Thymol and carvacrol prevent cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by abrogation of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in rats

The effect of thyme essential oil on duodenal toxicity induced by subacute exposure to voliam targo® insecticide in male rabbits

The increasing use of pesticides has raised concerns about their gastrointestinal toxicity, leading to the search for natural remedies such as thyme essential oil. For that, this study aimed to determine the protective effect of Thymus vulgaris essential oil (TEO) with its chemical composition against Voliam Targo-induced duodenal toxicity. Twenty male rabbits were randomly assigned to four equal groups and treated for 21 consecutive days: Control, VT insecticide group, TEO essential oil group, and VT + TEO group. The main constituent of the essential oil of T. vulgaris was carvacrol 72.9 %. The duodenal injury was assessed using biochemical, histomorphometrical, and immunohistochemical methods. The VT induced an increased number of benign intestinal tissue changes, such as hyperplasia of Brunner glands, disorganization of villi, and infiltration of inflammatory cells. The co-administration of TEO with VT restored the histological organization of the duodenum. In addition, the immunohistochemical examination of the duodenal tissues shows positive immunostaining for the expression of Ki67, P53, and BCL2 proteins in the VT group. Lower expressions were noted in the VT-TEO group compared to the control and TEO groups. The E-cadherin and β-catenin immuno-signals were significantly higher in the essential oil treatment groups' duodenal sections than in the VT group. The study suggested that VT caused duodenal toxicity and that the carvacrol chemotype of TEO could mitigate and alleviate this effect.

Piribedil and thymol mitigate vancomycin-evoked nephrotoxicity in rats through modulation of Keap-1/Nrf2/HO-1 and NF-κB/Bax/caspase 3 signalings

Nephrotoxicity is a sign in which endogenous or exogenous toxicants have damaged the kidney-specific detoxification and excretion processes. Vancomycin (VAN) exposure mostly causes kidney damage and a loss of body homeostasis regulation. This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of piribedil and thymol and its basic mechanisms against nephrotoxicity caused by VAN. Randomly, the animals were categorized into six groups (n = 8). For 7 d, Group I only received vehicles, Group II received piribedil (5 mg/kg/once daily, i.p.), Group III received thymol (25 mg/kg/once daily, i.p), Group IV was administered a single daily dose of VAN (200 mg/kg, i.p.), VAN+ piribedil was administered to Group V, and VAN + thymol was administered to Group VI. The findings showed that piribedil or thymol improved renal function parameters by an increase in serum albumin level in parallel to a decrease in serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels in addition to decreased levels of KIM-1 and serum cystatin C. Furthermore, enhanced oxidative stress biomarkers as GSH, myeloperoxidase (MPO), and malondialdehyde (MDA) as well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), indicators of inflammatory mediators, were markedly reduced compared to VAN group. Moreover, piribedil or thymol markedly improved the histopathological aberrations provoked by VAN, increased the Nrf-2 and HO-1 renal protein expressions and reduced VAN-induced elevation of Keap-1 protein expression. In addition, NF-kB, Bax, and caspase 3 expression levels were considerably declined after piribedil or thymol co-treatment. These findings revealed that co-administration of piribedil or thymol with VAN may be a sensible therapeutic approach for reducing renal intoxication caused by VAN.

Inhibition of TRPM7 by glutathione decreases oxidant and apoptotic action of cisplatin through the downregulation of Ca2+ and Zn2+ in glioblastoma cells

PURPOSE

Cisplatin (CiSP)-mediated stimulation of TRPM7 may induce oxidant and apoptotic activities through the upregulation of Ca2+, apoptosis, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in glioblastoma (DBTRG-05MG) cells, whereas inhibition of TRPM7 by the antioxidant glutathione (GSH) may reduce the observed increases in DBTRG-05MG. The aim of the study was to examine how TRPM7 activation stimulates DBTRG-05MG cell death but also how it inhibits the effects of TRPM7 antagonists (GSH and carvacrol, CRV) via altering ROS toxicity and apoptosis.

METHOD

In the DBTRG-05MG, 5 groups were established: control, GSH (10 ​mM for 2 ​h), CiSP (25 ​μM for 24 ​h), CiSP ​+ ​GSH, and CiSP ​+ ​CRV (200 ​μM for 24 ​h).

RESULTS

The amounts of cytosolic free Ca2+ were further increased in the CiSP group by the stimulation of TRPM7 (naltriben), even though the GSH and CRV treatments caused them to decrease in the cells. The amounts of mitochondrial membrane dysfunction, ROS, death cell, apoptosis, free zinc ion, and caspase-3, -8, and -9 in the cells were higher in the CiSP than in the control and GSH, although their amounts were lower in the CiSP ​+ ​GSH and CiSP ​+ ​CRV than in the CiSP only. The CiSP-induced decreases in cell viability and GSH concentrations were increased by GSH incubation.

CONCLUSIONS

The stimulation of TRPM7 increased the anticancer action of CiSP, although its inhibition decreased the amount of CiSP-induced oxidative stress and DBTRG-05MG deaths through the treatment of GSH and CRV. TRPM7 stimulation could be considered a potential tumor killer channel through oxidative glioblastoma damage caused by CiSP.

Monoterpenoid synergy: a new frontier in biological applications

Monoterpenoids, compounds found in various organisms, have diverse applications in various industries. Their effectiveness is influenced by the oil's chemical composition, which in turn is influenced by plant genotype, environmental conditions, cultivation practices, and plant development stage. They are used in various industries due to their distinctive odor and taste, serving as ingredients, additives, insecticides, and repellents. These compounds have synergistic properties, resulting in superior combined effects over discrete ones, potentially beneficial for various health purposes. Many experimental studies have investigated their interactions with other ingredients and their antibacterial, insecticidal, antifungal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. This review discusses potential synergistic interactions between monoterpenoids and other compounds, their sources, and biological functions. It also emphasizes the urgent need for more research on their bioavailability and toxicity, underlining the importance and relevance of this comprehensive study in the current scientific landscape.

Carvacrol modulates antioxidant enzymes, DNA integrity, and apoptotic markers in zearalenone-exposed fetal rat liver

Maternal exposure to zearalenone (ZEA), a mycotoxin, can impact fetal liver development. This study investigated the protective effects of carvacrol (CRV) against ZEA-induced fetal liver damage. Thirty-two pregnant rats were allocated to four groups (eight rats/group); control, CRV (75 mg/kg), ZEA (5 mg/kg), and co-treated group (ZEA + CRV). The animals were given their doses during the gestation period. Maternal exposure to ZEA revealed a significant increase in the malondialdehyde (MDA) level in the fetal liver. In contrast, glutathione S-transferase (GST), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) activities, besides glutathione (GSH) levels, were decreased in ZEA-intoxicated rats. Additionally, ZEA increased the expression of pro-apoptotic genes (P53, Bax, and caspase-9), elevated the immunoreactivity of caspase-3, decreased anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, and induced severe fatty degeneration, congestion, and necrosis in the fetal liver. The comet assays revealed significant DNA damage, as evidenced by reduced head DNA content and increased tail DNA content and tail moment in the ZEA-exposed rats. Surprisingly, co-treatment with CRV significantly mitigated fetal hepatic lipid peroxidation, antioxidant disturbance, apoptosis, and DNA damage after maternal exposure to ZEA. These findings highlight the potential of CRV as a promising approach to mitigate ZEA-associated developmental hepatotoxicity.

Allergo-immunopathology mechanism of thymol-inhibiting airway remodeling in asthmatic mice by regulating TGF-β/Smad3 pathway

Allergic asthma is an important public health problem and is a complicated respiratory sickness that is characterized by bronchial inflammation, bronchoconstriction, and breathlessness. Asthma is orchestrated by type 2 immune response and remodeling is one of the important outputted problem in chronic asthma. Thymol is a naturally occurring monocyclic phenolic, it has a series of biological properties, and its immunomodulatory and anti-remodeling effects on allergic asthma were evaluated. The OVA-LPS-induced asthmatic mice were treated with thymol. Methacholine challenge test, eosinophil count, and levels of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and IL-33 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, total and OVA-specific IgE levels in serum, remodeling factors, gene expression of TGF-β, Smad2, Smad3, and lung histopathology were done. Treatment with thymol could control AHR, eosinophil percentage levels of Th2 cytokines and Igs, remodeling factors, expression of TGF-β, Smad2 and Smad3 genes, inflammation, goblet cell hyperplasia, and mucus production in asthmatic mice. Thymol can control asthma pathogens and related remodeling and fibrosis bio-factors and can be a potential treatment of asthma.

Thymol and p-Cymene Protect the Liver by Mitigating Oxidative Stress, Suppressing TNF-α/NF-κB, and Enhancing Nrf2/HO-1 Expression in Immobilized Rats

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the monoterpenes thymol and p-cymene on the liver of rats subjected to prolonged immobilization stress and to discover the possible mechanism behind this effect. For 14 consecutive days, the rats were placed in a restrainer for 2.5 h every day to expose them to stress. During the same period, thymol (10 mg/kg, gavage) and p-cymene (50 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) were also administered. Thymol and p-cymene prevented the increase in malondialdehyde levels and the decrease in glutathione content in the liver of rats exposed to chronic immobility. They also increased the activity of the glutathione peroxidase enzyme in the liver of stressed animals, but only thymol could increase the activity of superoxide dismutase. These monoterpenes reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in the liver of stressed animals. They increased the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Thymol and p-cymene greatly prevented the infiltration of inflammatory cells in the liver parenchyma of stressed rats. In conclusion, the study found that thymol and p-cymene have a hepatoprotective effect on immobilized rats, likely exerted by suppressing oxidative stress and inflammation, stimulating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling, and inhibiting the TNF-α/NF-κB pathway.

Celastrol Mitigates Acetaminophen-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Rats via Targeting Renal Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, Apoptosis with Enhancement in Aquaporin 1 Level

Background

Acetaminophen also name paracetamol is apopular antipyretic and analgesic drug, in alarge doses produces a cute kidney injury either in human and animals. The aim of this study to assess the effect of celastrol in reducing acetaminophen-induced nephrotoxicity and to elucidate its underlying mechanisms.

Methods

Rats were divided into four groups: control, celastrol-treated, acetaminophen-exposed, and a group receiving both acetaminophen and celastrol. After 24 hours, blood samples were taken and kidney tissues were harvested for histological and molecular analyses. The findings shed light on the protective effects of celastrol against acetaminophen-induced nephrotoxicity, offering insights into its therapeutic potential.

Results

paracetamol oral intake altered renal histology with significantly P< 0.05 increased serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and homogenate malonaldhyde (MDA), and immunoexpression of tumor necrosis- alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), caspase-3, Bcl-2-associated X- protein (Bax). Furthermore, it decreases homogenate level of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), and gene expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and haem oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Meanwhile, intraperitoneal injection of celastrol with acetaminophen reaffirms the previous results.

Conclusions

We provided a novel treatment against acetaminophen induced-nephrotoxicity with targeting renal oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis with elevation of Aquaporin 1 (AQP1) level.

Anti-apoptotic and antioxidant mechanisms may underlie the abrogative potential of Ocimum gratissimum Linn. Leaf extract and fractions against trastuzumab-induced cardiotoxicity in Wistar rats

Clinical use of trastuzumab (TZM), has been widely associated with increased incidence of cardiotoxicity. Ocimum gratissimum Linn. is a household medicinal plant popularly used for treating inflammatory conditions. In this study, we investigated the abrogative potential of 100 mg/kg/day of the ethanol leaf extract of Ocimum gratissimum Linn. (OG) and its petroleum ether (PEOG), ethyl acetate (EAOG) and ethanol (EOG) fractions in TZM intoxicated Wistar rats for 7 days using anthropometric, biochemical, histopathological and immunohistochemical endpoints. In addition, secondary metabolite constituents in OG and its fractions were determined through Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The study results showed that oral pretreatments with OG and OG fractions as well as the fixed dose valsartan-lisinopril (VAL-LSP) combination effectively ameliorated and restore nearly normal levels the TZM-altered plasma cardiac troponin I and antioxidant profile which were corroborated by histopathological and immunohistochemical findings as indicated by the inhibition of TZM-induced activation of caspases-3 and - 9 and profound upregulation of BCL-2 expression. Phytoscan of OG and its fractions showed the presence of thymol and in high amount. Overall, our findings revealed the cardioprotective potentials of OG, OG fractions and fixed dose VAL-LSP combination against TZM-induced cardiotoxicity which probably was mediated via abrogation of cardiomyocyte apoptosis and antioxidant mechanisms.

Molecular mechanisms underlying cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity and the potential ameliorative effects of essential oils: A comprehensive review

Since the Middle Ages, essential oils (EO) have been widely used for bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, insecticidal, medicinal and cosmetic applications, nowadays in pharmaceutical, agricultural and food industries. Recently, EO have emerged as promising adjuvant therapies to mitigate the toxicities induced by anti - cancerous drugs; among them cisplatin induced renal damage amelioration remain remarkable. Cisplatin (cis-diaminedichloroplatinum II, CDDP) is renowned as one of the most effective anti-neoplastic agents, widely used as a broad-spectrum anti-tumor agent for various solid tumors. However, its clinical use is hampered by several side effects, notably nephrotoxicity and acute kidney injury, which arise from the accumulation of CDDP in the proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs). To better understand and analyze the molecular mechanisms of CDDP-induced renal damage, it is crucial to investigate potential interventions to protect against cisplatin-mediated nephrotoxicity. These EO have shown the ability to counteract oxidative stress, reduce inflammation, prevent apoptosis, and exert estrogenic effects, all contributing to renal protection. In this review, we have made an effort to summarize the molecular mechanisms and exploring new interventions by which we can pave the way for safer and more effective cancer management in the future.

Metabolomic modelling and neuroprotective effects of carvacrol against acrylamide toxicity in rat's brain and sciatic nerve

The study aimed to investigate the harmful effects of acrylamide (AA), which forms in carbohydrate-rich foods at temperatures above 120°C, on the central and peripheral nervous systems and to evaluate the potential neuroprotective effects of carvacrol (CRV). Male Wistar Albino rats were subjected to AA (40 mg/kg/bw/day) and CRV (50 mg/kg/bw/day) for 15 days. Following the last administration, evaluations revealed disrupted gait, heightened thermal sensitivity and altered paw withdrawal thresholds in AA-exposed rats. Notably, AA reduced glutathione (GSH) and raised malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in both brain and sciatic nerve tissues. AA raised nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), caspase 3 and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) gene expressions while decreasing NR4A2. CRV co-administration mitigated gait abnormalities, elevated GSH levels and lowered MDA levels in both tissues. CRV also modulated gene expression, reducing Nrf2 and NF-κB while increasing NR4A2. Histopathological signs of AA-induced neurodegeneration and elevated glial fibrillary acidic protein levels observed in brain and sciatic nerve tissues were rectified with simultaneous administration of CRV, thereby demonstrating neuroprotective efficacy in both regions. This study is pioneering in demonstrating CRV's neuroprotective potential against AA-induced neurotoxicity in both central and peripheral nervous systems, effectively addressing limitations in the literature. In conclusion, the study revealed AA-induced neurodegeneration in the brain and sciatic nerve, with CRV significantly mitigating this neurotoxicity. This novel research underscores CRV's promise as a neuroprotective agent against AA-induced adverse effects in both the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Effects of Supplementation with Oregano Essential Oil during Late Gestation and Lactation on Serum Metabolites, Antioxidant Capacity and Fecal Microbiota of Sows

A total of 20 healthy white × landrace sows were evenly and randomly divided into two groups, and fed basal diets unsupplemented or supplemented with 500 g/t Meriden-Stim® from day 100 of gestation until day 21 of lactation. Serum and fecal samples were collected from the sows on the final day for subsequent analysis. Compared to the control group, there were no significant differences in the sows' performances; however, an increase was observed in the piglets' weight at weaning (p = 0.08). Moreover, oregano essential oil (OEO) significantly reduced the levels of urea (UREA) (p < 0.01), total cholesterol (TC) (p < 0.05), low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C) (p < 0.05) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (p < 0.05) in serum. In terms of antioxidant indexes in serum, the catalase (CAT) and glutathione (GSH) levels showed significant increases (p < 0.05) while the malondialdehyde (MDA) level exhibited a decrease tendency (p = 0.09). 16S rRNA analysis identified the specific bacteria taxa in feces. OEO significantly decreased the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria at the phylum level (p < 0.05). At the genus level, OEO significantly increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus and Prevotellaceae UCG 003 and UCG 005, while decreasing that of Escherichia-Shigella (p < 0.05). Taken together, OEO supplementation in maternal diets during late gestation and lactation improved serum metabolites, antioxidant capacity and regulated the intestinal-flora balance of sows, thereby tending to increase the piglets' weight at weaning.

Oregano (Origanum vulgare) Essential Oil and Its Constituents Prevent Rat Kidney Tissue Injury and Inflammation Induced by a High Dose of L-Arginine

This study aimed to evaluate the protective action of oregano (Origanum vulgare) essential oil and its monoterpene constituents (thymol and carvacrol) in L-arginine-induced kidney damage by studying inflammatory and tissue damage parameters. The determination of biochemical markers that reflect kidney function, i.e., serum levels of urea and creatinine, tissue levels of neutrophil-gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), and kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), as well as a panel of oxidative-stress-related and inflammatory biomarkers, was performed. Furthermore, histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses of kidneys obtained from different experimental groups were conducted. Pre-treatment with the investigated compounds prevented an L-arginine-induced increase in serum and tissue kidney damage markers and, additionally, decreased the levels of inflammation-related parameters (TNF-α and nitric oxide concentrations and myeloperoxidase activity). Micromorphological kidney tissue changes correlate with the alterations observed in the biochemical parameters, as well as the expression of CD95 in tubule cells and CD68 in inflammatory infiltrate cells. The present results revealed that oregano essential oil, thymol, and carvacrol exert nephroprotective activity, which could be, to a great extent, associated with their anti-inflammatory, antiradical scavenging, and antiapoptotic action and, above all, due to their ability to lessen the disturbances arising from acute pancreatic damage. Further in-depth studies are needed in order to provide more detailed explanations of the observed activities.

Pharmacological Mechanisms and Adjuvant Properties of Licorice Glycyrrhiza in Treating Gastric Cancer

Licorice is a remarkable traditional Chinese medicine obtained from the dried root and rhizomes of the Glycyrrhiza genus, and t has been utilized in China for many centuries. It consists of more than 300 compounds that are mainly divided into triterpene saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, and phenolic components. The active compounds of licorice have been found to possess multiple biological activities, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antimicrobial, immunoregulatory, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective functions. In addition to providing a brief overview of licorice's adjuvant properties, this review describes and analyzes the pharmacological mechanisms by which licorice components function to treat gastric cancer. Furthermore, licorice compounds are also found to be potent adjuvant chemotherapy agents, as they can improve the quality of life of cancer patients and alleviate chemotherapy-induced adverse effects.

Radioprotective Effects of Carvacrol and/or Thymol against Gamma Irradiation-Induced Acute Nephropathy: In Silico and In Vivo Evidence of the Involvement of Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1) and Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide

Radiotherapy (RT) is an effective curative cancer treatment. However, RT can seriously damage kidney tissues resulting in radiotherapy nephropathy (RN) where oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis are among the common pathomechanisms. Carvacrol and thymol are known for their antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and radioprotective activities. Therefore, this study investigated the nephroprotective potentials of carvacrol and/or thymol against gamma (γ) irradiation-induced nephrotoxicity in rats along with the nephroprotection mechanisms, particularly the involvement of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). Methods: Male rats were injected with carvacrol and/or thymol (80 and 50 mg/kg BW in the vehicle, respectively) for five days and exposed to a single dose of irradiation (6 Gy). Then, nephrotoxicity indices, oxidative stress, inflammatory, apoptotic biomarkers, and the histopathological examination were assessed. Also, IGF-1 and CGRP renal expressions were measured. Results: Carvacrol and/or thymol protected kidneys against γ-irradiation-induced acute RN which might be attributed to their antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic activities. Moreover, both reserved the γ -irradiation-induced downregulation of CGRP- TNF-α loop in acute RN that might be involved in the pathomechanisms of acute RN. Additionally, in Silico molecular docking simulation of carvacrol and thymol demonstrated promising fitting and binding with CGRP, IGF-1, TNF-α and NF-κB through the formation of hydrogen, hydrophobic and alkyl bonds with binding sites of target proteins which supports the reno-protective properties of carvacrol and thymol. Collectively, our findings open a new avenue for using carvacrol and/or thymol to improve the therapeutic index of γ-irradiation.

Preventive and therapeutic use of herbal compounds against doxorubicin induced hepatotoxicity: a comprehensive review

Doxorubicin (DOX) is associated with numerous acute and chronic dose-related toxicities including hepatotoxicity. This adverse reaction may limit the use of other chemotherapeutic agents with hepatic excretion, and so, its prevention is an important issue. The aim of this study was to conduct a comprehensive review of in vitro, in vivo and human studies regarding the protective effects of synthetic and naturally-occurring compounds against DOX-induced liver injury. The search was conducted in Embase, PubMed, and Scopus databases using the following keywords: "doxorubicin," "Adriamycin," "hepatotoxicity," "liver injury," "liver damage," and "hepatoprotective," and all articles published in English were included without time restriction. Forty eligible studies to the end of May 2022 finally were reviewed. Our results demonstrated that all of these drugs, except acetylsalicylic acid, had considerable hepatoprotective effects against DOX. In addition, none of the studied compounds attenuated the antitumor efficacy of DOX treatment. Silymairn was the only compound which is assessed in human studies and showed promising preventive and therapeutic effects. Altogether, our results demonstrated that most of compounds with antioxidant, anti-apoptosis, and anti-inflammatory properties are efficacious against DOX-induced hepatotoxicity and may be considered as a potential adjuvant agent for prevention of hepatotoxicity in cancer patients, after fully been assessed in well-designed large clinical trials.

Network pharmacology, molecular docking, and experimental verification reveal the mechanism of San-Huang decoction in treating acute kidney injury

Background: Cisplatin is an effective anti-tumor drug. However, its usage is constrained by side effects such as nephron toxicity. Cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) appears in approximately 20%-30% of cases. Hence, finding an effective protective strategy is necessary. San-Huang decoction (SHD) is a Chinese herbal decoction with good efficacy in treating chronic kidney disease (CKD). Nevertheless, the mechanism of SHD on AKI remains unclear. Consequently, we proposed to explore the potential mechanism of SHD against cisplatin-induced AKI. Methods: Active compounds, core target proteins, and associated signaling pathways of SHD were predicted through network pharmacology. Then confirmed by molecular docking. In vivo experiment, Cisplatin + SHD group was treated with SHD (6.5 g/kg/day) for 6 days before building the model. An AKI model was established with a single intraperitoneal injection of cisplatin at 20 mg/kg. After 72 h of cisplatin injection, all mice were sacrificed to collect blood and kidney tissues for verification of network pharmacology analysis. Results: We found that calycosin, rhein, and ginsenoside Rh2 may be SHD's primary active compounds in treating cisplatin-induced AKI, and AKT, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, caspase-3, and MMP9 are the core target proteins. The relationship between the compound and target protein was further confirmed by molecular docking. The Gene Ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses predicted that SHD has an anti-inflammatory role through the TNF and IL-17 signaling pathway. Moreover, Western blot and immunohistochemistry validated the potential molecular mechanisms of SHD, predicted from network pharmacology analysis. The mechanism of cisplatin-induced AKI involves apoptosis and inflammation. In apoptosis, Caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, and Bax proteins were down-regulated, while Bcl-2 was up-regulated by SHD. The differential expression of MMP protein is involved in the pathological process of AKI. MMP9 protects from glomerular tubule damage. MMP9 and PI3K/AKT anti-apoptosis pathway were up-regulated by SHD. In addition, we discovered that SHD alleviated AKI by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway. Conclusion: SHD plays a critical role in anti-inflammation and anti-apoptosis via inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway and activating PI3K/AKT anti-apoptosis pathway, indicating that SHD is a candidate herbal drug for further investigation in treating cisplatin-induced AKI.

TNF-α and IL-1β in Diabetes-Induced Liver Damage: The Relationship between Trachyspermum ammi Seeds Methanol Extract and Inflammatory Cytokine Inhibition

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of Trachyspermum ammi (T. ammi) on the liver of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. This study began by identifying the methanolic composition of T. ammi. The presence of three compounds was determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), with Thymol (60.705%), ϒ-Terpinene (22.216%), and P-cymene (17.078%) being the most prevalent. Afterwards, diabetic rats were treated with T. ammi (200–500 mg/kg) or losartan (20 mg/kg) daily for 60 days. In the diabetic rats treated with T. ammi, levels of hepatic indicators, lipid peroxidation markers, and proinflammatory mediators decreased significantly. In the liver of T. ammi-treated diabetic rats, glutathione-S-transferase (GST), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH) increased significantly. Despite the fact that proinflammatory cytokine levels were significantly increased, interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels decreased in the groups administered the extract. From these results, it can be concluded that T. ammi significantly restored the liver’s antioxidant balance and inflammation caused by hyperglycemia.

Nephroprotective plant species used in traditional Mayan Medicine for renal-associated diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The prevalence of kidney disease has increased rapidly in recent years and has emerged as one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Natural products have been suggested as valuable nephroprotective agents due to their multi-target and synergistic effects on modulating important proteins involved in kidney injury. There is a large number of plant species that have been used traditionally for kidney-related conditions in Mesoamerican medicine by different cultural groups that could provide a valuable source of nephroprotective therapeutic candidates and could lead to potential drug discovery.

AIM OF REVIEW

This review aims to provide an overview of the currently known efficacy of plant species used traditionally in Mesoamerica by Mayan groups to treat kidney-related conditions and to analyze the phytochemical, pharmacological, molecular, toxicological, and clinical evidence to contribute to public health efforts and for directing future research.

METHODS

Primary sources of plant use reports for traditional kidney-related disorders in Mesoamerica were searched systematically from library catalogs, theses, and scientific databases (PubMed, Google Scholar; and Science Direct), and were filtered according to usage frequency in Mayan groups and plant endemism. The database of traditional plants was further analyzed based on associations with published reports of the phytochemical, pharmacological, molecular, toxicological, and clinical evidence.

RESULTS

The most reported kidney-related conditions used traditionally in Mayan medicine involve reducing renal damage (a cultural interpretation that considers an inflammatory or infectious condition), cleaning or purifying the blood and kidney, reducing kidney pain, and eliminating kidney stones. A total of 208 plants used for kidney-related problems by 10 Mayan groups were found, representing 143 native species, where only 42 have reported pharmacological activity against kidney damage, mainly approached by in vitro and in vivo models of chemical- or drug-induced nephrotoxicity, diabetes nephropathy, and renal injury produced by hypertension. Nephroprotective effects are mainly mediated by reducing oxidative stress, inflammatory response, fibrosis mechanisms, and apoptosis in the kidney. The most common nephroprotective compounds associated with traditional Mayan medicine were flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic acids. The most widely studied traditional plants in terms of pharmacological evidence, bioactive compounds, and mechanisms of action, are Annona muricata L., Carica papaya L., Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam., Lantana camara L., Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw., Tagetes erecta L., and Zea mays L. Most of the plant species with reported pharmacological activity against kidney damage were considered safe in toxicological studies.

CONCLUSION

Available pharmacological reports suggest that several herbs used in traditional Mayan medicine for renal-associated diseases may have nephroprotective effects and consistent pharmacological evidence, nephroprotective compounds, and mechanisms of action in different models of kidney injury. However, more research is required to fully understand the potential of traditional Mayan medicine in drug discovery given the limited ethnobotanical studies and data available for most species with regards to identification on bioactive components, pharmacological mechanisms, and the scarce number of clinical studies.

Assessment of Protective Effects of Carvacrol on Haloperidol-Induced Oxidative Stress and Genotoxicity in Human Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes

Haloperidol is a first-generation antipsychotic drug that has several indications in a wide range of mental conditions. The extensive prescription of haloperidol is correlated with some less-known adverse effects such as genotoxicity. Carvacrol is a monoterpenoid mainly found in oregano and thyme. It has the potential to scavenge free radicals in addition to increasing antioxidant defense enzyme activities and glutathione levels. In this study, we attempted to explore the possible potential of haloperidol in inducing genotoxicity in human peripheral lymphocytes as well as the protective role of carvacrol against this effect. The lymphocytes were divided into separate groups as follows: control group (cosolvent and NS); carvacrol group (5 μM); haloperidol group (25, 50, and 100 ng/ml); haloperidol (25, 50, and 100 ng/ml) + carvacrol (5 μM); positive control (0.8 μg/ml Cisplatin). After 24 hours of treatment, we conducted a cytokinesis-Block micronucleus test and an alkaline comet assay in order to determine genetic damage. Additionally, we measured glutathione and MDA levels as the biomarkers associated with oxidative stress. Significant increases in the levels of genotoxicity biomarkers (micronucleus frequency, DNA percentage in tail and tail moment) were observed in haloperidol-treated cells. The result of our oxidative stress tests also demonstrated that haloperidol had the potential to induce oxidative stress via reducing the levels of glutathione and increasing lipid peroxidation. Treatment with carvacrol significantly decreased the genotoxic events. It can be presumed that the induction of oxidative stress by haloperidol is the critical event associated with haloperidol-mediated genotoxicity. Therefore, using carvacrol as a natural antioxidant protected human lymphocytes against haloperidol genetic damage.

Protective Effects of Natural Antioxidants on Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Thymol and Its Pharmacological Properties

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a gastrointestinal disease that involves chronic mucosal or submucosal lesions that affect tissue integrity. Although IBD is not life-threatening, it sometimes causes severe complications, such as colon cancer. The exact etiology of IBD remains unclear, but several risk factors, such as pathogen infection, stress, diet, age, and genetics, have been involved in the occurrence and aggravation of IBD. Immune system malfunction with the over-production of inflammatory cytokines and associated oxidative stress are the hallmarks of IBD. Dietary intervention and medical treatment suppressing abnormal inflammation and oxidative stress are recommended as potential therapies. Thymol, a natural monoterpene phenol that is mostly found in thyme, exhibits multiple biological functions as a potential adjuvant for IBD. The purpose of this review is to summarize current findings on the protective effect of thymol on intestinal health in the context of specific animal models of IBD, describe the role of thymol in the modulation of inflammation, oxidative stress, and gut microbiota against gastrointestinal disease, and discuss the potential mechanism for its pharmacological activity.

MicroRNAs Involved in Intrinsic Apoptotic Pathway during Cisplatin-Induced Nephrotoxicity: Potential Use of Natural Products against DDP-Induced Apoptosis

Cisplatin (cis-diamminedichloroplatinum (II), DDP) is an antineoplastic agent widely used in the treatment of solid tumors because of its extensive cytotoxic activity. However, the main limiting side effect of DDP use is nephrotoxicity, a rapid deterioration in kidney function due to toxic chemicals. Several studies have shown that epigenetic processes are involved in DDP-induced nephrotoxicity. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), a class of epigenetic processes, are molecules that regulate gene expression under physiological and pathological conditions. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are the most characterized class of ncRNAs and are engaged in many cellular processes. In this review, we describe how different miRNAs regulate some pathways leading to cell death by apoptosis, specifically the intrinsic apoptosis pathway. Accordingly, many classes of natural products have been tested for their ability to prevent DDP-induced apoptosis. The study of epigenetic regulation for underlying cell death is still being studied, which will allow new strategies for the diagnosis and therapy of this unwanted disease, which is presented as a side effect of antineoplastic treatment.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of thymol as an anti-inflammatory and wound healing agent: A review of thymol effect on inflammation and wound healing: A review of thymol effect on inflammation and wound healing

Thymol (THY) exhibits antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Recent studies have also shown that THY presents anti-inflammatory and healing properties. This review focused on in vitro and in vivo investigations related to THY utilization, as an anti-inflammatory and/or wound healing agent. PubMed, WebOfScience, and Scopus were examined. Independent reviewers conducted all diagram steps. PRISMA was followed for data extraction. RoB 2 and SYRCLE were utilized to assess the risk of bias for in vitro and animal studies. Meta-analysis was performed for in vitro and in vivo articles that investigated THY as an anti-inflammatory agent. Thirty-six and 15 articles were included in the qualitative analysis and meta-analysis, respectively. Studies showed high risk of bias related to sampling, allocation procedures, randomization, and blinding. Even so, for in vitro studies, significant result was observed for IL-2. For in vivo studies, significant results were found for IL-1, IL-17, TNF-α, AST, MPO, and CRP, with higher levels noticed in control groups. THY presents significant properties as anti-inflammatory, ameliorating affections of the digestive system, cardiovascular problems, respiratory system and dermal damages, and burns. Researches are needed to clarify THY dose-response relationship and its mechanism of action, especially in the application of THY as a healing agent.

Thymol exerts antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic protective effects against gentamicin nephrotoxicity in rats

The renoprotective effect of thymol (TML) was investigated in rats challenged with gentamicin (GN). Rats received TML (20 mg/kg/day, p.o.) for 15 days, and GN (80 mg/kg/day, i.p.) starting from the 8th day. TML significantly lowered serum creatinine and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, and renal malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-18, Bax, caspase-3, and caspase-9 in GN-challenged rats. In addition, TML caused a significant increment of renal total antioxidant capacity in rats received GN. Moreover, TML significantly ameliorated GN-induced histopathological kidney tissue injury, and significantly decreased nuclear factor-κB p65 and kidney injury molecule-1 expressions in kidneys of GN-challenged rats. It was concluded that TML guarded against CN-induced nephrotoxicity in rats via inhibition of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis.

Thyme Oil and Thymol Counter Doxorubicin-Induced Hepatotoxicity via Modulation of Inflammation, Apoptosis, and Oxidative Stress

Doxorubicin (DOX) is an effective anticancer agent with a wide spectrum of activities. However, it has many adverse effects on various organs especially on the liver. Thymol, one of the major components of thyme oil, has biological properties that include anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Thus, this study was designed to examine thyme oil and thymol for their ability to prevent doxorubicin-induced hepatotoxicity in Wistar rats. Hepatotoxicity was induced by an intraperitoneal injection of doxorubicin, at a dose of 2 mg/kg bw/week, for seven weeks. Doxorubicin-injected rats were supplemented with thyme oil and thymol at doses 250 and 100 mg/kg bw, respectively, four times/week by oral gavage for the same period. Treatment of rats with thyme oil and thymol reversed the high serum activities of AST, ALT, and ALP and total bilirubin, AFP, and CA19.9 levels, caused by doxorubicin. Thyme oil and thymol also reduced the high levels of TNF-α and the decreased levels of both albumin and IL-4. These agents ameliorated doxorubicin-induced elevation in hepatic lipid peroxidation and associated reduction in GSH content and GST and GPx activities. Further, the supplementation with thyme oil and thymol significantly augmented mRNA expression of the level of antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 and significantly downregulated nuclear and cytoplasmic levels of the hepatic apoptotic mediator p53. Thus, thyme oil and thymol successfully counteracted doxorubicin-induced experimental hepatotoxicity via their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiapoptotic properties.

The protective effect of carvacrol on acetaminophen-induced renal damage in male rats

BACKGROUND

Acetaminophen overdose causes renal injury via oxidative stress and apoptosis induction. Carvacrol has several pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammation and anti-apoptotic effect. The aim of this study was to determine the protective effect of carvacrol on acetaminophen-induced renal damage in rats.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Forty male Wistar rats were randomly divided to five groups (n = 8) including control, carvacrol 10 mg/kg, acetaminophen, acetaminophen + carvacrol 5 mg/kg, and acetaminophen + carvacrol 10 mg/kg. Animals received a single dose of acetaminophen (500 mg/kg), then were treated with carvacrol for 1 week (daily). Afterwards, renal blood flow (RBF), mean arterial pressure, renal perfusion pressure, renal vascular resistance (RVR), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and serum creatinine were measured. Also, malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity levels were measured in the kidney tissue. Hematoxylin and eosin method was used for histological assessment. The Western blotting analysis was used to determine the Bax, Bcl-2 and cleaved caspase-3 proteins expression level in the kidney tissue. Carvacrol (10 mg/kg) significantly increased the RBF, GPx and SOD activities and also reduced the RVR, serum creatinine, BUN, and MDA in the acetaminophen + carvacrol 10 mg/kg group versus acetaminophen group (P < 0.05). Also, carvacrol significantly decreased the cleaved caspase-3, Bax proteins expression level, and kidney tissue damage score in the acetaminophen + carvacrol 10 mg/kg group versus acetaminophen group (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that carvacrol can attenuate the acetaminophen induced acute kidney damage via suppressing oxidative stress and apoptosis biochemical factors.

Zataria multiflora and its main ingredient, carvacrol, affect on the renal function, histopathological, biochemical and antioxidant parameters in adriamycin-induced nephrotic rats

Oxidative stress has a major role in the nephrosis. In the present study, the effects of hydroalcoholic extract of Zataria multiflora (ZM) and carvacrol (CAR) were evaluated on the renal damage induced by adriamycin (ADR). The animals accidentally divided into four groups including: Control, ADR, ZM + ADR and CAR + ADR. The renal tissue, urine, and blood samples subjected to biochemical markers and histopathological evaluation. ADR significantly decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) while escalated urine protein excretion as well as protein clearance (p < .01 to p < .001). Also, ADR significantly reduced the antioxidants and boosted the malondialdehyde (MDA) compared to the control (p < .05 to p < .01). In groups treated by ZM and CAR, GFR, and antioxidants significantly increased, whereas urine protein excretion and MDA decreased (p < .05 to p < .001). ZM and CAR induced an improvement in ADR-induced renal damage by improving renal function as well as antioxidant activity.

Morita-Baylis-Hillman adducts derived from thymol: synthesis, in silico studies and biological activity against Giardia lamblia

Giardiasis is a neglected disease, and there is a need for new molecules with less side effects and better activity against resistant strains. This work describes the evaluation of the giardicidal activity of thymol derivatives produced from the Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction. Thymol acrylate was reacted with different aromatic aldehydes, using 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO) as a catalyst. Eleven adducts (8 of them unpublished) with yields between 58 and 80% were obtained from this reaction, which were adequately characterized. The in silico prediction showed theoretical bioavailability after oral administration as well as antiparasitic activity against Giardia lamblia. Compound 4 showed better biological activity against G. lamblia. In addition to presenting antigiardial activity 24 times better than thymol, this MBHA was obtained in a short reaction time (3 h) with a yield (80%) superior to the other investigated molecules. The molecule was more active than the precursors (thymol and MBHA 12) and did not show cytotoxicity against HEK-293 or HT-29 cells. In conclusion, this study presents a new class of drugs with better antigiardial activity in relation to thymol, acting as a basis for the synthesis of new bioactive molecules. Molecular hybridization technique combined with the Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction provided new thymol derivatives with giardicidal activity superior to the precursor molecules.

The protective effect of lycopene against oxidative kidney damage associated with combined use of isoniazid and rifampicin in rats

It is known that the combined use of antibiotics, such as isoniazid and rifampicin, in the treatment of tuberculosis causes oxidative kidney damage. The aim of this study was to biochemically and histopathologically investigate the effect of lycopene on oxidative kidney damage due to the administration of isoniazid and rifampicin in albino Wistar male rats. Lycopene at a dose of 5 mg/kg was orally administered to lycopene+isoniazid+rifampicin (LIR) rats, and normal sunflower oil (0.5 mL) was orally administered to isoniazid+rifampicin (IR) and healthy control (HG) rats as vehicle by gavage. One hour after the administration of lycopene and vehicle, 50 mg/kg isoniazid and rifampicin were given orally to the LIR and IR groups. This procedure was performed once a day for 28 days. Rats were sacrificed by a high dose of anesthesia at the end of this period, and oxidant-antioxidant parameters were measured in the removed kidney tissues. Creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels were measured in blood samples, and kidney tissues were also evaluated histopathologically. The combined administration of isoniazid and rifampicin changed the oxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of oxidants, and it increased blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels, which are indicators of kidney function. Co-administration of isoniazid and rifampicin also caused oxidative kidney damage. Lycopene biochemically and histopathologically decreased oxidative kidney damage induced by isoniazid and rifampicin administration. These results suggested that lycopene may be beneficial in the treatment of nephrotoxicity due to isoniazid and rifampicin administration.

Modulatory effects of carvacrol against cadmium-induced hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity by molecular targeting regulation

AIM

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal that causes severe toxic effects on different tissues including liver and kidney. Therefore the research for alternatives to reduce the damage caused by Cd has substantial importance. This study was performed to examine the possible modulatory effects of carvacrol (CRV) against Cd-induced hepatorenal toxicities and the possible mechanisms underlying these effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present study, 35 male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 5 groups. The rats were treated with Cd (25 mg/kg) and treated with CRV (25 and 50 mg/kg body weight) for 7 consecutive days.

KEY FINDINGS

CRV could modulate Cd-induced elevations of ALT, ALP, AST, urea, creatinine, MDA and enhance antioxidant enzymes' activities such as SOD, CAT, and GPx, and GSH's level. CRV also reversed the changes in levels of inflammatory biomarker and apoptotic genes that include NF-κB, Bcl-3, MAPK-14, iNOS, COX-2, MPO, PGE2, Bax, Bcl-2, P53, Caspase-9, Caspase-6 and Caspase-3 in both tissues. The levels of 8-OHdG in the Cd-induced liver and kidney tissues were modulated after CRV treatment. Furthermore, CRV treatment considerably lowered Cd, Na, Fe, and Zn content while increased K, Ca, Mg and Cu contents in both tissues as compared to the Cd-exposed rats.

SIGNIFICANCE

The results of the present study revealed that CRV supplementation could be a promising strategy to protect the liver and kidney tissues against Cd-induced oxidative damage, inflammation and apoptosis.

Carvacrol improves pulmonary function tests, oxidant/antioxidant parameters and cytokine levels in asthmatic patients: A randomized, double-blind, clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Carvacrol effects on inflammatory mediators, lung pathology and tracheal responsiveness were indicated in animal models of pulmonary diseases.

PURPOSE

To evaluate carvacrol effects on respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function tests (PFT), oxidative stress markers and cytokine levels in asthmatic patients.

STUDY DESIGN

This study was a randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind, clinical trial.

METHODS

Thirty-three moderate asthmatic patients were divided to the two groups of: placebo group (n = 16) and carvacrol group (1.2 mg/kg/day, n = 17). Prepared capsules were taken for two months along, 3 times/day along with routine medications. Respiratory symptoms, PFT, and oxidative stress markers were evaluated before the treatment (step 0), and one (step I) and two months (step II) after the beginning of the treatment. However, cytokine levels in serum and supernatant of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and their gene expression were evaluated in step 0 and II.

RESULTS

In carvacrol-treated group, respiratory symptoms significantly decreased after one- and two-month treatment with carvacrol compared to pre-treatment values (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). Compared to step 0, PFT values were significantly increased in step I and II, in treated group with carvacrol (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). Most oxidative stress markers were improved following carvacrol treatment (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). Treatment with carvacrol for two-month also significantly improved cytokine levels in serum and supernatant of PBMC, compared to step 0 (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). However, no significant changes were observed in the above-noted parameters in the placebo group.

CONCLUSION

Due to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect, carvacrol could be suggested as a therapeutic agent for asthma.

A Multi-Biomarker Approach in European Sea Bass Exposed to Dynamic Temperature Changes under Dietary Supplementation with Origanum vulgare Essential Oil

A feeding trial for 150 days was carried out to evaluate the cross-effects between oregano essential oil (EO) dietary supplementation and dynamic temperature change in sea bass. Under exposure to rising temperature (13-25 °C), fish were fed with a control diet (CD) and two experimental diets supplemented with 100 (D100) and 200 ppm (D200) of EO. Feed inclusion of EO promoted the activity of antioxidant enzymes in sea bass exposed to increasing temperature. Consistently with the temperature rise, TBARS concentrations increased in CD and D200 groups, whereas were almost stable in D100. Trend of blood glucose in fish fed on CD was likely affected by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Similarly, the depletion of triglycerides and cholesterol in fish fed on CD likely supported the energy cost of gluconeogenesis. On the other hand, the reduction of glucose, triglycerides, and cholesterol in D100 and D200 was mainly attributable to the hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of EO. The higher levels of serum protein observed in D100 and D200 groups were also associated to a reduced thermal stress compared to CD. EO dietary supplementation may be a promising strategy to alleviate the negative effects of temperature shift on sea bass physiological and oxidative state.

Analgesic effects of cuminic alcohol (4-isopropylbenzyl alcohol), a monocyclic terpenoid, in animal models of nociceptive and neuropathic pain: Role of opioid receptors, L-arginine/NO/cGMP pathway, and inflammatory cytokines

Cuminic alcohol (4-isopropylbenzyl alcohol; 4-IPBA) is a monocyclic terpenoid found in the analgesic medicinal plants Cuminum cyminum and Bunium persicum. The current study assessed the analgesic effects of 4-IPBA in different animal models of pain. Hot plate, formalin, and acetic acid tests were used to evaluate nociceptive pain in mice. The involvement of opioid receptors and the L-arginine/NO/cGMP/K⁺ channel pathway in 4-IPBA effects were investigated. Allodynia and hyperalgesia were assessed following peripheral neuropathy induced by chronic constriction of the sciatic nerve in rats. The spinal levels of inflammatory cytokines were measured using the ELISA method. The drugs and compounds were administered intraperitoneally. The results showed that 4-IPBA (200 and 400 mg/kg) significantly prolonged the hot plate latency. This effect was antagonized by naloxone (2 mg/kg). 4-IPBA (25-100 mg/kg) also significantly attenuated formalin- and acetic acid-induced nociceptive pain. L-arginine (200 mg/kg), sodium nitroprusside (0.25 mg/kg), and sildenafil (0.5 mg/kg) reversed while L-NAME (30 mg/kg) and methylene blue (20 mg/kg) potentiated the antinociceptive effects of 4-IPBA in the writhing test. Glibenclamide (10 mg/kg) and tetraethylammonium chloride (4 mg/kg) did not have any influence on the 4-IPBA effect. Furthermore, 4-IPBA (6.25-25 mg/kg) significantly relieved mechanical allodynia, cold allodynia, and hyperalgesia in rats. The concentrations of TNF-α and IL-1β in the spinal cord of rats were decreased by 4-IPBA. No evidence of 4-IPBA-induced toxicity was found in behavioral or histopathological examinations. These results demonstrate that 4-IPBA attenuates nociceptive and neuropathic pain through the involvement of opioid receptors, the L-arginine/NO/cGMP pathway, and anti-inflammatory functions.

Thymol ameliorates ammonium toxicity via repressing polyamine oxidase-derived hydrogen peroxide and modulating ammonium transporters in rice root

Background

Ammonium is an indispensable nutrient for crop growth, but anoxic conditions or inappropriate fertilizer usage result in the increase in ammonium content in soil. Excessive ammonium causes phytotoxicity. Thymol is a kind of natural phenolic compound with anti-microbial properties. However, little is known about the role of thymol in modulating plant physiology. Here we find the novel role of thymol in protecting rice from ammonium toxicity.

Results

Thymol remarkably rescued rice seedlings growth from ammonium stress, which may resulted from the attenuation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, oxidative injury, and cell death in both shoots and roots. Polyamine oxidase (PAO) metabolizes polyamines to produce ROS in plants in response to stress conditions. Thymol blocked ammonium-induced upregulation of a set of rice PAOs, which contributed to the decrease in ROS content. In rice seedlings upon ammonium stress, thymol downregulate the expression of ammonium transporters (AMT1;1 and AMT1;2); thymol upregulated the expression of calcineurin B-like interacting protein kinase 23 (CIPK23) and calcineurin B-like binding protein 1 (CBL1), two negative regulators of AMTs. This may help rice avoid ammonium overload in excessive ammonium environment. Correlation analysis indicated that PAOs, AMTs, and CBL1 were the targets of thymol in the detoxification of excessive ammonium.

Conclusion

Thymol facilitates rice tolerance against ammonium toxicity by decreasing PAO-derived ROS and modulating ammonium transporters. Such findings may be applicable in the modulation of nutrient acquisition during crop production.

Graphical abstract

Protective Effect of Thymus serrulatus Essential Oil on Cadmium-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Rats, through Suppression of Oxidative Stress and Downregulation of NF-κB, iNOS, and Smad2 mRNA Expression

The purpose of the research was to examine the protective effect of essential oil from Thymus serrulatus Hochst. ex Benth. (TSA oil) against cadmium (Cd)-induced renal toxicity. The experimental protocol was designed using 30 healthy adult Wistar albino rats allocated into five groups containing six animals in each group. Group 1 was treated as normal control and groups 2, 3, 4, and 5 were treated with cadmium chloride (CdCl₂, 3 mg/kg, IP) for 7 days. Group 3 was also treated with silymarin (100 mg/kg, PO) as a standard group, while groups 4 and 5 were administered with TSA oil at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg PO, respectively. The nephrotoxicity was measured with various parameters such as kidney function markers, oxidative stress markers (glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA)), and messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression levels of inflammatory factors. The histological studies were also evaluated in the experimental protocol. The CdCl₂-treated groups showed a significant increase in the levels of serum kidney function markers along with MDA levels in kidney homogenate. However, renal GSH level was found to be reduced significantly. It was found that CdCl₂ significantly upregulated the nuclear factor levels of kappaB (NF-κB p65), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and small mothers against decapentaplegic (Smad2) as compared to the normal control group. On the other hand, TSA oil significantly improved the increased levels of serum kidney function markers, non-enzymatic antioxidants, and lipid peroxidation. In addition, TSA oil significantly downregulated the increased expression of NF-κB p65, iNOS, and Smad2 in Cd-intoxicated rats. Moreover, the histological changes in the tissue samples of the kidney of Cd-treated groups were significantly ameliorated in the silymarin- and TSA-oil-treated groups. The present study reveals that TSA oil ameliorates Cd-induced renal injury, and it is also proposed that the observed nephroprotective effect could be due to the antioxidant potential of TSA oil and healing due to its anti-inflammatory action.

The Therapeutic Potential of the Essential Oil of Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav., Origanum dictamnus L. and Salvia fruticosa Mill. And a Case of Plant-Based Pharmaceutical Development

This review performs a comprehensive assessment of the therapeutic potential of three native herbs of Crete (Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav., Salvia fruticosa Mill. and Origanum dictamnus L.), their phytochemical constituents, health benefits and issues relevant to their safety, within a translational context. Issues discussed comprise: 1) Ethnopharmacological uses of the three herbs, reviewed through an extensive search of the literature; 2) Systematic analysis of the major phytochemical constituents of each plant, and their medicinal properties; 3) To what extent could the existing medicinal properties be combined and produce an additive or synergistic effect; 4) Possible safety issues. We conclude with a specific example of the use of a combination of the essential oils of these plants as an effective anti-viral product and the experience gained in a case of a plant-based pharmaceutical development, by presenting the major steps and the continuum of the translational chain.

Antimicrobial activity and toxicity of glass ionomer cement containing an essential oil

The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial activity and toxicity of glass ionomer cement (GIC) modified with 5-methyl-2-(1-methylethyl)phenol (thymol) against Streptococcus mutans in silico and in vitro. The antimicrobial activity of thymol on GIC modified with concentrations of 2% (GIC-2) and 4% (GIC-4) was evaluated in a model of planktonic cell biofilm using agar diffusion test, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), dynamic biofilm (continuous flow cell parallel), and bacterial kinetics. Conventional GIC (GIC-0) was used as a control. Thymol toxicity was evaluated in Artemia salina and in silico using Osiris® software. Differences between groups were estimated by analysis of variance, followed by Tukey post hoc test, with a 5% significance level. The results of the agar diffusion test between groups were not significantly different (P≥0.05). Thymol had potential bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity against Streptococcus mutans with respect to planktonic growth, with MIC of 100 µg/mL and MBC of 400 µg/mL. The groups GIC-0, GIC-2, and GIC-4 reduced the biofilm by approximately 10, 85, and 95%, respectively. Bacterial kinetics showed efficiency of the modified GICs for up to 96 h. GIC with thymol was effective against S. mutans, with significant inhibition of the biofilms. Analyses in silico and using Artemia salina resulted in no relevant toxicity, suggesting potential for use in humans. GIC-2 was effective against S. mutans biofilm, with decreased cell viability.

Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad essential oil prevents doxorubicin-induced apoptosis via extrinsic and intrinsic mitochondrial pathways

Background and purpose:

In addition to hepato-cardiotoxicity, doxorubicin (DOX) also induces nephrotoxicity which is considered as the limiting factor for this drug in cancer therapy. The effect of carvacrol, the main active ingredient of Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad essential oil (SKEO), in the amelioration of DOX- induced cardiotoxicity is well established. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the possible protective effects of SKEO against DOX-induced nephrotoxicity.

Experimental approach:

SKEO was intraperitoneally administered at 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg to male Wistar rats for 12 consecutive days. Five groups of animals including negative control (saline), vehicle (Tween^® 20), SKEO50, DOX (at 8^th day of treatment), and SKEO50 + DOX were assessed.

Findings/Results:

Creatinine, urea concentrations, and caspase-3 activity significantly elevated in the serum of DOX treated group in contrast to other groups after injection of a single dose of DOX (20 mg/kg i.p.), however, SKEO reduced glutathione peroxidase and caspase-3 activity against other groups while SKEO + DOX was also significantly reduced caspase-3 activity against DOX group. Other biochemical markers changes were not significant. Immunohistochemical assessment unveiled that SKEO + DOX improved the activity of Bcl-2 family proteins (Bax and Bcl-2) and caspase-8 protein to the advantage of cell survival in both intrinsic mitochondrial and extrinsic pathway down streamed to the terminal caspase-3 apoptotic molecule.,

Conclusion and implications:

It was concluded that SKEO could have influential effects against apoptosis induced by DOX, but not improperly ameliorate oxidative stress.

Effect of memantine hydrochloride on cisplatin-induced neurobehavioral toxicity in mice

Cisplatin is an anticancer agent widely used in the treatment of malignant tumors. One of the major adverse effects of cisplatin is its neurotoxicity. Memantine, an uncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, has been reported to have neuroprotective effects against neurological deficits. This study therefore investigated the possible protective role of memantine as an agent to minimize the neurobehavioral toxic side effects of cisplatin. Two different therapeutic doses of memantine (5 mg/kg) and (10 mg/kg) were orally administered for 30 days to 50 male BALB/c mice divided into 5 groups: G1: no treatment; G2: cisplatin treatment; G3: memantine treatment; G4: pretreatment of (5 mg/kg) memantine with cisplatin (4 mg/kg); G5: pretreatment of 10 mg/kg memantine with cisplatin (4 mg/kg). Weekly neurobehavioral investigations were conducted using the following battery of tests: open field activity, negative geotaxis, hole-board test, swimming test, and calculation of weight. At the end of the experimental period the mice were euthanized, and immunohistochemistry was then used to measure the expression scores of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the muscles and brain. Results revealed that mice in G2 showed a significant decrease in the ability to perform neurobehavioral tasks. The mice in G5 exhibited a significantly improved ability on these tests, indicating a complete neurobehavioral protective effect, while the mice in G4 showed partial protection. The nAChRs score showed higher expression in the case of G2 in comparison with G3, G4, and G5. Weight loss was exhibited in G2, while in G3 and G1 these values were normal. A therapeutic dose of memantine 10 mg/kg yielded more protection than 5 mg/kg in the treatment of neuropathy; this highlights the importance of using memantine to decrease the main side effects of cisplatin.

Thymol confers tolerance to salt stress by activating anti-oxidative defense and modulating Na+ homeostasis in rice root

Modulation of plant salt tolerance has been drawing great attention. Thymol is a kind of natural chemical that has been developed as anti-microbial reagent and medicine. To date, we still have limited knowledge about thymol-modulated plant physiology. In this work, physiological, histochemical, and biochemical methods were adopted to study thymol-conferred salt resistance in the root of rice (Oryza sativa). Thymol significantly rescued root growth under salt stress. Thymol ameliorated cell membrane damage, oxidative stress, ROS accumulation, and cell death in roots under salt stress. Thymol-attenuated oxidative stress may be resulted from the activation of anti-oxidative capacity, including both enzymatic and non-enzymatic system. Thymol treatment significantly decreased Na⁺ content in root cells upon salt stress, which might be ascribed to the upregulation of OsSOS1 (salt overly sensitive 1) facilitating Na⁺ exclusion. In addition, thymol stimulated the expression of genes encoding tonoplast OsNHX (Na⁺/H⁺antiporter), which may help root cells to compartmentalize Na⁺ in vacuole. The results of these works evidenced that thymol was capable of inducing salt tolerance by reestablishing ROS homeostasis and modulating cellular Na⁺ flux in rice roots. These findings may be applicable to improve crop growth in salinity area.

Effects of thymol and carvacrol on sperm quality and oxidant/antioxidant balance in rats

In this study, we have investigated the effects of different doses of thymol (T) and carvacrol (C) on sperm quality oxidative stress and antioxidant system. For this purpose, 49 rats were divided into seven groups (7 rats in each group): 1st Group (control); 2nd Group T-10 (thymol 10 mg/kg), 3rd Group T-20 (thymol 20 mg/kg), 4th Group C-10 (carvacrol 10 mg/kg), 5th Group C-20 (carvacrol 20 mg/kg), 6th Group T + C-10 (thymol 10 mg/kg + carvacrol 10 mg/kg) and 7th Group T + C-20 (thymol 20 mg/kg + carvacrol 20 mg/kg). The duration of the experiment was 10 weeks for all animals. During the study, sperm quality parameters (motility, concentration, abnormal spermatozoa and live-dead sperm ratio), biochemical parameters [malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione(GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), catalase (CAT), AST, ALT, GGT, urea and creatinine] were analysed, and histopathological examination was performed. The study results showed that monotherapies of thymol and carvacrol significantly decreased MDA levels in testicles, liver and kidney tissues compared to the control group (p < .001). GSH levels increased only with the thymol administration and GSH-Px and catalase activity increased only with the carvacrol administration compared to the control group (p < .05). The combined administration of these two agents did not cause any significant change in any parameter. Regarding the sperm quality parameters, only the spermatozoa concentration and motility increased significantly in the thymol and carvacrol groups compared to the control group (p < .01). However, these parameters decreased in the 7th Group (T + C-20) compared to the control group (p < .001). Considering the dead sperm ratio decreased significantly in the 2nd (T-10), 3rd (T-20), 4th (C-10), 5th (C-20) and 6th Group (T + C-10) compared to the control group (p < .001). In respect of spermatozoon anomaly, there was a significant decrease in thymol and carvacrol monotherapy groups. The histopathological analysis of the testicle, liver and kidney tissues of the animals showed no difference between the groups. In conclusion, we have determined that thymol and carvacrol administration decreased the oxidative damage and increased the antioxidant levels and improved the sperm quality parameters. However, the combined use of these two active ingredients had a limited therapeutic effect on the mentioned parameters.

Microwave extraction of Salvia officinalis essential oil and assessment of its GC-MS identification and protective effects versus vanadium-induced nephrotoxicity in Wistar rats models

In this study, we assess the impact of Salvia officinalis essential oil on renal toxicity induced by vanadium in rats. The animals were exposed to either ammonium metavanadate (5 mg/kg body weight) or the combination of vanadium and S. officinalis essential oil (15 mg EO/kg body weight) for 10 days. Vanadium induced significant renal damage, demonstrated by increased plasma levels of urea and creatinine. A marked increase in lipid peroxidation markers and carbonyl protein levels with a significant decrease in enzymatic antioxidants (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) was also observed in vanadium-treated rats. Histopathological studies also showed vanadium-induced alterations. Concomitant administration of sage essential oil significantly restored biochemical markers and pathological lesions. This protective effect seems to be due to the richness of this extract in β-caryophyllene, limonene, carvacrol, caryophyllene, borneol and α-pinene, and α-pinene and α-thujene. These rates are determined by GC MS.

Hepatoprotective Role of Thymol in Drug-Induced Gastric Ulcer Model

INTRODUCTION AND AIM

Indo is widely one of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and one of the common toxic effects of this drug is hepatic failure. Thymol is a monoterpene phenol with many different pharmacological activities. However, up to now its hepatoprotective effects on Indo-induced gastric ulcer model in rats have not been explored yet.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Thirty five Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into seven groups: control, ulcer control (30 mg/kg Indo), Indo + reference standard (50 mg/kg Rantidine), Indo + Thymol (75, 100, 250 and 500 mg/kg) groups. 10 minutes after the induction of ulcer with Indo; Thymol was orally administered to the rats. Liver function enzymes (AST, ALT and LDH) were measured from serum samples. TOS/TAC, TNF-α and PGE2 levels, eNOS and Caspase-3 activity were assessed from tissue homogenate samples. In addition, histopathologic analysis on liver sections was performed.

RESULTS

Indo significantly increased the levels of hepatic enzymes, TNF-α and eNOS, and caspase-3 activation, while decreased PGE2 levels. Furthermore, it induced oxidative stress as evidenced by elevated TOS and decreased TAC levels. However, Thymol treatment induced a significant improvement in these parameters, especially in 250 mg/kg dose. On the other hand, treatment with Thymol 500 mg/kg dramatically affected the parameters much worse than the Indo treated group.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the current study demonstrated that Thymol administration significantly ameliorated liver injury due to Indo toxicity. This effect of Thymol (250 mg/kg) may be mediated by its anti-oxidative or anti-inflammatory effect, and up-regulation the synthesis of PGE2.

Zatariamultiflora ameliorates cisplatin-induced testicular damage via suppression of oxidative stress and apoptosis in a mice model

Objectives

Cisplatin (CP), as an anti-neoplastic drug, causes testicular damage. Zataria multiflora Boiss (ZM), a medicinal plant, has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of ZM against CP-induced testicular toxicity.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, thirty-two adult male mice were randomly divided into four groups. The control group received normal saline with oral gavage during 7 days; ZM group received ZM (200 mg/kg) during 7 days by gavage; CP group received CP (10 mg/kg) intraperitoneally (IP) in the 5^th day of study; ZM + CP group received ZM during 7 days and CP was injected in 5th day. Sperm parameters, biochemical (MDA, GSH, and PC) levels, serum testosterone levels, and histopathological and immunohistochemical assays of testis were examined one day after the last drug treatment.

Results

CP treatment caused significant damage via changed sperm parameters (sperm motility, count, viability rate, and abnormalities), increased oxidative stress (increased MDA and PC levels, and decreased GSH level), histological changes (degeneration, necrosis, arrest of spermatogenesis, congestion, and decrease in thickness of the germinal epithelium, diameter of seminiferous tubules, and Johnsen's Score), decreased serum testosterone level, and increased caspase-3 immunoreactivity. ZM preserved spermatogenesis and mitigated the toxic effects of CP on the testis tissue. In addition, treatment with ZM significantly reduced caspase-3 immunoreactivity.

Conclusion

The findings of this study suggest that ZM as a potential antioxidant compound and due to free radicals scavenging activities has a protective effect against CP-induced testicular toxicity.

Immunomodulatory effects of Thymol through modulation of redox status and trace element content in experimental model of asthma

Oxidative stress plays a key role in the immunopathogenesis of asthma. The objective of this study was to investigate the thymol effects on oxidative parameters along with trace elements in asthma experimental model. The Balb/c mice were sensitized by intraperitoneal injection of ovalbumin and thymol (8, 16 and 32 mg/kg) and dexamethasone (DEX) (2 mg/kg) were orally administered to sensitized mice. Oxidative stress parameters including protein carbonyl content, malondialdehyde (MDA), 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) besides trace element levels were evaluated. The protein carbonyl content, MDA and 8-OHdG in treated mice with 32 mg/kg of thymol significantly decreased compared to asthmatic mice (P < 0.01). Also, TAC significantly increased (P < 0.001) as well as zinc and selenium levels while copper level decreased. 16 mg/kg of thymol reduced the protein carbonyl content, MDA and 8-OHdG compared to asthmatic mice (P < 0.05). In addition, thymol improved the most prominent inflammation characteristics of asthma. The obtained results suggest that thymol has a protective effect against oxidative stress and it was also able to partially restore the defective trace element levels in asthma. Based on our observations, thymol may be used for alternative / complementary therapy in asthma.

Carvacrol attenuates cyclophosphamide-induced oxidative stress in rat kidney

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is an antineoplastic drug that induces kidney damage via producing oxidative stress. Carvacrol (CAR) has antioxidative effect and we postulated that it can be protective against CP-induced nephrotoxicity. Six groups (n = 7) of rats (control, 100 mg/kg CP, CP+5 mg/kg CAR, CP+10 mg/kg CAR, 5 mg/kg CAR, and 10 mg/kg CAR) were injected intraperitoneally. Serum malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), creatinine (CRE), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and total oxidant state (TOS) were measured, and oxidative stress indexes (OSI) were calculated. Kidneys were also analyzed histologically. In CP-alone group MDA, CRE, TOS, and OSI levels increased whereas GSH, SOD, CAT, and TAC levels decreased compared with control group. In CP plus CAR groups, MDA, TOS, and OSI levels decreased whereas GSH, SOD, CAT, and TAC levels increased compared with CP-alone group. However, CRE levels were similar in CP-alone and CP+5 CAR group whereas decreased in CP+10 CAR group. CP+10 CAR group was significantly different in all parameters (except TAC) from CP+5 CAR group. Kidney microscopy was showed lower tissue damage in CP plus CAR groups. In conclusion, 10 mg/kg CAR is more effective than 5 mg/kg CAR in prevention of CP-induced oxidative damage on kidney.

Pharmacological Properties and Molecular Mechanisms of Thymol: Prospects for Its Therapeutic Potential and Pharmaceutical Development

Thymol, chemically known as 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol is a colorless crystalline monoterpene phenol. It is one of the most important dietary constituents in thyme species. For centuries, it has been used in traditional medicine and has been shown to possess various pharmacological properties including antioxidant, free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antispasmodic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiseptic and antitumor activities. The present article presents a detailed review of the scientific literature which reveals the pharmacological properties of thymol and its multiple therapeutic actions against various cardiovascular, neurological, rheumatological, gastrointestinal, metabolic and malignant diseases at both biochemical and molecular levels. The noteworthy effects of thymol are largely attributed to its anti-inflammatory (via inhibiting recruitment of cytokines and chemokines), antioxidant (via scavenging of free radicals, enhancing the endogenous enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants and chelation of metal ions), antihyperlipidemic (via increasing the levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol and decreasing the levels of low density lipoprotein cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol in the circulation and membrane stabilization) (via maintaining ionic homeostasis) effects. This review presents an overview of the current in vitro and in vivo data supporting thymol's therapeutic activity and the challenges concerning its use for prevention and its therapeutic value as a dietary supplement or as a pharmacological agent or as an adjuvant along with current therapeutic agents for the treatment of various diseases. It is one of the potential candidates of natural origin that has shown promising therapeutic potential, pharmacological properties and molecular mechanisms as well as pharmacokinetic properties for the pharmaceutical development of thymol.