Selective nickel-catalyzed conversion of model and lignin-derived phenolic compounds to cyclohexanone-based polymer building blocks

Synthesis of 2,6-Dimethoxy-p-aminophenol from Hardwood Lignin

Although the multiple functional groups in biomass offer notable chances for producing high-value chemicals, most of the current studies focused on the (deep) defunctionalization of biomass and its derivates. Herein, we present a catalytic approach to valorize birch wood lignin with maintaining the methoxy and hydroxy groups in the final product (i. e., 2,6-dimethoxy-p-aminophenol), which has applications in different sectors such as pharmaceuticals. The proved approach involves four steps with a high yield (19.8 wt % on the basis of used lignin) to 2,6-dimethoxy-p-aminophenol. The native lignin in birch wood was first converted using alkaline aerobic oxidation in the presence of copper ions toward high-yield syringaldehyde, which was then selectively oxidized toward 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone using H2 O2 and V2 O5 . Oximation of 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone can selectively form 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone-4-oxime, which can be quantitatively hydrogenated toward 2,6-dimethoxy-p-aminophenol. This work highlights the unique potential of biomass and its derivates for the sustainable production of high-value products with exploring the value of inherent functional groups.

Deriving high value products from depolymerized lignin oil, aided by (bio)catalytic funneling strategies

Lignin holds tremendous and versatile possibilities to produce value-added chemicals and high performing polymeric materials. Over the years, different cutting-edge lignin depolymerization methodologies have been developed, mainly focusing on achieving excellent yields of mono-phenolic products, some even approaching the theoretical maximum. However, due to lignin's inherent heterogeneity and recalcitrance, its depolymerization leads to relatively complex product streams, also containing dimers, and higher molecular weight fragments in substantial quantities. The subsequent chemo-catalytic valorization of these higher molecular weight streams, containing difficult-to-break, mainly C-C covalent bonds, is tremendously challenging, and has consequently received much less attention. In this minireview, we present an overview of recent advances on the development of sustainable biorefinery strategies aimed at the production of well-defined chemicals and polymeric materials, the prime focus being on depolymerized lignin oils, containing high molecular weight fractions. The key central unit operation to achieve this is (bio)catalytic funneling, which holds great potential to overcome separation and purification challenges.

Continuous Flow Hydrogenation of Lignin-model Aromatic Compounds over Carbon-supported Noble Metals

An efficient continuous-flow (CF) protocol was designed for the hydrogenation of lignin-derived aromatics to the corresponding cycloalkanes derivatives. A parametric analysis of the reaction was carried out by tuning the temperature, the H2 pressure and the flow rate, and using diphenyl ether (DPE) as a model substrate, commercial Ru/C as a catalyst, and isopropanol as a solvent: at 25 °C, 50 bar H2 , and a flow rate of 0.1 mL min-1 , dicyclohexyl ether was achieved in an 86 % selectivity, at quantitative conversion. By-products from the competitive C-O bond cleavage of DPE, cyclohexanol and cyclohexane, did not exceed 14 % in total. Remarkably, prolonged experiments demonstrated an excellent stability of the catalyst whose performance was unaltered for up to 420 min of time-of-stream. A substrate scope evaluation proved that under the same conditions used for DPE, a variety of substrates including alkoxy-, allyl-, and carbonyl-functionalized phenols, biphenyl, aryl benzyl- and phenethyl ethers (10 examples) yielded the ring-hydrogenated products with selectivity up to 99 % at complete conversion.

Rapid Synthesis of Diesel Precursors from Biomass-Derived Furanics Over Aluminum-Doped Mesoporous Silica Sphere Catalysts

The condensation of biomass-derived molecules has been increasingly utilized as a sustainable strategy for the preparation of high-carbon precursors for high-density fuels, thus stimulating the demand for more efficient catalysts. This study concerns the synthesis of an aluminum-doped mesoporous silica sphere (Al-MSS) catalyst for the conversion of biobased furfural and 2-methylfuran into a C₁₅ diesel precursor through a hydroxyalkylation/alkylation (HAA) reaction. A series of Al-MSS catalysts with different Si/Al ratios and calcination temperatures is prepared and extensively characterized, among which Al-MSS20-450 (Si/Al=20 : 1, calcined at 450 °C) exhibits unprecedentedly high reaction efficiency in catalyzing HAA reaction, offering a 94 % product yield at 140 °C in 20 min. The catalyst also gives high product yields across a broad temperature range from 80 °C to 140 °C with varied reaction time. Reaction kinetics reveal that both competitive substrate adsorption and temperature-dependent system viscosity affect the reaction efficiencies. Correlations between the catalytic activity and surface acid sites disclose that moderate and strong acid sites are primarily responsible for catalysis. Brønsted and Lewis acid sites are found by poisoning assays to work synergistically to catalyze the reaction, with the former being the primary sites. Finally, the catalyst displays good recycling performance, which further highlights its potential for industrial application.

Cobalt-Graphene Catalyst for Selective Hydrodeoxygenation of Guaiacol to Cyclohexanol

Herein, cobalt-reduced graphene oxide (rGO) catalyst was synthesized with a practical impregnation-calcination approach for the selective hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) of guaiacol to cyclohexanol. The synthesized Co/rGO was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), high-angle annular dark-field scanning TEM (HAADF-STEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and H₂ temperature-programmed reduction (H₂-TPR) analysis. According to the comprehensive characterization results, the catalyst contains single Co atoms in the graphene matrix and Co oxide nanoparticles (CoO_x) on the graphene surface. The isolated Co atoms embedded in the rGO matrix form stable metal carbides (CoC_x), which constitute catalytically active sites for hydrogenation. The rGO material with proper amounts of N heteroatoms and lattice defects becomes a suitable graphene material for fabricating the catalyst. The Co/rGO catalyst without prereduction treatment leads to the complete conversion of guaiacol with 93.2% selectivity to cyclohexanol under mild conditions. The remarkable HDO capability of the Co/rGO catalyst is attributed to the unique metal-acid synergy between the CoC_x sites and the acid sites of the CoO_x nanoparticles. The CoC_x sites provide H while the acid sites of CoO_x nanoparticles bind the C-O group of reactants to the surface, allowing easier C-O scission. The reaction pathways were characterized based on the observed reaction-product distributions. The effects of the process parameters on catalyst preparation and the HDO reaction, as well as the reusability of the catalyst, were systematically investigated.

Revisiting alkaline cupric oxide oxidation method for lignin structural analysis

Lignin structural analysis is important for the comprehensive utilization of lignin as well as delignification and bleaching during pulping while it is difficult to completely elucidate lignin structure due to its structural complexity and heterogeneity. Depolymerization of lignin into simple monomers via alkaline cupric oxide oxidation (OxCuO) followed by chromatographic analysis of the monomers is an effective method for lignin structural analysis. Here we revisited the OxCuO of lignin model compounds (monomers and dimers) and three representative lignocelluloses (i.e., Eucalyptus, Masson pine, and corn stover) to understand the effects of reaction conditions and lignin sub-structures on oxidation product yields and distributions. The improved OxCuO was found to be effective in oxidatively breaking the robust interunit C-C bonds in the β-β′ and β-5′ moieties of lignin other than β-O-4′ linkages at an elevated temperature (210°C). Further degradation of the monomeric oxidation products could also occur to reduce the monomer yields under a severe condition (i.e., high temperature and long reaction time). In addition, O2 inputs could reduce the monomer yields via nonselective overoxidation, thus having negative effects on accurate structural analysis of lignin. The O2 removal via ultrasonication combined with N2 flushing prior to the oxidation reaction could improve the monomer yield about 1.2 times (compared to that without O2 removal) at a low biomass loading of 5 wt%. By using the improved method of OxCuO, a monomer yield of 71.9% could be achieved from Eucalyptus (hardwood) lignin, which was much higher than conventional nitrobenzene oxidation (59.8%) and reductive depolymerization (51.9%). Considering the low cost, high availability, and low toxicity of CuO, the improved OxCuO could be a convenient and economic method for more accurate lignin structural analysis.

Fully lignocellulose-based PET analogues for the circular economy

Polyethylene terephthalate is one of the most abundantly used polymers, but also a significant pollutant in oceans. Due to growing environmental concerns, polyethylene terephthalate alternatives are highly sought after. Here we present readily recyclable polyethylene terephthalate analogues, made entirely from woody biomass. Central to the concept is a two-step noble metal free catalytic sequence (Cu20-PMO catalyzed reductive catalytic fractionation and Raney Ni mediated catalytic funneling) that allows for obtaining a single aliphatic diol 4-(3-hydroxypropyl) cyclohexan-1-ol in high isolated yield (11.7 wt% on lignin basis), as well as other product streams that are converted to fuels, achieving a total carbon yield of 29.5%. The diol 4-(3-hydroxypropyl) cyclohexan-1-ol is co-polymerized with methyl esters of terephthalic acid and furan dicarboxylic acid, both of which can be derived from the cellulose residues, to obtain polyesters with competitive Mw and thermal properties (Tg of 70-90 °C). The polymers show excellent chemical recyclability in methanol and are thus promising candidates for the circular economy.

Catalytic Hydrodeoxygenation of Guaiacol to Cyclohexanol over Bimetallic NiMo-MOF-Derived Catalysts

Lignin is an attractive renewable source of aromatics with a low effective hydrogen to carbon ratio (H/Ceff). The catalytic hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) of lignin-derived model compounds is a key strategy for lignin upgrading. In this work, the HDO of guaiacol, a typical lignin-derived compound, was carried out over metal–organic framework (MOF)-derived Ni-based catalysts. A monometallic Ni-MOF catalyst and different ratios of bimetallic NiMo-MOF catalysts were synthesized by a hydrothermal process, followed by a carbonization process. Among these catalysts, Ni3Mo1@C exhibited an excellent catalytic performance, affording a guaiacol conversion of 98.8% and a cyclohexanol selectivity of 66.8% at 240 °C and 2 MPa H2 for 4 h. The addition of Mo decreased the particle size of the spherical structure and improved the dispersion of metal particles. The synergistic effect between Ni and Mo was confirmed by various means, including ICP, XRD, SEM, TEM, and NH3-TPD analyses. In addition, the effect of the reaction temperature, time, and H2 pressure during the HDO process is discussed in detail.

Defining the Macromolecules of Tomorrow through Synergistic Sustainable Polymer Research

Transforming how plastics are made, unmade, and remade through innovative research and diverse partnerships that together foster environmental stewardship is critically important to a sustainable future. Designing, preparing, and implementing polymers derived from renewable resources for a wide range of advanced applications that promote future economic development, energy efficiency, and environmental sustainability are all central to these efforts. In this Chemical Reviews contribution, we take a comprehensive, integrated approach to summarize important and impactful contributions to this broad research arena. The Review highlights signature accomplishments across a broad research portfolio and is organized into four wide-ranging research themes that address the topic in a comprehensive manner: Feedstocks, Polymerization Processes and Techniques, Intended Use, and End of Use. We emphasize those successes that benefitted from collaborative engagements across disciplinary lines.

Semi-Batch Hydrotreatment of Lignin-Derived Phenolic Compounds over Raney-Ni with a Continuous Regeneration of the H-Donor Solvent

Lignin can be converted into useful precursors of fuels and fine chemicals by thermochemical conversion followed by catalytic hydrogenation using metal catalysts at severe reaction conditions. Thus, mild hydrogenation would significantly improve the sustainability of lignin valorization. Here, hydrogenation of phenols, alkylphenols, and methoxyphenols was achieved at mild reaction conditions (70 °C and atmospheric pressure) via H-transfer hydrogenation over Raney-Ni catalyst in 2-propanol and 2-butanol solvents. The transfer hydrogenation was feasible at the mild conditions, but the complexity of the reactant greatly decreased or even completely suppressed its reactivity. The position of the functional group (o-, m-, p-position) had a great effect on the reactivity of phenols. Moreover, 2-butanol enhanced the conversion of phenols in comparison with 2-propanol. When comparing classic hydrogenation with H-transfer hydrogenation in presence of external H₂ , it was found that external H₂ not only regenerated H-donor solvent and ensured stable performance but also increased conversion of phenols and alkylphenols. On the other hand, the absence of external H₂ boosted the conversion of methoxy phenols. Finally, phenols extracted from a pyrolysis oil aqueous phase were hydrogenated. The conversion of phenols was greatly affected by competitive adsorption of different compounds present in the reaction mixture. External H₂ promoted hydrogenation of the complex reaction mixture and prevented condensation of the reactive species in contrast to the H-transfer hydrogenation.

Ambient Hydrogenation and Deuteration of Alkenes Using a Nanostructured Ni-Core-Shell Catalyst

A general protocol for the selective hydrogenation and deuteration of a variety of alkenes is presented. Key to success for these reactions is the use of a specific nickel-graphitic shell-based core-shell-structured catalyst, which is conveniently prepared by impregnation and subsequent calcination of nickel nitrate on carbon at 450 °C under argon. Applying this nanostructured catalyst, both terminal and internal alkenes, which are of industrial and commercial importance, were selectively hydrogenated and deuterated at ambient conditions (room temperature, using 1 bar hydrogen or 1 bar deuterium), giving access to the corresponding alkanes and deuterium-labeled alkanes in good to excellent yields. The synthetic utility and practicability of this Ni-based hydrogenation protocol is demonstrated by gram-scale reactions as well as efficient catalyst recycling experiments.

Downstream Processing Strategies for Lignin-First Biorefinery

The lignin-first strategy has emerged as one of the most powerful approaches for generating novel platform chemicals from lignin by efficient depolymerization of native lignin. Because of the emergence of this novel depolymerization method and the definition of viable platform chemicals, future focus will soon shift towards innovative downstream processing strategies. Very recently, many interesting approaches have emerged that describe the production of valuable products across the whole value chain, including bulk and fine chemical building blocks, and several concrete examples have been developed for the production of polymers, pharmaceutically relevant compounds, or fuels. This Minireview provides an overview of these recent advances. After a short summary of catalytic systems for obtaining aromatic monomers, a comprehensive discussion on their separation and applications is given. This Minireview will fill the gap in biorefinery between deriving high yields of lignin monomers and tapping into their potential for making valuable consumer products.

Biomass valorisation over metal-based solid catalysts from nanoparticles to single atoms

Heterogeneous catalysts are vital to unlock superior efficiency, atom economy, and environmental friendliness in chemical conversions, with the size and speciation of the contained metals often playing a decisive role in the activity, selectivity and stability. This tutorial review analyses the impact of these catalyst parameters on the valorisation of biomass through hydrogenation and hydrodeoxygenation, oxidation, reforming and acid-catalysed reactions, spanning a broad spectrum of substrates including sugars and platform compounds obtained from (hemi)cellulose and lignin derivatives. It outlines multiple examples of classical structure sensitivity on nanoparticle-based materials with significant implications for the product distribution. It also shows how the recently emphasised application of metals in the form of ultrasmall nanoparticles (<2 nm), clusters and single atoms, while fulfilling superior metal utilisation and robustness, opens the door to unprecedented electronic and geometric properties. The latter can lead to facilitated activation of reactants as well as boosted selectivity control and synergy between distinct active sites in multifunctional catalysts. Based on the analysis conducted, guidelines for the selection of metals for diverse applications are put forward in terms of chemical identity and structure, and aspects that should be explored in greater depth for further improving the exploitation of metals in this research field and beyond are highlighted.

A sustainable wood biorefinery for low–carbon footprint chemicals production

The profitability and sustainability of future biorefineries are dependent on efficient feedstock use. Therefore, it is essential to valorize lignin when using wood. We have developed an integrated biorefinery that converts 78 weight % (wt %) of birch into xylochemicals. Reductive catalytic fractionation of the wood produces a carbohydrate pulp amenable to bioethanol production and a lignin oil. After extraction of the lignin oil, the crude, unseparated mixture of phenolic monomers is catalytically funneled into 20 wt % of phenol and 9 wt % of propylene (on the basis of lignin weight) by gas-phase hydroprocessing and dealkylation; the residual phenolic oligomers (30 wt %) are used in printing ink as replacements for controversial para-nonylphenol. A techno-economic analysis predicts an economically competitive production process, and a life-cycle assessment estimates a lower carbon dioxide footprint relative to that of fossil-based production.

Downstream processing of lignin derived feedstock into end products

This review provides critical analysis on various downstream processes to convert lignin derived feedstock into fuels, chemicals and materials.

Flexible NiCo-based catalyst for direct hydrodeoxygenation of guaiacol to cyclohexanol

The catalytic hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) of lignin-derived phenols is an important step for bio-oil upgrading.

Organocatalyzed ring opening polymerization of regio-isomeric lactones: reactivity and thermodynamics considerations

Study of the kinetics and thermodynamics of the organocatalyzed ring opening polymerization of a regio-isomeric mixture of β,δ-trimethyl-ε-caprolactones (TMCL).

Tandem Hydrogenolysis-Hydrogenation of Lignin-Derived Oxygenates over Integrated Dual Catalysts with Optimized Interoperations

The efficient hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) of lignin-derived oxygenates is essential but challenging owing to the inherent complexity of feedstock and the lack of effective catalytic approaches. A catalytic strategy has been developed that separates C-O hydrogenolysis and aromatic hydrogenation on different active catalysts with interoperation that can achieve high oxygen removal in lignin-derived oxygenates. The flexible use of tungsten carbide for C-O bond cleavage and a nickel catalyst with controlled particle size for arene hydrogenation enables the tunable production of cyclohexane and cyclohexanol with almost full conversion of guaiacol. Such integration of dual catalysts in close proximity enables superior HDO of bio-oils into liquid alkanes with high mass and carbon yields of 27.9 and 45.0 wt %, respectively. This finding provides a new effective strategy for practical applications.

Carbamate Synthesis Using a Shelf-Stable and Renewable C1 Reactant

4-Propylcatechol carbonate is a shelf-stable, renewable C₁ reactant. It is easily prepared from renewable 4-propylcatechol (derived from wood) and dimethyl carbonate (derived from CO₂ ) using a reactive distillation system. In this work, the 4-propylcatechol carbonate is used for the two-step synthesis of carbamates under mild reaction conditions. In the first step, 4-propylcatechol carbonate is treated with an alcohol at 50-80 °C in the presence of a Lewis acid catalyst, such as Zn(OAc)₂ ⋅2 H₂ O. With liquid alcohols, no solvent is used and with solid alcohols 2-methyltetrahydrofuran is used as solvent. In the second step, the alkyl 2-hydroxy-propylphenyl carbonate intermediates obtained react with amines at room temperature in 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, forming the target carbamates and the byproduct 4-propylcatechol, which can be recycled into a carbonate reactant.

Lignin Valorizations with Ni Catalysts for Renewable Chemicals and Fuels Productions

Energy and fuels derived from biomass pose lesser impact on the environmental carbon footprint than those derived from fossil fuels. In order for the biomass-to-energy and biomass-to-chemicals processes to play their important role in the loop of the circular economy, highly active, selective, and stable catalysts and the related efficient chemical processes are urgently needed. Lignin is the most thermal stable fraction of biomass and a particularly important resource for the production of chemicals and fuels. This mini review mainly focuses on lignin valorizations for renewable chemicals and fuels production and summarizes the recent interest in the lignin valorization over Ni and relevant bimetallic metal catalysts on various supports. Particular attention will be paid to those strategies to convert lignin to chemicals and fuels components, such as pyrolysis, hydrodeoxygenation, and hydrogenolysis. The review is written in a simple and elaborated way in order to draw chemists and engineers’ attention to Ni-based catalysts in lignin valorizations and guide them in designing innovative catalytic materials based on the lignin conversion reaction.

Advances in porous and nanoscale catalysts for viable biomass conversion

Solid catalysts with unique porosity and nanoscale properties play a promising role for efficient valorization of biomass into sustainable advanced fuels and chemicals.

Hydrolytically-degradable homo- and copolymers of a strained exocyclic hemiacetal ester

We report the cationic ring-opening homo- and copolymerization of the 7-membered exocyclic hemiacetal ester 7-methoxyoxepan-2-one (MOPO) to afford poly(7-methoxyoxepan-2-one) [poly(MOPO)] and its copolymers with isobutyl vinyl ether (IBVE).

A review on lignin structure, pretreatments, fermentation reactions and biorefinery potential

In recent years, lignin valorization is commercially an important and advanced sustainable process for lignocellulosic biomass-based industries, primarily through the depolymerization path. The conversion of the lignin moieties into biofuels and other high value-added products are still challenging to the researchers due to the heterogeneity and complex structure of lignin-containing biomass. Besides, the involvement of different microorganisms that carries varying metabolic and enzymatic complex systems towards degradation and conversion of the lignin moieties also discussed. These microorganisms are frequently short of the traits which are obligatory for the industrial application to achieve maximum yields and productivity. This review mainly focuses on the current progress and developments in the pretreatment routes for enhancing lignin degradation and also assesses the liquid and gaseous biofuel production by fermentation, gasification and hybrid technologies along with the biorefinery schemes which involves the synthesis of high value-added chemicals, biochar and other valuable products.

Improving hydrocarbon yield via catalytic fast co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic over ceria and HZSM-5: An analytical pyrolyzer analysis

The excessive oxygen content in biomass obstructs the production of high-quality bio-oils. In this work, we developed a tandem catalytic bed (TCB) of CeO₂ and HZSM-5 in an analytical pyrolyzer to enhance the hydrocarbon production from co-pyrolysis of corn stover (CS) and LDPE. Results indicated that CeO₂ could remove oxygen from acids, aldehydes and methoxy phenols, producing a maximum yield of hydrocarbons of 85% and highest selectivity of monocyclic aromatics of 73% in the TCB. The addition of LDPE exhibited a near-complete elimination of oxygenates, leaving hydrocarbons as the overwhelming products. With increasing LDPE proportion, the yield of aliphatics and the selectivity of BTX kept increasing. An optimum H/C_eff of 0.7 was superior to that reported in literature. Mechanisms consisting of deoxygenation, Diels-Alder reactions, hydrocarbon pool and hydrogen transfer reactions were discussed extensively. Our findings provide an efficient method to produce high-quality biofuels from renewable biomass resources.

Selective phenol recovery via simultaneous hydrogenation/dealkylation of isopropyl- and isopropenyl-phenols employing an H2 generator combined with tandem micro-reactor GC/MS

The pyrolysis of bisphenol A (BPA), an essential process ingredient used in industry and many everyday life products, helps produce low-industrial-demand chemicals such as isopropenyl- and isopropyl-phenols (IPP and iPrP). In this study, tandem micro-reactor gas chromatography/mass spectrometry combined with an H₂ generator (H₂-TR-GC/MS) was employed for the first time to investigate the selective recovery of phenol via simultaneous hydrogenation/dealkylation of IPP and iPrP. After investigating the iPrP dealkylation performances of several zeolites, we obtained full iPrP conversion with over 99% phenol selectivity using the Y-zeolite at 350 °C. In contrast, when applied to IPP, the zeolite acid centres caused IPP polymerisation and subsequent IPP-polymer cracking, resulting in many byproducts and reduced phenol selectivity. This challenge was overcome by the addition of 0.3 wt% Ni on the Y-zeolite (0.3Ni/Y), which enabled the hydrogenation of IPP into iPrP and subsequent dealkylation into phenol (full IPP conversion with 92% phenol selectivity). Moreover, the catalyst deactivation and product distribution over repetitive catalytic use were successfully monitored using the H₂-TR-GC/MS system. We believe that the findings presented herein could allow the recovery of phenol-rich products from polymeric waste with BPA macro skeleton.

Catalytic Strategies Towards Lignin-Derived Chemicals

Lignin valorization represents a crucial, yet underexploited component in current lignocellulosic biorefineries. An alluring opportunity is the selective depolymerization of lignin towards chemicals. Although challenged by lignin's recalcitrant nature, several successful (catalytic) strategies have emerged. This review provides an overview of different approaches to cope with detrimental lignin structural alterations at an early stage of the biorefinery process, thus enabling effective routes towards lignin-derived chemicals. A first general strategy is to isolate lignin with a better preserved native-like structure and therefore an increased amenability towards depolymerization in a subsequent step. Both mild process conditions as well as active stabilization methods will be discussed. An alternative is the simultaneous depolymerization-stabilization of native lignin towards stable lignin monomers. This approach requires a fast and efficient stabilization of reactive lignin intermediates in order to minimize lignin repolymerization and maximize the envisioned production of chemicals. Finally, the obtained lignin-derived compounds can serve as a platform towards a broad range of bio-based products. Their implementation will improve the sustainability of the chemical industry, but equally important will generate opportunities towards product innovations based on unique biobased chemical structures.

Alternatives for Chemical and Biochemical Lignin Valorization: Hot Topics from a Bibliometric Analysis of the Research Published During the 2000–2016 Period

A complete bibliometric analysis of the Scopus database was performed to identify the research trends related to lignin valorization from 2000 to 2016. The results from this analysis revealed an exponentially increasing number of publications and a high relevance of interdisciplinary collaboration. The simultaneous valorization of the three main components of lignocellulosic biomass (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) has been revealed as a key aspect and optimal pretreatment is required for the subsequent lignin valorization. Research covers the determination of the lignin structure, isolation, and characterization; depolymerization by thermal and thermochemical methods; chemical, biochemical and biological conversion of depolymerized lignin; and lignin applications. Most methods for lignin depolymerization are focused on the selective cleavage of the β-O-4 linkage. Although many depolymerization methods have been developed, depolymerization with sodium hydroxide is the dominant process at industrial scale. Oxidative conversion of lignin is the most used method for the chemical lignin upgrading. Lignin uses can be classified according to its structure into lignin-derived aromatic compounds, lignin-derived carbon materials and lignin-derived polymeric materials. There are many advances in all approaches, but lignin-derived polymeric materials appear as a promising option.

Chemicals from lignin: an interplay of lignocellulose fractionation, depolymerisation, and upgrading

In pursuit of more sustainable and competitive biorefineries, the effective valorisation of lignin is key. An alluring opportunity is the exploitation of lignin as a resource for chemicals. Three technological biorefinery aspects will determine the realisation of a successful lignin-to-chemicals valorisation chain, namely (i) lignocellulose fractionation, (ii) lignin depolymerisation, and (iii) upgrading towards targeted chemicals. This review provides a summary and perspective of the extensive research that has been devoted to each of these three interconnected biorefinery aspects, ranging from industrially well-established techniques to the latest cutting edge innovations. To navigate the reader through the overwhelming collection of literature on each topic, distinct strategies/topics were delineated and summarised in comprehensive overview figures. Upon closer inspection, conceptual principles arise that rationalise the success of certain methodologies, and more importantly, can guide future research to further expand the portfolio of promising technologies. When targeting chemicals, a key objective during the fractionation and depolymerisation stage is to minimise lignin condensation (i.e. formation of resistive carbon-carbon linkages). During fractionation, this can be achieved by either (i) preserving the (native) lignin structure or (ii) by tolerating depolymerisation of the lignin polymer but preventing condensation through chemical quenching or physical removal of reactive intermediates. The latter strategy is also commonly applied in the lignin depolymerisation stage, while an alternative approach is to augment the relative rate of depolymerisation vs. condensation by enhancing the reactivity of the lignin structure towards depolymerisation. Finally, because depolymerised lignins often consist of a complex mixture of various compounds, upgrading of the raw product mixture through convergent transformations embodies a promising approach to decrease the complexity. This particular upgrading approach is termed funneling, and includes both chemocatalytic and biological strategies.

Regioselective hydrogenolysis of aryl ether C-O bonds by tungsten carbides with controlled phase compositions

Evenly dispersed tungsten carbides with controlled phase compositions that exhibit an impressive capacity to carry out the regioselective hydrogenolysis of inert aryl ether C-O bonds instead of aliphatic C-O bonds to produce aromatic compounds are reported.

Bright Side of Lignin Depolymerization: Toward New Platform Chemicals

Lignin, a major component of lignocellulose, is the largest source of aromatic building blocks on the planet and harbors great potential to serve as starting material for the production of biobased products. Despite the initial challenges associated with the robust and irregular structure of lignin, the valorization of this intriguing aromatic biopolymer has come a long way: recently, many creative strategies emerged that deliver defined products via catalytic or biocatalytic depolymerization in good yields. The purpose of this review is to provide insight into these novel approaches and the potential application of such emerging new structures for the synthesis of biobased polymers or pharmacologically active molecules. Existing strategies for functionalization or defunctionalization of lignin-based compounds are also summarized. Following the whole value chain from raw lignocellulose through depolymerization to application whenever possible, specific lignin-based compounds emerge that could be in the future considered as potential lignin-derived platform chemicals.

Aerosol processing: a wind of innovation in the field of advanced heterogeneous catalysts

Aerosol processing technologies represent a major route of innovation in the mushrooming field of heterogeneous catalysts preparation.