The nude mutation results in impaired primary antibody repertoire

"Next top" mouse models advancing CTCL research

This review systematically describes the application of in vivo mouse models in studying cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL), a complex hematological neoplasm. It highlights the diverse research approaches essential for understanding CTCL's intricate pathogenesis and evaluating potential treatments. The review categorizes various mouse models, including xenograft, syngeneic transplantation, and genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs), emphasizing their contributions to understanding tumor-host interactions, gene functions, and studies on drug efficacy in CTCL. It acknowledges the limitations of these models, particularly in fully replicating human immune responses and early stages of CTCL. The review also highlights novel developments focusing on the potential of skin-targeted GEMMs in studying natural skin lymphoma progression and interactions with the immune system from onset. In conclusion, a balanced understanding of these models' strengths and weaknesses are essential for accelerating the deciphering of CTCL pathogenesis and developing treatment methods. The GEMMs engineered to target specifically skin-homing CD4+ T cells can be the next top mouse models that pave the way for exploring the effects of CTCL-related genes.

Endogenous pAKT activity is associated with response to AKT inhibition alone and in combination with immune checkpoint inhibition in murine models of TNBC

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a heterogeneous and challenging-to-treat breast cancer subtype. The clinical introduction of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) for TNBC has had mixed results, and very few patients achieved a durable response. The PI3K/AKT pathway is frequently mutated in breast cancer. Given the important roles of the PI3K pathway in immune and tumor cell signaling, there is an interest in using inhibitors of this pathway to increase the response to ICI. This study sought to determine if AKT inhibition could enhance the response to ICI in murine TNBC models. We further sought to understand underlying mechanisms of response or non-response to AKT inhibition in combination with ICI. Using four murine TNBC-like cell lines and corresponding orthotopic mouse tumor models, we found that hyperactivity of the PI3K pathway, as evidenced by levels of phospho-AKT rather than PI3K pathway mutational status, was associated with response to AKT inhibition alone and in combination with ICI. Additional mutations in other growth regulatory pathways could override the response of PI3K pathway mutant tumors to AKT inhibition. Furthermore, we observed that AKT inhibition enhanced the response to ICI in an already sensitive model. However, AKT inhibition failed to convert ICI-resistant tumors, to responsive tumors. These findings suggest that analysis of both the mutational status and phospho-AKT protein levels may be beneficial in predicting which TNBC tumors will respond to AKT inhibition in combination with ICI.

Mcm2 hypomorph leads to acute leukemia or hematopoietic stem cell failure, dependent on genetic context

Minichromosome maintenance proteins (Mcm2-7) form a hexameric complex that unwinds DNA ahead of a replicative fork. The deficiency of Mcm proteins leads to replicative stress and consequent genomic instability. Mice with a germline insertion of a Cre cassette into the 3'UTR of the Mcm2 gene (designated Mcm2Cre ) have decreased Mcm2 expression and invariably develop precursor T-cell lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (pre-T LBL), due to 100-1000 kb deletions involving important tumor suppressor genes. To determine whether mice that were protected from pre-T LBL would develop non-T-cell malignancies, we used two approaches. Mice engrafted with Mcm2Cre/Cre Lin- Sca-1+ Kit+ hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells did not develop hematologic malignancy; however, these mice died of hematopoietic stem cell failure by 6 months of age. Placing the Mcm2Cre allele onto an athymic nu/nu background completely prevented pre-T LBL and extended survival of these mice three-fold (median 296.5 vs. 80.5 days). Ultimately, most Mcm2Cre/Cre ;nu/nu mice developed B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL). We identified recurrent deletions of 100-1000 kb that involved genes known or suspected to be involved in BCP-ALL, including Pax5, Nf1, Ikzf3, and Bcor. Moreover, whole-exome sequencing identified recurrent mutations of genes known to be involved in BCP-ALL progression, such as Jak1/Jak3, Ptpn11, and Kras. These findings demonstrate that an Mcm2Cre/Cre hypomorph can induce hematopoietic dysfunction via hematopoietic stem cell failure as well as a "deletor" phenotype affecting known or suspected tumor suppressor genes.

Increased expression of Profilin potentiates chemotherapeutic agent-mediated tumour regression

BACKGROUND

Targeted cancer therapy is an alternative to standard chemotherapy for a better prognosis. Although its incompetency for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), treatment still relies on classical chemotherapy. Increasing evidence suggest that chemotherapeutic drug-induced toxic effect could be minimised by combinatorial therapy. Profilin's familiar anti-tumorigenic activity can be utilised in combination with the drug to improve efficacy, which could be promising therapeutics to treat TNBC.

METHODS

All-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) in combination with vinblastine was tested on human MDA MB-231 cell line (MB-231) (in vitro) and MB-231 borne breast cancer in nude mice (in vivo). Effects of combination treatment on tumour growth inhibition and apoptosis were examined by tumour volume, histology and PARP cleavage. ATRA-induced transcriptional regulation of profilin had been evaluated by gel-shift and reporter gene assays. Profilin's role in ATRA-induced vinblastine efficacy was validated in profilin-stable and profilin-silenced cells.

RESULTS

ATRA binds with RAR/RXR to increase the profilin expression that potentiated cell death by chemotherapeutics. ATRA priming led to vinblastine-mediated potentiation of G2-M phase cell cycle arrest in MB-231 cells and regression of breast cancer in xenograft mice at very low concentration without any adverse effects. Moreover, increased p53 and PTEN but downregulated p65 in the tumour tissues further supported the involvement of profilin for tumour regression.

CONCLUSIONS

Vinblastine at very low concentration (20 times lesser than the recommended dose for breast cancer therapeutic) significantly regress tumour growth in ATRA-primed mice without any toxic effects suggesting potential combinatorial therapeutics for TNBC.

Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models in basic and translational breast cancer research

Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models of a growing spectrum of cancers are rapidly supplanting long-established traditional cell lines as preferred models for conducting basic and translational preclinical research. In breast cancer, to complement the now curated collection of approximately 45 long-established human breast cancer cell lines, a newly formed consortium of academic laboratories, currently from Europe, Australia, and North America, herein summarizes data on over 500 stably transplantable PDX models representing all three clinical subtypes of breast cancer (ER+, HER2+, and "Triple-negative" (TNBC)). Many of these models are well-characterized with respect to genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic features, metastatic behavior, and treatment response to a variety of standard-of-care and experimental therapeutics. These stably transplantable PDX lines are generally available for dissemination to laboratories conducting translational research, and contact information for each collection is provided. This review summarizes current experiences related to PDX generation across participating groups, efforts to develop data standards for annotation and dissemination of patient clinical information that does not compromise patient privacy, efforts to develop complementary data standards for annotation of PDX characteristics and biology, and progress toward "credentialing" of PDX models as surrogates to represent individual patients for use in preclinical and co-clinical translational research. In addition, this review highlights important unresolved questions, as well as current limitations, that have hampered more efficient generation of PDX lines and more rapid adoption of PDX use in translational breast cancer research.

T-cell infiltration and signaling in the adult dorsal spinal cord is a major contributor to neuropathic pain-like hypersensitivity

Partial peripheral nerve injury in adult rats results in neuropathic pain-like hypersensitivity, while that in neonatal rats does not, a phenomenon also observed in humans. We therefore compared gene expression profiles in the dorsal horn of adult and neonatal rats in response to the spared nerve injury (SNI) model of peripheral neuropathic pain. The 148 differentially regulated genes in adult, but not young, rat spinal cords indicate a greater microglial and T-cell response in adult than in young animals. T-cells show a large infiltration in the adult dorsal horn but not in the neonate after SNI. T-cell-deficient Rag1-null adult mice develop less neuropathic mechanical allodynia than controls, and central expression of cytokines involved in T-cell signaling exhibits large relative differences between young and adult animals after SNI. One such cytokine, interferon-gamma (IFNgamma), is upregulated in the dorsal horn after nerve injury in the adult but not neonate, and we show that IFNgamma signaling is required for full expression of adult neuropathic hypersensitivity. These data reveal that T-cell infiltration and activation in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord following peripheral nerve injury contribute to the evolution of neuropathic pain-like hypersensitivity. The neuroimmune interaction following peripheral nerve injury has therefore a substantial adaptive immune component, which is absent or suppressed in the young CNS.

Central tolerance regulates B cells reactive with Goodpasture antigen alpha3(IV)NC1 collagen

Patients and rodents with Goodpasture's syndrome (GPS) develop severe autoimmune crescentic glomerulonephritis, kidney failure, and lung hemorrhage due to binding of pathogenic autoantibodies to the NC1 domain of the alpha3 chain of type IV collagen. Target epitopes are cryptic, normally hidden from circulating Abs by protein-protein interactions and the highly tissue-restricted expression of the alpha3(IV) collagen chain. Based on this limited Ag exposure, it has been suggested that target epitopes are not available as B cell tolerogens. To determine how pathogenic anti-GPS autoantibody responses are regulated, we generated an Ig transgenic (Tg) mouse model that expresses an Ig that binds alpha3(IV)NC1 collagen epitopes recognized by serum IgG of patients with GPS. Phenotypic analysis reveals B cell depletion and L chain editing in Tg mice. To determine the default tolerance phenotype in the absence of receptor editing and endogenous lymphocyte populations, we crossed Tg mice two generations with mice deficient in Rag. Resulting Tg Rag-deficient mice have central B cell deletion. Thus, development of Tg anti-alpha3(IV)NC1 collagen B cells is halted in the bone marrow, at which point the cells are deleted unless rescued by a Rag enzyme-dependent process, such as editing. The central tolerance phenotype implies that tolerizing self-Ag is expressed in bone marrow.

T cells are essential for bacterial clearance, and gamma interferon, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and B cells are crucial for disease development in Coxiella burnetii infection in mice

Coxiella burnetii, the etiological agent of Q fever, has two phase variants. Phase I has a complete lipopolysaccharide (LPS), is highly virulent, and causes Q fever in humans and pathology in experimental animals. Phase II lacks an LPS O side chain, is avirulent, and does not grow well in immunocompetent animals. To understand the pathogenicity of Q fever, we investigated the roles of immune components in animals infected with Nine Mile phase I (NM I) or Nine Mile phase II (NM II) bacteria. Immunodeficient mice, including SCID mice (deficient in T and B cells), SCIDbg mice (deficient in T, B, and NK cells), nude mice (deficient in T cells), muMT mice (deficient in B cells), bg mice (deficient in NK cells), mice deficient in tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha(-/-) mice), and mice deficient in gamma interferon (IFN-gamma(-/-) mice), were compared for their responses to infection. SCID, SCIDbg, nude, and IFN-gamma(-/-) mice showed high susceptibility to NM I, and TNF-alpha(-/-) mice showed modest susceptibility. Disease caused by NM I in SCID, SCIDbg, and nude mice progressed slowly, while disease in IFN-gamma(-/-) and TNF-alpha(-/-) mice advanced rapidly. B- and NK-cell deficiencies did not enhance clinical disease development or alter bacterial clearance but did increase the severity of histopathological changes, particularly in the absence of B cells. Mice infected with NM II showed no apparent clinical disease, but T-cell-deficient mice had histopathological changes. These results suggest that T cells are critical for clearance of C. burnetii, either NM I or NM II, that IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha are essential for the early control of infection, and that B cells are important for the prevention of tissue damage.

CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells modulate the T-cell and antibody responses in helicobacter-infected BALB/c mice

Gastric Helicobacter spp. induce chronic gastritis that may lead to ulceration and dysplasia. The host elicits a T helper 1 (Th1) response that is fundamental to the pathogenesis of these bacteria. We analyzed immune responses in Helicobacter-infected, normal mice depleted of CD4+ CD25+ T cells to investigate the in vivo role of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the modulation of Helicobacter immunopathology. BALB/c and transgenic mice were depleted of CD4+ CD25+ T cells by administration of an anti-CD25 antibody either at the time of infection with Helicobacter or during chronic infection and gastritis. Depletion of CD25+ Tregs prior to and during infection of mice with Helicobacter spp. did not affect either bacterial colonization or severity of gastritis. Depletion of CD25+ Tregs was associated with increased Helicobacter-specific antibody levels and an altered isotype distribution. Paragastric lymph node cells from CD25+ Treg-depleted and control infected mice showed similar proliferation to Helicobacter antigens, but only cells from anti-CD25-treated animals secreted Th2 cytokines. CD25+ Tregs do not control the level of gastritis induced by gastric Helicobacter spp. in normal, thymus-intact BALB/c mice. However, CD25+ Tregs influence the cytokine and antibody responses induced by infection. Autoimmune gastritis is not induced in Helicobacter-infected mice depleted of CD25+ Tregs but is induced in CD25+ Treg-depleted mice, which have a higher frequency of autoreactive T cells.

The primary antibody repertoire of kappa-deficient mice is characterized by non-stochastic Vlamda1 + V(H) gene family pairings and a higher degree of self-reactivity

We have investigated the primary antibody repertoire of genetically manipulated 129/Sv kappa-deficient (JCkappaD) mice, in order to understand the contributions of the lambda-light chain, in the absence of an otherwise predominant kappa-light chain, to the development of humoral immunity. The expression of Vlambda1 gene (lambda1 and lambda3 subtypes) and the Vlambda1 + V(H) (J558, 36-60, V(H)11 and S107) gene family associations were studied in 7.43 x 10(3) mitogen-activated splenic B-lymphocyte clones of JCkappaD origin. Furthermore, the functional significance of the exclusive expression of the lambda-light chain, in the peripheral B-cell repertoire of JCkappaD mice, was analysed by determining natural autoantibody specificities in the circulating serum immunoglobulin and the frequency of autoreactive B-lymphocyte clones in the peripheral B-lymphocyte repertoire. These experiments revealed that: first, of the three available Vlambda genes at the lambda locus, the Vlambda1 gene is the one that is expressed most frequently (59.9%); second, non-random Vlambda1 + V(H) (J558, 36-60) gene family pairings occur in kappa-deficient mice; and third, a higher degree of self-reactivity is generated as a result of exclusive use of the lambda-light chain, as evidenced by higher levels of serum natural autoantibodies as well as a high frequency of autoreactive B-lymphocyte clones in kappa-deficient (129/Sv JCkappaD) mice. These observations suggest that the high murine kappa/lambda ratio in mice may, apart from high sequence diversity at the kappa-locus, be a result of endogenous selection against the lambda-light chain to restrict self-reactivity within the homeostatic threshold.

V lambda-light chain genes reconstitute immune responses to defined carbohydrate antigens or haptens by utilizing different VH genes

The contribution of the lambda-light chain to the development of peripheral B cell repertoire and generation of specific antibodies to haptens and polysaccharide antigens was studied in genetically manipulated kappa-deficient and lambda 2-transgenic mice. The results clearly demonstrate a non-stoichiometric VH gene family expression in the absence of k-light chain and suggest a non-stochastic pairing between VH and V lambda genes, expressed in the peripheral B cell repertoire. A shift in VH gene utilization in the case of VI lambda + antibodies was evident in response to beta 2-6 fructosan and TNP hapten. These observations demonstrate the availability of compensatory mechanisms in the absence of VK genes and are consistent with the hypothesis that VH gene family expression is controlled by genetic factors from inside the VH locus. Furthermore, genetic factors from outside the VH locus, namely restricted available light chain diversity, may lead to a shift in VH gene utilization in the peripheral B cell repertoire.

The primary antibody repertoire of normal, immunodeficient and autoimmune mice is characterized by differences in V gene expression

During the last decade, the structure and organization of the immunoglobulin heavy and light chain locis have been defined in mice and humans. Studies on VH gene expression at different stages of development, in different organs and disease states have provided useful insight into the construction of a primary antibody repertoire in mice. Clearly, 3'VH genes 7183, Q52 and Vh11, which are conserved during evolution, are preferentially expressed during early development of the B-lymphocyte repertoire. A preferential use for the V kappa 4 gene family is evident during early B-cell development. The initial development of the primary antibody repertoire is therefore influenced by a restricted set of VH and V kappa gene elements. The restricted B-cell repertoire is subsequently normalized in the periphery, as revealed by stochastic VH gene expression, as a result of exposure to environmental antigens. Obviously, the peripheral B-cell pool characterized by stochastic VH gene expression is selectively replenished by newly generated B cells in bone marrow that preferentially expresses 3'VH genes. The V kappa genes are, however, expressed in a non-random manner in the neonatal and adult B-lymphocyte repertoire that is probably related to VH and V kappa association dynamics and/or positive or negative selection. Interestingly, these characteristics of neonatal and adult primary repertoire are noted in both B1 and B2 lymphocytes. No remarkable age-related differences are evident for VH and V kappa gene expression. In healthy mice, both the mitogen responsive (available) and unstimulated (expressed) B-cell repertoire show similar VH gene expression. Interestingly, VH gene expression varies in different organs which may reflect, or occur as a result of, the specialized function of each organ. For example, J558 gene expression is higher in the peripheral LN where B cells continuously encounter exogenous antigens. The skewed VH and V kappa gene expression noted in immunodeficient and autoimmune lupus-prone mice reflects the impairment of the primary antibody repertoire associated with immunodeficiency and autoimmune disorders.

Skewed VH and V kappa gene family expression and pairing occurs among B lymphocytes in autoimmune motheaten mice

Motheaten mice homozygous for the recessive mev mutation develop a fatal immunodeficiency syndrome associated with hypergammaglobulinemia, thymic aplasia, production of autoantibodies and development of a severe lupus like systemic autoimmune disease. Most B lymphocytes in this mutant strain belong to B-1 subset. We have addressed the question if differences existed in the V-gene repertoire of autoimmune mev/mev mice as compared to phenotypically normal mev/+ and C57BL/6 background strain by examining the VH and V kappa gene family expression as well as the association of VH and V kappa gene families among B lymphocyte clones. The data outlined here demonstrate that both the expression of VH and V kappa gene families and their association is skewed in mev/mev mice, suffering from systemic autoimmune disease, and differs significantly from phenotypically normal mev/+ litter mates as well as the C57BL/6 background strain. In addition, VH+V kappa gene family pairs in phenotypically normal mev/+ differed from normal C57BL/6 mice suggesting that motheaten mutation, whether homozygous or heterozygous, alters the development of the B lymphocyte repertoire. These observations suggest positive selection of B-1 lymphocytes in autoimmune motheaten mice either as a result of selective processes, via receptor-ligand interactions, operating on the development of the primary antibody repertoire or defective B lymphocyte haematopoiesis due to the deficiency of haematopoietic cell phosphatase involved in determining the threshold by which B cells respond to self antigen(s).