LC/MS/MS analysis of α-tocopherol and coenzyme Q10 content in lyophilized royal jelly, beebread and drone homogenate

Contamination of Honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) Royal Jelly by Pesticides and Sample Preparation Methods for Its Determination: A Critical Appraisal

Pesticides can easily enter the food chain, harming bee populations and ecosystems. Exposure of beehive products to various contaminants has been identified as one of the factors contributing to the decline in bee populations, and multiple food alerts have been reported. Despite this fact, royal jelly, a valuable bee product with nutritional and functional properties, has received less attention in this context. Pesticide residues of different chemical class can contaminate royal jelly when foraging bees collect pollen or nectar from pesticide-treated flowers, or in some cases, due to its frequent and inappropriate use in the treatment of mites in beehives. To monitor this issue and also make it more reliable, it is crucial to develop effective sample preparation methods for extracting pesticides from royal jelly for subsequent analysis. In this context, this review provides information about sample preparation methods (solid-phase extraction, solvent extraction, and QuEChERS-quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe) and analytical methods that have been validated or improved to extract and analyze pesticides, respectively, in royal jelly samples of different origins. Finally, future perspectives are discussed. With this background, we aim to provide data that can guide future research related to this topic.

Recent advances and opportunities related to the use of bee products in food processing

Nowadays, natural foods that can provide positive health effects are gaining more and more popularity. Bees and the products they produce are our common natural heritage that should be developed. In the article, we presented the characteristics of bee products and their use in industry. We described the development and importance of beekeeping in the modern world. Due to their high nutritional value and therapeutic properties, bee products are of great interest and their consumption is constantly growing. The basis for the use of bee products in human nutrition is their properties and unique chemical composition. The conducted research and opinions confirm the beneficial effect of bee products on health. The current consumer awareness of the positive impact of food having a pro-health effect on health and well-being affects the increase in interest and demand for this type of food among various social groups. Enriching the daily diet with bee products may support the functioning of the organism. New technologies have appeared on the market to improve the process of obtaining bee products. The use of bee products plays a large role in many industries; moreover, the consumption of bee products and promotion of their medicinal properties are very important in shaping proper eating habits.

Bee Pollen and Bread as a Super-Food: A Comparative Review of Their Metabolome Composition and Quality Assessment in the Context of Best Recovery Conditions

Recently, functional foods have been a subject of great interest in dietetics owing not only to their nutritional value but rather their myriad of health benefits. Moreover, an increase in consumers' demands for such valuable foods warrants the development in not only production but rather tools of quality and nutrient assessment. Bee products, viz., pollen (BP) and bread, are normally harvested from the flowering plants with the aid of bees. BP is further subjected to a fermentation process in bee hives to produce the more valuable and bioavailable BB. Owing to their nutritional and medicinal properties, bee products are considered as an important food supplements rich in macro-, micro-, and phytonutrients. Bee products are rich in carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids, and minerals in addition to a myriad of phytonutrients such as phenolic compounds, anthocyanins, volatiles, and carotenoids. Moreover, unsaturated fatty acids (USFAs) of improved lipid profile such as linoleic, linolenic, and oleic were identified in BP and BB. This work aims to present a holistic overview of BP and BB in the context of their composition and analysis, and to highlight optimized extraction techniques to maximize their value and future applications in nutraceuticals.

The Comparison of Antioxidant Performance, Immune Performance, IIS Activity and Gut Microbiota Composition between Queen and Worker Bees Revealed the Mechanism of Different Lifespan of Female Casts in the Honeybee

Queen bees and worker bees both develop from fertilized eggs, whereas queens live longer than workers. The mechanism of this phenomenon is worth exploring. Antioxidant capacity, immune and IIS are the conserved mechanisms of aging. The importance of gut bacteria for health prompted us to connect with bee aging. Therefore, the differences of antioxidant, immune, IIS and gut microflora between queen and worker bees were compared to find potential mechanisms of queens' longevity. The results showed queens had stronger antioxidant capacity and lower immune pathway and IIS activity than workers. The higher expression level of catalase and SOD1/2 in queens resulted in the stronger ROS scavenging ability, which leads to the lower ROS level and the reduced accumulation of oxidative damage products in queens. The lower IMD expression and higher antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) expressions in queens suggested that queens maintain lower immune pathway activity and stronger immune capacity than workers. Gut bacteria composition analysis indicated that queens had supernal Acetobacteraceae (notably Commensalibacter and Bombella), Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium over workers. In conclusion, antioxidant, immune, IIS, and gut symbiotic bacteria all contribute to the longevity of queens. This study provides more insights into revealing the mechanisms of queens' longevity.

Chemical composition and androgenic effect of bee drone larvae (Apilarnil) for goat male kids

Present study aimed to establish the stimulatory effects of bee drone larvae (BDL) on the androgenic effects and growth performance of goat male kids (GMK). The effects of BDL on growth and testosterone hormone levels were investigated in Saanen male kids. A total of 26 Saanen male kids (13 heads control, 13 heads treatment groups) were used for determining the effects of BDL 60 days after the weaning period. BDL was obtained from "good beekeeping practices" hives. Hormone levels, growth trials, testes characteristics, and body measurements were determined every 14 days on the days 75, 90, 105, 120, and 135 of the trial. The increasing level of testosterone hormone in the treatment group on 135 days strengthened the hypothesis that the BDL could have greater effects in case of more application that is expensive and considering the time of maturity of Saanen GMK. The lipid composition of BDL was identified by GC-MS. Oleic acid (64.75%) and palmitic acid (26.08%) were the dominant lipid compounds of BDL. Additionally, the phenolic/organic acid profile investigated by HPLC-DAD revealed that trans -aconitic acid (11.20±0.32 μg/g) and fumaric acid (5.03±0.41 μg/g) were found as major compounds in BDL.

Evaluation of total phenols content, anti-DPPH activity and the content of selected antioxidants in the honeybee drone brood homogenate

The subject of the present research is the evaluation of health-promoting properties caused by the presence of some vitamins as well as the antioxidative potential of the honeybee drone brood homogenate (DBH). The study used 139 homogenate samples obtained from various apiaries and collected over 3 years, three times during each beekeeping season. Samples differed in terms of varroa infestation, stage of brood development, location of the apiary, and the degree of environmental contamination. The content of ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, all-trans-retinol, and coenzyme Q₁₀ in the tested samples was determined through the application of HPLC/DAD/UV and LC/QQQ/MS methods. The antioxidant potential of samples was assessed using the Folin-Ciocalteu and DPPH methods.

Bee stimulation to form protein food reserves

We have investigated different ways of bees’ stimulation to lay protein food while using artificial honeycombs. It has been proved that the use of artificial combs to get bee-bread upon the condition of the post-treatment processing of its elements by wax and honey syrup does not stimulate bees to lay and process protein food in their cells. It has been identified that upon the condition of the direct involvement of the working bees into the formation of bee-bread supplies the protein food has been mostly consumed. This proves that the working bees use the freshly-gathered pollen pellet for their own needs in the period of its active gathering. It has been determined that the most effective way of bee stimulation to reprocess pollen pellet into bee-bread is it's single densifying in artificial honeycombs with the follow-up processing of the upper layer of the feed by honey. This way encourages bees to form stocks of bee bread and decreases their activity of consuming protein food from cells of artificial honeycombs. The processing of thickened pollen pellet by honey probably oppresses the bees’ need to consume protein food from the packed cells redirecting them to other honeycombs of the bee family’s nest which has areas with bee-bread reserves.

Antimicrobial Activity of Bee-Collected Pollen and Beebread: State of the Art and Future Perspectives

Bee-collected pollen (BCP) is a well-known functional food. Honey bees process the collected pollen and store it in the hive, inside the comb cells. The processed pollen is called bee- bread or ambrosia and it is the main source of proteins, lipids, vitamins, macro-and micro-elements in honey bee nutrition. During storage, beebread undergoes solid state fermentation which preserves it and increases the bioavailability of nutrients. Research on beebread has been rather limited until now. In recent years, there is an increasing interest regarding the antimicrobial properties of BCP and beebread, due to emerging antimicrobial resistance by pathogens. Both BCP and beebread exhibit antimicrobial properties against diverse pathogens, like bacteria and fungi. As is the case with other bee products, lack of antimicrobial resistance might be attributed to the synergy of more than one antimicrobial compounds within BCP and beebread. Furthermore, BCP and bee bread exert targeted activity against pathogens and affect the host microbiome in a prebiotic manner. This review aims to present up to date research findings regarding these aspects as well as to discuss current challenges and future perspectives in the field.

Preparation of Beebread Caviar from Buckwheat Honey through Immobilization with Sodium Alginate

Honeys have a pleasant taste and a wide range of use. They are characterized by a relatively high consumption compared to bee pollen or beebread. Honeys are the most popular bee products. Considering health reasons, beebread exhibits the strongest properties as it has the highest nutritional value as well as strong detoxifying, antioxidant, and antiradical properties. Despite having such valuable properties, consumption of beebread is negligible; sometimes, it is limited only to supplementation in case of diseases. This paper proposes a new food product, that is, beebread caviar made from buckwheat honey. The expiry date and sensory and physicochemical quality of beebread caviar have been determined in this study. Beebread caviar, obtained by immobilization on alginate carrier, contained 0.34 mg GAE/mL extract. It remained stable until five days after preparation. Its total acidity was 33.7 mval/kg. Its extract content was 22.53%. Caviar had a high overall sensory score of 4.8 points on a 5-point scale. Beebread caviar can be successfully classified as probiotic food because beebread contains a large amount of lactic acid. In the form of caviar, a new, attractive, and convenient form of beebread consumption could become one of the products of comfortable and functional food.

Bee Bread: Physicochemical Characterization and Phenolic Content Extraction Optimization

Beebread or ambrosia is a unique product for humans and bees, which is the result of lactic fermentation on pollen in honeycombs. Bee bread is a rich source of nutrients (proteins, vitamins) and polyphenols (such as flavonoids, flavonols, phenolic acids). This study aimed to characterize bee bread in terms of physicochemical properties: pH, free acidity, glucose, fructose, sucrose, raffinose and melesitose content, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavones content (TFC), fatty acids and individual phenolics (gallic acid, protocatechiuc acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, caffeic acid, vanillic acid, chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, rosmarinic acid, myricetin, luteolin, quercetin and kaempferol). The main phenolic compound identified in the bee bread was kaempferol, followed by myricetin and luteolin. The TPC, TFC and extraction yield were optimized in function of ultrasonic amplitude, temperature and time and the suitable conditions for achieving the maximum level were 87.20% amplitude of ultrasonic treatment, 64.70 °C and 23.10 min, respectively for reaching 146.2 mg GAE/L of TPC, 1231.5 mg QE/g of TFC and a 5.72% extraction yield. The most abundant fatty acids were C18:3 (all-cis-9,12,15) octadeca-6,9,15-trienoic acid, followed by C16:1 (9Z)-hexadec-9-enoic acid, C21:0 heneicosanoic acid and C18:2 (all-cis-9,12) (9Z,12Z)-octadeca-9,12-dienoic acid, respectively.

What do we need to know about drone brood homogenate and what is known

ETNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Polish folk customs, bees are surrounded by the nimbus of holiness, which is reflected in a series of proverbs and phrases in colloquial speech (Markiewicowa, 1992). It was believed that products derived from the beehive, resulting from the effort of insects are endowed with special healing and nutritive properties. As such, bee products have been used in natural medicine for centuries (Markiewicowa, 1992). Nowadays, these properties have been confirmed by systematic scientific assessment. The largest number of scientific reports are focused on the nutritive properties and therapeutic action of propolis, royal jelly, honey, bee venom and pollen. Less information can be found about another product of beekeeping which is drone brood. Drones are responsible for the fertilization of a queen bee, thereby prolonging bee species. In addition to reproduction, they do not perform any others important functions in the bee community, except draining food resources collected by worker bees. For this reason, the excess of the drone brood is removed from the hive by the beekeepers. Before the winter bees themselves banish the adult drones from the hive. The removal of drone brood has a function in the prevention and treatment of varroosis, bee parasitic disease caused by the Varroa destructor mites. Beekeepers and scientists have noticed that this parasite accumulates in wax cells in which young drones develop.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this work was to assess the current state of knowledge on the nutritional and biological properties of the drone homogenate (DBH). Information about biological or pharmacological effects of DBH are limited and research results are published in very local scientific journals. The authors tried to gather available information of the chemical composition, methods of storing and preserving the brood, as well as on biological activity and application in nutrition and medicine. The collected facts prove that this product is wrongly regarded by majority of Western beekeepers as waste. Studies carried out on animal models show that the homogenate exhibits androgenic effect and led to improve animals productive capacity. DBH is able to stimulate the immune system (stimulating the production of antibodies by the spleen and the immune response of T lymphocytes) as well as reduction the parameters of oxidative stress and the risk of death due to cardiovascular episode (Bogdanov, 2012).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In searching for information on drone brood, generally available publishing databases such as Scopus, Google scholar, and PubMed were used. Search words were: "drone homogenate", drone brood", "bee brood", "drone larvae", "drone milk". Due to the number of publications available in English, information on the drone homogenate was also searched in Russian. Patent studies of agents containing drone homogenate were searched at http://patents.google.com.

RESULTS

This work gathers information on the chemical composition, methods of storage and preservation as well as the action of the biological drone homogenate. In addition, information on the effect of the drone homogenate on animal organisms and the use of homogenate in various disease entities in humans has been provided. Manuscript also contains information on the use of the drone homogenate as a dietary and food supplement. The critical discussion on available results was provided.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents the most important information on the use of drone brood in folk medicine. The studies carried out with the use of animals and humans have shown that the drone brood has an adjuvant effect that improves the efficiency of the organism. Due to its high content of amino acids and proteins, it is used as a tonic and adaptogenic agent. The presence of sex hormones in the homogenate allows its use as a potency raising agent and equalizing the hormonal system in people of both sexes. Based on the facts quoted above, it can be concluded that DBH is a promising nutritional product, an unjustly neglected source of valuable substances not only such as proteins, fatty acids but also vitamins, hormones and antioxidants.