SPMs across a broad array of inflammatory diseases including cancer. As current front-line cancer therapies such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation may induce various unwanted side effects such as robust pro-inflammatory and pro-tumorigenic host responses, characterizing SPMs and their receptors as novel therapeutic targets may have important implications as a new direction for host-targeted cancer therapy. Here, we discuss the origins of inflammation resolution, key discoveries and the failure of resolution mechanisms in diseases with an emphasis on cancer, and future directions focused on novel therapeutic applications for this exciting and rapidly expanding field.

Potent T cell-mediated anti-inflammatory role of the selective CB2 agonist lenabasum in multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Lenabasum is a synthetic cannabinoid receptor type-2 (CB2) agonist able to exert potent anti-inflammatory effects, but its role on T cells remains unknown.

OBJECTIVES

The present study was undertaken to investigate anti-inflammatory mechanisms of lenabasum in T lymphocyte subsets and its in vivo therapeutic efficacy in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE).

METHODS

Mononuclear cells from 17 healthy subjects (HS) and 25 relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) patients were activated in presence or absence of lenabasum and analysed by flow cytometry and qRT-PCR. EAE mice were treated with lenabasum, and clinical score and neuroinflammation were evaluated.

RESULTS

Lenabasum significantly reduced TNF-a production from CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells in a dose-dependent manner in both HS and RRMS patients. In MS patients, lenabasum also reduced activation marker CD25 and inhibited IL-2 production from both T cell subsets and IFN-γ and IL-17 from committed Th1 and Th17 cells, respectively. These effects were blocked by the pretreatment with selective CB2 inverse agonist SR144528. In vivo treatment of EAE mice with lenabasum significantly ameliorated disease severity, reduced neuroinflammation and demyelination in spinal cord.

CONCLUSION

Lenabasum exerts potent T cell-mediated immunomodulatory effects, suggesting CB2 as a promising pharmacological target to counteract neuroinflammation in MS.

A Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic and Drug-Drug Interaction Model for the CB2 Agonist Lenabasum

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Lenabasum is a synthetic agonist of the cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2) with anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic properties. Utilizing Simcyp, we developed a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model based on physicochemical properties, cell culture data, and cytochrome P450 (CYP) phenotyping, inhibition, and induction data.

METHODS

Clinical data from healthy volunteers treated with 20 mg of lenabasum in a single ascending dose (SAD) study were used for model development. The model was verified using lenabasum SAD (10 and 40 mg) data as well as multiple dose (20 mg three times per day) data. Lenabasum is a CYP substrate, and the model predicted lenabasum clearance of 51% by CYP2C9, 37% by CYP2C8, and 12% by CYP3A4. Lenabasum is also an inhibitor of these isozymes.

RESULTS

The model accurately described the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) and maximum plasma concentration (C_max) for lenabasum within 1.19-fold and 1.25-fold accuracy, respectively, of the observed clinical values. The simulations of CYP inducers predicted that the strongest interaction would occur with rifampin, with the AUC decreasing to 0.36 of the control value, whereas the simulations of CYP inhibitors predicted that the greatest effect would occur with fluconazole, with a 1.43-fold increase in AUC.

CONCLUSIONS

Our model is a useful tool for predicting the pharmacokinetics of lenabasum and adjustments to its dosing in possible drug-drug interaction scenarios.

Untapped endocannabinoid pharmacological targets: Pipe dream or pipeline?

It has been established that the endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid) system plays key modulatory roles in a wide variety of pathological conditions. The endocannabinoid system comprises both cannabinoid receptors, their endogenous ligands including 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), N-arachidonylethanolamine (anandamide, AEA), and enzymes that regulate the synthesis and degradation of endogenous ligands which include diacylglycerol lipase alpha (DAGL-α), diacylglycerol lipase beta (DAGL-β), fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), α/β hydrolase domain 6 (ABHD6). As the endocannabinoid system exerts considerable involvement in the regulation of homeostasis and disease, much effort has been made towards understanding endocannabinoid-related mechanisms of action at cellular, physiological, and pathological levels as well as harnessing the various components of the endocannabinoid system to produce novel therapeutics. However, drug discovery efforts within the cannabinoid field have been slower than anticipated to reach satisfactory clinical endpoints and raises an important question into the validity of developing novel ligands that therapeutically target the endocannabinoid system. To answer this, we will first examine evidence that supports the existence of an endocannabinoid system role within inflammatory diseases, neurodegeneration, pain, substance use disorders, mood disorders, as well as metabolic diseases. Next, this review will discuss recent clinical studies, within the last 5 years, of cannabinoid compounds in context to these diseases. We will also address some of the challenges and considerations within the cannabinoid field that may be important in the advancement of therapeutics into the clinic.

Cannabinoids and Pain: The Highs and Lows

The medicolegal landscape of cannabis continues to change, and with ever increasing access there has been a concurrent proliferation of research seeking to understand the utility of cannabinoids in treating innumerable conditions with pain at the forefront. This article seeks to summarize clinically relevant findings in cannabinoid research to better prepare clinicians in the utility of cannabis in the treatment of pain.

Cannabis sativa: Interdisciplinary Strategies and Avenues for Medical and Commercial Progression Outside of CBD and THC

Cannabis sativa (Cannabis) is one of the world’s most well-known, yet maligned plant species. However, significant recent research is starting to unveil the potential of Cannabis to produce secondary compounds that may offer a suite of medical benefits, elevating this unique plant species from its illicit narcotic status into a genuine biopharmaceutical. This review summarises the lengthy history of Cannabis and details the molecular pathways that underpin the production of key secondary metabolites that may confer medical efficacy. We also provide an up-to-date summary of the molecular targets and potential of the relatively unknown minor compounds offered by the Cannabis plant. Furthermore, we detail the recent advances in plant science, as well as synthetic biology, and the pharmacology surrounding Cannabis. Given the relative infancy of Cannabis research, we go on to highlight the parallels to previous research conducted in another medically relevant and versatile plant, Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), as an indicator of the possible future direction of Cannabis plant biology. Overall, this review highlights the future directions of cannabis research outside of the medical biology aspects of its well-characterised constituents and explores additional avenues for the potential improvement of the medical potential of the Cannabis plant.

Dysfunctional Inflammation in Cystic Fibrosis Airways: From Mechanisms to Novel Therapeutic Approaches

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disorder caused by mutations in the gene encoding for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein, an ATP-gated chloride channel expressed on the apical surface of airway epithelial cells. CFTR absence/dysfunction results in defective ion transport and subsequent airway surface liquid dehydration that severely compromise the airway microenvironment. Noxious agents and pathogens are entrapped inside the abnormally thick mucus layer and establish a highly inflammatory environment, ultimately leading to lung damage. Since chronic airway inflammation plays a crucial role in CF pathophysiology, several studies have investigated the mechanisms responsible for the altered inflammatory/immune response that, in turn, exacerbates the epithelial dysfunction and infection susceptibility in CF patients. In this review, we address the evidence for a critical role of dysfunctional inflammation in lung damage in CF and discuss current therapeutic approaches targeting this condition, as well as potential new treatments that have been developed recently. Traditional therapeutic strategies have shown several limitations and limited clinical benefits. Therefore, many efforts have been made to develop alternative treatments and novel therapeutic approaches, and recent findings have identified new molecules as potential anti-inflammatory agents that may exert beneficial effects in CF patients. Furthermore, the potential anti-inflammatory properties of CFTR modulators, a class of drugs that directly target the molecular defect of CF, also will be critically reviewed. Finally, we also will discuss the possible impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on CF patients, with a major focus on the consequences that the viral infection could have on the persistent inflammation in these patients.

Untapped Potential: Therapeutically Targeting Eicosanoids and Endocannabinoids in the Lung

Inflammation of the airway involves the recruitment of highly active immune cells to combat and clear microbes and toxic factors; however, this inflammatory response can result in unintended damage to lung tissue. Tissue damage resulting from inflammation is often mitigated by resolving factors that limit the scope and duration of the inflammatory response. Both inflammatory and resolving processes require the actions of a vast array of lipid mediators that can be rapidly synthesized through a variety of airway resident and infiltrating immune cells. Eicosanoids and endocannabinoids represent two major classes of lipid mediators that share synthetic enzymes and have diverse and overlapping functions. This review seeks to provide a summary of the major bioactive eicosanoids and endocannabinoids, challenges facing researchers that study them, and their roles in modulating inflammation and resolution. With a special emphasis on cystic fibrosis, a variety of therapeutics are discussed that have been explored for their potential anti-inflammatory or proresolving impact toward alleviating excessive airway inflammation and improving lung function.

Cannabinoids as Key Regulators of Inflammasome Signaling: A Current Perspective

Inflammasomes are cytoplasmic inflammatory signaling protein complexes that detect microbial materials, sterile inflammatory insults, and certain host-derived elements. Inflammasomes, once activated, promote caspase-1–mediated maturation and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, leading to pyroptosis. Current advances in inflammasome research support their involvement in the development of chronic inflammatory disorders in contrast to their role in regulating innate immunity. Cannabis (marijuana) is a natural product obtained from the Cannabis sativa plant, and pharmacologically active ingredients of the plant are referred to as cannabinoids. Cannabinoids and cannabis extracts have recently emerged as promising novel drugs for chronic medical conditions. Growing evidence indicates the potent anti-inflammatory potential of cannabinoids, especially Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and synthetic cannabinoids; however, the mechanisms remain unclear. Several attempts have been made to decipher the role of cannabinoids in modulating inflammasome signaling in the etiology of chronic inflammatory diseases. In this review, we discuss recently published evidence on the effect of cannabinoids on inflammasome signaling. We also discuss the contribution of various cannabinoids in human diseases concerning inflammasome regulation. Lastly, in the milieu of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, we confer available evidence linking inflammasome activation to the pathophysiology of COVID-19 suggesting overall, the importance of cannabinoids as possible drugs to target inflammasome activation in or to support the treatment of a variety of human disorders including COVID-19.

Cannabinoids in Medicine: Cancer, Immunity, and Microbial Diseases

Recently, there has been a growing interest in the medical applications of Cannabis plants. They owe their unique properties to a group of secondary metabolites known as phytocannabinoids, which are specific for this genus. Phytocannabinoids, and cannabinoids generally, can interact with cannabinoid receptors being part of the endocannabinoid system present in animals. Over the years a growing body of scientific evidence has been gathered, suggesting that these compounds have therapeutic potential. In this article, we review the classification of cannabinoids, the molecular mechanisms of their interaction with animal cells as well as their potential application in the treatment of human diseases. Specifically, we focus on the research concerning the anticancer potential of cannabinoids in preclinical studies, their possible use in cancer treatment and palliative medicine, as well as their influence on the immune system. We also discuss their potential as therapeutic agents in infectious, autoimmune, and gastrointestinal inflammatory diseases. We postulate that the currently ongoing and future clinical trials should be accompanied by research focused on the cellular and molecular response to cannabinoids and Cannabis extracts, which will ultimately allow us to fully understand the mechanism, potency, and safety profile of cannabinoids as single agents and as complementary drugs.

Molecular Mechanisms for the Inflammation-Resolving Actions of Lenabasum

A first-in-class cannabinoid analog called lenabasum that is a CB2 agonist is being developed as an inflammation-resolving drug candidate. Thus far, specific therapeutic targets include scleroderma, cystic fibrosis, dermatomyositis, and lupus, all of which represent unmet medical needs. Two somewhat-independent molecular mechanisms for this type of action are here proposed. Both pathways initially involve the release of free arachidonic acid after activation of the CB2 receptor and phospholipase A2 by lenabasum. The pathways then diverge into a cyclooxygenase 2-mediated and a lipoxygenase-mediated route. The former leads to increased levels of the cyclopentenone prostaglandin 15-deoxy-Δ^12,14-prostaglandin-J₂ that can activate the NLPR3 inflammasome, which in turn releases caspase-3, leading to apoptosis and the resolution of chronic inflammation. The lipoxygenase-mediated pathway stimulates the production of lipoxin A₄ as well as other signaling molecules called specialized proresolving mediators. These also have inflammation-resolving actions. It is not well understood under which conditions each of these mechanisms operates and whether there is crosstalk between them. Thus, much remains to be learned about the mechanisms describing the actions of lenabasum. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The resolution of chronic inflammation is a major unmet medical need. The synthetic nonpsychoactive cannabinoid lenabasum could provide a safe and effective drug for this purpose. Two putative molecular mechanisms are suggested to better understand how lenabasum produces this action. In both, different metabolites of arachidonic acid act as mediators.

Designing Clinical Trials for Anti-Inflammatory Therapies in Cystic Fibrosis

The inflammatory response in the CF airway begins early in the disease process and becomes persistent through life in most patients. Inflammation, which is predominantly neutrophilic, worsens airway obstruction and plays a critical role in the development of structural lung damage. While cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator modulators will likely have a dramatic impact on the trajectory of CF lung disease over the coming years, addressing other important aspects of lung disease such as inflammation will nevertheless remain a priority. Considering the central role of neutrophils and their products in the inflammatory response, potential therapies should ultimately affect neutrophils and their products. The ideal anti-inflammatory therapy would exert a dual effect on the pro-inflammatory and pro-resolution arms of the inflammatory cascade, both of which contribute to dysregulated inflammation in CF. This review outlines the key factors to be considered in the design of clinical trials evaluating anti-inflammatory therapies in CF. Important lessons have been learned from previous clinical trials in this area and choosing the right efficacy endpoints is key to the success of any anti-inflammatory drug development program. Identifying and validating non-invasive biomarkers, novel imaging techniques and sensitive lung function tests capable of monitoring disease activity and therapeutic response are important areas of research and will be useful for the design of future anti-inflammatory drug trials.

Safety and efficacy of lenabasum in a phase 2 randomized, placebo-controlled trial in adults with cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Few therapies specifically address the chronic airway inflammation in cystic fibrosis (CF) that contributes to progressive destruction of lung tissue and loss of lung function. Lenabasum is a cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2) agonist that resolves inflammation in a number of in vitro and in vivo models.

METHODS

A Phase 2 double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study assessed the safety and tolerability of lenabasum in adults with CF. Subjects with FEV₁% (ppFEV₁) ≥40% predicted were randomized to lenabasum 1 or 5 mg or placebo once daily (QD) (Weeks 1-4), then 20 mg QD, 20 mg twice daily (BID) or placebo (Weeks 5-12), with follow-up at Week 16. Pulmonary exacerbations (PEx) were recorded and biomarkers of blood and lung inflammation were measured.

RESULTS

Of 89 subjects randomized, 51 lenabasum and 23 placebo-only subjects completed the study. No deaths or serious or severe adverse events (AE) were considered related to lenabasum. Most AEs were mild/moderate, and the most common were PEx, hemoptysis, dry mouth, and upper respiratory infection. Three lenabasum and one placebo-only subjects discontinued the study for a treatment related AE. New PEx were treated with intravenous antibiotics in 4.0% of lenabasum-treated vs. 11.4% of placebo-treated subjects, during Weeks 1-4 and 5.2% compared to 13.0% during Weeks 5-12 (p<0.2). No significant differences in ppFEV1 were observed between treatment groups. Sputum neutrophils, eosinophils, and neutrophil elastase were numerically reduced, and significant (p<0.05) reductions in IL-8 and immunoglobulin G levels occurred with lenabasum.

CONCLUSIONS

The safety findings of lenabasum, coupled with biomarker data, support further testing in a larger study with a longer duration.

Resolvins: Emerging Players in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases

Resolvins, belonging to the group of specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs), are metabolic products of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs) and are synthesized during the initial phases of acute inflammatory responses to promote the resolution of inflammation. Resolvins are produced for termination of neutrophil infiltration, stimulation of the clearance of apoptotic cells by macrophages, and promotion of tissue remodeling and homeostasis. Metabolic dysregulation due to either uncontrolled activity of pro-inflammatory responses or to inefficient resolution of inflammation results in chronic inflammation and may also lead to atherosclerosis or other chronic autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, systemic lupus erythematosus, vasculitis, inflammatory bowel diseases, and type 1 diabetes mellitus. The pathogenesis of such diseases involves a complex interplay between the immune system and, environmental factors (non-infectious or infectious), and critically depends on individual susceptibility to such factors. In the present review, resolvins and their roles in the resolution of inflammation, as well as the role of these mediators as potential therapeutic agents to counteract specific chronic autoimmune and inflammatory diseases are discussed.

Specialized pro-resolving mediator network: an update on production and actions

Today, persistent and uncontrolled inflammation is appreciated to play a pivotal role in many diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic syndrome and many other diseases of public health concern (e.g. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and periodontal disease). The ideal response to initial challenge in humans is a self-limited inflammatory response leading to complete resolution. The resolution phase is now widely recognized as a biosynthetically active process, governed by a superfamily of endogenous chemical mediators that stimulate resolution of inflammatory responses, namely specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs). Because resolution is the natural ideal response, the SPMs have gained attention. SPMs are mediators that include ω-6 arachidonic acid-derived lipoxins, ω-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-derived resolvins, protectins and maresins, cysteinyl-SPMs, as well as n-3 docosapentaenoic acid (DPA)-derived SPMs. These novel immunoresolvents, their biosynthetic pathways and receptors have proven to promote resolution of inflammation, clearance of microbes, reduce pain and promote tissue regeneration via specific cellular and molecular mechanisms. As of 17 August, 2020, PubMed.gov reported >1170 publications for resolvins, confirming their potent protective actions from many laboratories worldwide. Since this field is rapidly expanding, we provide a short update of advances within 2-3 years from human and preclinical animal studies, together with the structural-functional elucidation of SPMs and identification of novel SPM receptors. These new discoveries indicate that SPMs, their pathways and receptors could provide a basis for new approaches for treating inflammation-associated diseases and for stimulating tissue regeneration via resolution pharmacology and precision nutrition.

The Role of Specialized Pro-Resolving Mediators in Cystic Fibrosis Airways Disease

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a recessive genetic disease due to mutations of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene encoding the CFTR chloride channel. The ion transport abnormalities related to CFTR mutation generate a dehydrated airway surface liquid (ASL) layer, which is responsible for an altered mucociliary clearance, favors infections and persistent inflammation that lead to progressive lung destruction and respiratory failure. The inflammatory response is normally followed by an active resolution phase to return to tissue homeostasis, which involves specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs). SPMs promote resolution of inflammation, clearance of microbes, tissue regeneration and reduce pain, but do not evoke unwanted immunosuppression. The airways of CF patients showed a decreased production of SPMs even in the absence of pathogens. SPMs levels in the airway correlated with CF patients' lung function. The prognosis for CF has greatly improved but there remains a critical need for more effective treatments that prevent excessive inflammation, lung damage, and declining pulmonary function for all CF patients. This review aims to highlight the recent understanding of CF airway inflammation and the possible impact of SPMs on functions that are altered in CF airways.

Intrathecal administration of Resolvin D1 and E1 decreases hyperalgesia in mice with bone cancer pain: Involvement of endocannabinoid signaling

Pain produced by bone cancer is often severe and difficult to treat. Here we examined effects of Resolvin D1 (RvD1) or E1 (RvE1), antinociceptive products of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, on cancer-induced mechanical allodynia and heat hyperalgesia. Experiments were performed using a mouse model of bone cancer produced by implantation of osteolytic ficrosarcoma into and around the calcaneus bone. Mechanical allodynia and heat hyperalgesia in the tumor-bearing paw were assessed by measuring withdrawal responses to a von Frey monofilament and to radiant heat applied on the plantar hind paw. RvD1, RvE1, and cannabinoid receptor antagonists were injected intrathecally. Spinal content of endocannabinoids was evaluated using UPLC-MS/MS analysis. RvD1 and RvE1 had similar antinociceptive potencies. ED_50s for RvD1 and RvE1 in reducing mechanical allodynia were 0.2 pg (0.53 fmol) and 0.6 pg (1.71 fmol), respectively, and were 0.3 pg (0.8 fmol) and 0.2 pg (0.57 fmol) for reducing heat hyperalgesia. Comparisons of dose-response relationships showed equal efficacy for reducing mechanical allodynia, however, efficacy for reducing heat hyperalgesia was greater for of RvD1. Using UPLC-MS/MS we determined that RvD1, but not RvE1, increased levels of the endocannabinoids Anandamide and 2-Arachidonoylglycerol in the spinal cord. Importantly, Resolvins did not alter acute nociception or motor function in naïve mice. Our data indicate, that RvD1 and RvE1 produce potent antiallodynia and antihyperalgesia in a model of bone cancer pain. RvD1 also triggers spinal upregulation of endocannabinoids that produce additional antinociception predominantly through CB2 receptors.

The Resolution Approach to Cystic Fibrosis Inflammation

Despite the high expectations associated with the recent introduction of CFTR modulators, airway inflammation still remains a relevant clinical issue in cystic fibrosis (CF). The classical anti-inflammatory drugs have shown very limited efficacy, when not being harmful, raising the question of whether alternative approaches should be undertaken. Thus, a better knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the aberrant inflammation observed in CF is pivotal to develop more efficacious pharmacology. In this respect, the observation that endogenous proresolving pathways are defective in CF and that proresolving mediators, physiologically generated during an acute inflammatory reaction, do not completely suppress inflammation, but promote resolution, tissue healing and microbial clearance, without compromising immune host defense mechanisms, opens interesting therapeutic scenarios for CF. In this mini-review, we present the current knowledge and perspectives of proresolving pharmacology in CF, focusing on the specialized proresolving lipid mediators and selected peptides.

Safety and Efficacy of Lenabasum in a Phase II, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial in Adults With Systemic Sclerosis

Objective

To assess the safety and efficacy of lenabasum in diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis (dcSSc).

Methods

A randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, phase II study was conducted at 9 SSc clinics in the US. Adults with dcSSc of ≤6 years’ duration who were receiving stable standard‐of‐care treatment were randomized to receive lenabasum (n = 27) or placebo (n = 15). Lenabasum doses were 5 mg once daily, 20 mg once daily, or 20 mg twice daily for 4 weeks, followed by 20 mg twice daily for 8 weeks. Safety and efficacy were assessed at weeks 4, 8, 12, and 16.

Results

Adverse events (AEs) occurred in 63% of the lenabasum group and 60% of the placebo group, with no serious AEs related to lenabasum. Compared to placebo, lenabasum treatment was associated with greater improvement in the American College of Rheumatology Combined Response Index in diffuse cutaneous Systemic Sclerosis (CRISS) score and other efficacy outcome measures that assessed overall disease, skin involvement, and patient‐reported function. The median CRISS score increased in the lenabasum group during the study, reaching 0.33, versus 0.00 in the placebo group, at week 16 (P = 0.07 by 2‐sided mixed‐effects model repeated‐measures analysis). Gene expression in inflammation and fibrosis pathways was reduced, and inflammation and fibrosis were improved on histologic evaluation of skin biopsy specimens, in the lenabasum group compared to the placebo group (all P ≤ 0.05).

Conclusion

Despite a short trial duration in a small number of patients in this phase II study in dcSSc, our findings indicate that lenabasum improves efficacy outcomes and underlying disease pathology with a favorable safety profile.

Anti-inflammatory effects of lenabasum, a cannabinoid receptor type 2 agonist, on macrophages from cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Lenabasum is an oral synthetic cannabinoid receptor type 2 agonist previously shown to reduce the production of key airway pro-inflammatory cytokines known to play a role in cystic fibrosis (CF). In a double-blinded, randomized, placebo-control phase 2 study, lenabasum lowered the rate of pulmonary exacerbation among patients with CF. The present study was undertaken to investigate anti-inflammatory mechanisms of lenabasum exhibits in CF macrophages.

METHODS

We used monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) from healthy donors (n = 15), MDMs with CFTR inhibited with C-172 (n = 5) and MDMs from patients with CF (n = 4). Monocytes were differentiated to macrophages and polarized into classically activated (M1) macrophages by LPS or alternatively activated (M2) macrophages by IL-13 in presence or absence of lenabasum.

RESULTS

Lenabasum had no effect on differentiation, polarization and function of macrophages from healthy individuals. However, in CF macrophages lenabasum downregulated macrophage polarization into the pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-8 and TNF-α in a dose-dependent manner. An improvement in phagocytic activity was also observed following lenabasum treatment. Although lenabasum did not restore the impaired polarization of anti-inflammatory M2 macrophage, it reduced the levels of IL-13 and enhanced the endocytic function of CF MDMs. The effects of lenabasum on MDMs with CFTR inhibited by C-172 were not as obvious.

CONCLUSION

In CF macrophages lenabasum modulates macrophage polarization and function in vitro in a way that would reduce inflammation in vivo. Further studies are warranted to determine the link between activating the CBR2 receptor and CFTR.

A Guide to Targeting the Endocannabinoid System in Drug Design

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is one of the most crucial systems in the human organism, exhibiting multi-purpose regulatory character. It is engaged in a vast array of physiological processes, including nociception, mood regulation, cognitive functions, neurogenesis and neuroprotection, appetite, lipid metabolism, as well as cell growth and proliferation. Thus, ECS proteins, including cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands’ synthesizing and degrading enzymes, are promising therapeutic targets. Their modulation has been employed in or extensively studied as a treatment of multiple diseases. However, due to a complex nature of ECS and its crosstalk with other biological systems, the development of novel drugs turned out to be a challenging task. In this review, we summarize potential therapeutic applications for ECS-targeting drugs, especially focusing on promising synthetic compounds and preclinical studies. We put emphasis on modulation of specific proteins of ECS in different pathophysiological areas. In addition, we stress possible difficulties and risks and highlight proposed solutions. By presenting this review, we point out information pivotal in the spotlight of ECS-targeting drug design, as well as provide an overview of the current state of knowledge on ECS-related pharmacodynamics and show possible directions for needed research.

Drugs in phase I and phase II clinical trials for systemic sclerosis

Introduction: Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is an autoimmune connective tissue disease that is characterized by excessive collagen deposition, vascular dysfunction, and fibrosis of cutaneous and visceral organs. Current therapeutic options are limited and provide only modest benefit.Areas covered: This review summarizes investigational agents in recent Phase I and II clinical trials evaluated for the treatment of SSc with a focus on skin in patients with early diffuse disease and interstitial lung disease. We performed a search on Pubmed and https://clinicaltrials.gov with keywords systemic sclerosis, Phase I clinical trial, and Phase II clinical trial to identify relevant studies from 2015 to 2019.Expert opinion: Therapeutic interventions in SSc should be guided by the level of disease activity and the degree of organ involvement. While most novel agents have failed to meet the primary endpoints of reducing skin thickening as measured by the modified Rodnan skin score, some have shown promise in improving the Composite Response Index for Clinical Trials in Early Diffuse Cutaneous Systemic Sclerosis (CRISS), reducing lung function decline, or improving patient-reported outcomes. However, most of the current evidence is based on small or open-label clinical trials. Well-designed, large, randomized, Phase III clinical trials are necessary to define the roles of investigational agents in treating SSc.

Preventive Role of Resveratrol Against Inflammatory Cytokines and Related Diseases

BACKGROUND

Immunity is the ultimate barrier between foreign stimuli and a host cell. Unwanted immune responses can threaten the host cells and may eventually damage a vital organ. Overproduction of inflammatory cytokines may also lead to autoimmune diseases. Inflammatory cells and pro-inflammatory cytokines can eventually progress to renal, cardiac, brain, hepatic, pancreatic and ocular inflammation that can result in severe damage in the long run. Evidence also suggests that inflammation may lead to atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's, hypertension, stroke, cysts and cancers.

METHODS

This study was designed to correlate the possible molecular mechanisms for inflammatory diseases and prevent biochemical changes owing to inflammatory cytokines by using Resveratrol. Therefore, we searched and accumulated very recent literature on inflammatory disorders and Resveratrol. We scoured PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, PLoS One and Google Scholar to gather papers and related information.

RESULTS

Reports show that inflammatory diseases are very complex, as multiple cascade systems are involved; therefore, they are quite difficult to cure. However, our literature search also correlates some possible molecular interactions by which inflammation can be prevented. We noticed that Resveratrol is a potent lead component and has multiple activities against harmful inflammatory cytokines and related microRNA. Our study also suggests that the anti-inflammatory properties of Resveratrol have been highly studied on animal models, cell lines and human subjects and proven to be very effective in reducing inflammatory cell production and pro-inflammatory cytokine accumulation. Our tables and figures also demonstrate recent findings and possible preventive activities to minimize inflammatory diseases.

CONCLUSION

This study would outline the role of harmful inflammatory cytokines as well as how they accelerate pathophysiology and progress to an inflammatory disorder. Therefore, this study might show a potential therapeutic value of using Resveratrol by health professionals in preventing inflammatory disorders.

Anti-inflammatories and mucociliary clearance therapies in the age of CFTR modulators

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic and life-limiting disease caused by mutations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene. This multi-system disease is characterized by progressive lung disease and pancreatic insufficiency amongst other manifestations. CFTR primarily functions as a chloride channel that transports ions across the apical membrane of epithelial cells but has other functions, including bicarbonate secretion and inhibition of sodium transport. Defective CFTR disrupts these functions, causing viscous and dehydrated mucus to accumulate, compromising the airway lumen and contributing to obstructive pulmonary disease. The combination of CFTR dysfunction, mucus obstruction, and infection drive an exaggerated and dysfunctional inflammatory response, which contributes to irreversible airway destruction and fibrosis. CFTR modulators, an exciting new class of drugs, increase the expression and/or function of CFTR variant protein and improve multiple clinical endpoints, such as lung function, pulmonary exacerbation rates, and nutritional status. However, these genotype-specific drugs are not universally available, the clinical response is variable, and lung function still declines over time when bronchiectasis is established. Consequently, even in the age of CFTR modulators, we must target other important aspects of the CF airway disease, such as inflammation and mucociliary clearance. This review highlights the mechanisms of inflammation and mucus accumulation in the CF lung and discusses anti-inflammatory and mucociliary clearance agents that are currently in development focusing on compounds for which clinical trial data have recently become available.

Roles, Actions, and Therapeutic Potential of Specialized Pro-resolving Lipid Mediators for the Treatment of Inflammation in Cystic Fibrosis

Non-resolving inflammation is the main mechanism of morbidity and mortality among patients suffering from cystic fibrosis (CF), the most common life-threatening human genetic disease. Resolution of inflammation is an active process timely controlled by endogenous specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators (SPMs) produced locally in inflammatory loci to restrain this innate response, prevent further damages to the host, and permit return to homeostasis. Lipoxins, resolvins, protectins, and maresins are SPM derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids that limit excessive leukocyte infiltration and pro-inflammatory signals, stimulate innate microbial killing, and enhance resolution. Their unique chemical structures, receptors, and bioactions are being elucidated. Accruing data indicate that SPMs carry protective functions against unrelenting inflammation and infections in preclinical models and human CF systems. Here, we reviewed their roles and actions in controlling resolution of inflammation, evidence for their impairment in CF, and proofs of principle for their exploitation as innovative, non-immunosuppressive drugs to address inflammation and infections in CF.

Endocannabinoid receptor CB2R is significantly expressed in aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease: a pilot study

BACKGROUND

The endocannabinoid system represents a highly conserved, innate signaling network with direct and indirect control of eicosanoid-mediated inflammation. Activation of the type 2 cannabinoid receptor (CB2R) leads to decreased type 2 inflammation and reduced production of arachidonic acid (AA). Given that altered AA metabolism is associated with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), we hypothesized that expression of the CB2R gene CNR2 is increased in AERD.

METHODS

Nasal polyps from consecutive patients undergoing endoscopic sinus surgery for AERD or allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS) were prospectively evaluated. Control sphenoid mucosa was collected from patients undergoing endoscopic skull base procedures. Expression and localization of endocannabinoid receptors were evaluated by quantitative reverse transcript-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry. A 2-group unpaired t test with unequal variances was used to evaluate group differences.

RESULTS

Thirteen subjects were included in this pilot study, including 5 controls, 5 AFRS patients, and 3 AERD patients. Upregulated expression of CNR2 was detected in subjects with AERD vs both AFRS (p = 0.049) and controls (p = 0.047), with a mean increase of 5.2-fold. No significant differences in expression of the CB1R gene CNR1 were detected between control and AFRS groups. Immunohistochemistry predominantly localized CB1R and CB2R expression to the surface epithelium in all subjects.

CONCLUSION

The endocannabinoid system is an emerging immunomodulatory network that may be involved in AERD. This is the first study of CB2R in sinonasal disease, showing significantly increased transcription in nasal polyps from subjects with AERD. Additional study is warranted to further evaluate the contribution and therapeutic potential of this novel finding in chronic rhinosinusitis.

Systemic sclerosis phase III clinical trials: Hope on the horizon?

While significant progress has been made in treating systemic sclerosis, many patients still have an outcome that is far from satisfactory. For the first time in history, several drugs are now in phase III randomized controlled trials. Approaches tested include the anti-B cell antibody rituximab, the anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibody tocilizumab, the antifibrotic drugs nintedanib and pirfenidone, and the cannabinoid receptor mimetic lenabasum. That all these drugs are in advanced clinical trials despite the relatively low incidence of the disease therefore is good news. Not only is there realistic hope that at least some of the approaches will work, this also indicates growing industry interest, for most of the trials are company-sponsored. This review attempts to delineate the ongoing trials and to summarize the underlying evidence of these candidate systemic sclerosis drugs.

Resolvins in inflammation: emergence of the pro-resolving superfamily of mediators

Countless times each day, the acute inflammatory response protects us from invading microbes, injuries, and insults from within, as in surgery-induced tissue injury. These challenges go unnoticed because they are self-limited and naturally resolve without progressing to chronic inflammation. Peripheral blood markers of inflammation are present in many common diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, and cancer. While acute inflammation is protective, excessive swarming of neutrophils amplifies collateral tissue damage and inflammation. Hence, understanding the mechanisms that control the resolution of acute inflammation provides insight into preventing and treating inflammatory diseases in multiple organs. This Review focuses on the resolution phase of inflammation with identification of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) that involve three separate biosynthetic and potent mediator families, which are defined using the first quantitative resolution indices to score this vital process. These are the resolvins, protectins, and maresins: bioactive metabolomes that each stimulate self-limited innate responses, enhance innate microbial killing and clearance, and are organ-protective. We briefly address biosynthesis of SPMs and their activation of endogenous resolution programs as terrain for new therapeutic approaches that are not, by definition, immunosuppressive, but rather new immunoresolvent therapies.