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Gastañaduy PA, Banerjee E, DeBolt C, Bravo-Alcántara P, Samad SA, Pastor D, Rota PA, Patel M, Crowcroft NS, Durrheim DN. Public health responses during measles outbreaks in elimination settings: Strategies and challenges. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2018; 14:2222-2238. [PMID: 29932850 PMCID: PMC6207419 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2018.1474310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In late September 2016, the Americas became the first region in the world to have eliminated endemic transmission of measles virus. Several other countries have also verified measles elimination, and countries in all six World Health Organization regions have adopted measles elimination goals. The public health strategies used to respond to measles outbreaks in elimination settings are thus becoming relevant to more countries. This review highlights the strategies used to limit measles spread in elimination settings: (1) assembly of an outbreak control committee; (2) isolation of measles cases while infectious; (3) exclusion and quarantining of individuals without evidence of immunity; (4) vaccination of susceptible individuals; (5) use of immunoglobulin to prevent measles in exposed susceptible high-risk persons; (6) and maintaining laboratory proficiency for confirmation of measles. Deciding on the extent of containment efforts should be based on the expected benefit of reactive interventions, balanced against the logistical challenges in implementing them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A. Gastañaduy
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Emily Banerjee
- Vaccine Preventable Disease Surveillance Unit, Minnesota Department of Health, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Chas DeBolt
- Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, Washington State Department of Health, Shoreline, WA, USA
| | - Pamela Bravo-Alcántara
- Comprehensive Family Immunization Unit, Pan American Health Organization, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - Desiree Pastor
- Comprehensive Family Immunization Unit, Pan American Health Organization, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Paul A. Rota
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Manisha Patel
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Natasha S. Crowcroft
- Public Health Ontario, Toronto, ON, Canada; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - David N. Durrheim
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
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Harvala H, Wiman Å, Wallensten A, Zakikhany K, Englund H, Brytting M. Role of Sequencing the Measles Virus Hemagglutinin Gene and Hypervariable Region in the Measles Outbreak Investigations in Sweden During 2013–2014. J Infect Dis 2015; 213:592-9. [DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiv434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
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O' Riordan B, Carr MJ, Connell J, Dunford L, Hall WW, Hassan J. Seroepidemiology and phylogenetic characterisation of measles virus in Ireland, 2004-2013. J Clin Virol 2014; 60:374-80. [PMID: 24929750 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2014.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2013] [Revised: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ireland is classified as an area of high measles incidence. A World Health Organisation-European Region strategic plan exists for measles elimination by 2015. OBJECTIVES To retrospectively investigate measles outbreaks using all patient samples (sera and oral fluid) received for measles laboratory diagnosis and characterise the genetic diversity of circulating measles genotypes in Ireland. STUDY DESIGN 704 cases of acute measles infection as determined by the presence of measles specific IgM in sera and oral fluids were confirmed at the National Virus Reference Laboratory. Measles positive samples (n=116) were examined by genotyping, sequence analysis and phylogenetic characterisation. RESULTS Three measles outbreaks occurred over the study period: 2004, 2009/2010 and 2011. Measles IgM positivity ranged from 22-29% in outbreak years to 5-10% in the intervening years. Age profile analysis revealed that whereas individuals >10 years accounted for only 8% of cases in the 2004 outbreak, this increased to 33% and 29% in the 2009/2010 and 2011 outbreaks, respectively. The <1 year cohort accounted for 18-20% of cases in all outbreaks. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated both indigenous transmission and also importation events. Clade D viruses were exclusively found circulating in Ireland, with autochthonous transmission of diverse genotype D4 strains associated with large outbreaks across Europe. More recently, genotype D8 was identified and these were associated with importation events. CONCLUSIONS This study provides a comprehensive genetic analysis of circulating measles genotypes in Ireland and discriminated between indigenous and imported viral strains. Notably, an increase in laboratory-confirmed measles cases in the greater than 10 years of age group was seen over the study period. This information is valuable to inform vaccination strategies with a focus on those populations who remain susceptible to measles infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernadette O' Riordan
- National Virus Reference Laboratory, School of Medicine and Medical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Michael J Carr
- National Virus Reference Laboratory, School of Medicine and Medical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Jeff Connell
- National Virus Reference Laboratory, School of Medicine and Medical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Linda Dunford
- National Virus Reference Laboratory, School of Medicine and Medical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - William W Hall
- National Virus Reference Laboratory, School of Medicine and Medical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Jaythoon Hassan
- National Virus Reference Laboratory, School of Medicine and Medical Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Salimi V, Abbasi S, Zahraei SM, Fatemi-Nasab G, Adjaminezhad-Fard F, Shadab A, Ghavami N, Zareh-Khoshchehre R, Soltanshahi R, Bont L, Mokhtari-Azad T. Implementation of a national measles elimination program in Iran: Phylogenetic analysis of measles virus strains isolated during 2010-2012 outbreaks. PLoS One 2014; 9:e94846. [PMID: 24736720 PMCID: PMC3988093 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Measles virus (MV) causes small and large outbreaks in Iran. Molecular assays allow identifying and the sources of measles imported from neighboring countries. We carried out a phylogenetic analysis of measles virus circulating in Iran over the period 2010-2012. Specimens from suspected cases of measles were collected from different regions of Iran. Virus isolation was performed on urine and throat swabs. Partial nucleoprotein gene segments of MV were amplified by RT-PCR. PCR products of 173 samples were sequenced and analyzed. The median age of confirmed cases was 2 years. Among all confirmed cases, 32% had unknown vaccination status, 20% had been vaccinated, and 48% had not been vaccinated. Genotypes B3 and D8 (for the first time), H1 and D4 were detected mainly in unvaccinated toddlers and young children. Genotype B3 became predominant in 2012 and was closely related to African strains. H1 strains were also found in small and large outbreaks during 2012 but were not identical to Iranian H1-2009 strains. A majority of the Iranian D4 strains during 2010-2012 outbreaks were linked to the D4 strain identified in the Pakistan in 2007. We identified a single case in 2010 belonging to D8 genotype with 99.7% identity to Indian isolates. Although the vaccination program is currently good enough to prevent nationwide epidemics and successfully decreased measles incidence in Iran, the fraction of protected individuals in the population was not high enough to prevent continuous introduction of cases from abroad. Due to increasing number of susceptible individuals in some areas, sustained transmission of the newly introduced viral genotype remains possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Salimi
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- National Reference Laboratory for Measles and Rubella, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Simin Abbasi
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Mohsen Zahraei
- Vaccine Preventable Diseases Department, Center for Communicable Diseases Control, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ghazal Fatemi-Nasab
- National Reference Laboratory for Measles and Rubella, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Adjaminezhad-Fard
- National Reference Laboratory for Measles and Rubella, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Azadeh Shadab
- National Reference Laboratory for Measles and Rubella, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nastaran Ghavami
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Raziyeh Zareh-Khoshchehre
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Rambod Soltanshahi
- Vaccine Preventable Diseases Department, Center for Communicable Diseases Control, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran
| | - Louis Bont
- Department of Pediatrics and Department of Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Talat Mokhtari-Azad
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- National Reference Laboratory for Measles and Rubella, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Ramirez A, Wang C, Prickett JR, Pogranichniy R, Yoon KJ, Main R, Johnson JK, Rademacher C, Hoogland M, Hoffmann P, Kurtz A, Kurtz E, Zimmerman J. Efficient surveillance of pig populations using oral fluids. Prev Vet Med 2011; 104:292-300. [PMID: 22154249 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Revised: 11/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Currently virus surveillance in swine herds is constrained by the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of sampling methods. The objective of this study was to assess the value of using oral fluids collected by barn personnel as a method of surveillance based on PCR testing. Approximately 12,150 pigs in 10 wean-to-finish barns on 10 farms were monitored for the presence of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), influenza A virus (IAV), and Torque teno virus genogroups 1 (TTV1) and 2 (TTV2) by sampling oral fluid specimens. Oral fluid samples were collected from 6 pens at each site starting at the time of pig placement (∼3 weeks of age) and continuing thereafter at 2-week intervals for a period of 18 weeks. Data were analyzed both on a pen basis and barn basis. Overall, 508 (85%) samples were positive for PCV2, 73 (12%) for PRRSV, 46 (8%) for IAV, 483 (81%) for TTV2, and 155 (26%) for TTV1 during the study period. The estimated arithmetic means of the quantitative PCR-positive oral fluids for PCV2, PRRSV, and IAV were 1×10(4.62), 1×10(4.97), and 1×10(5.49)per ml. With a single exception, all barns were positive for PCV2 and TTV2 at every sampling point in the study. Virus detection varied among barns, particularly for IAV and PRRSV. The pen level, cumulative distribution of agent combinations between all 10 barns were statistically different. The most commonly observed patterns were PCV2+TTV2 (239 pen samples, 40%), PCV2+TTV1+TTV2 (88 pen samples, 15%), and PCV2 alone (66 pen samples, 11%). This "proof-of-concept" project showed that a variety of viruses could be detected either intermittently or continuously in pig populations and demonstrated that barn herd virus status is highly variable, even among barns in the same production system. Oral fluid sampling is a promising approach for increasing the efficiency and cost effectiveness of virus surveillance in swine herds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Ramirez
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
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Galaï Y, Chabchoub N, Ben-Abid M, Ben-Abda I, Ben-Alaya-Bouafif N, Amri F, Aoun K, Bouratbine A. Diagnosis of mediterranean visceral leishmaniasis by detection of leishmania antibodies and leishmania DNA in oral fluid samples collected using an Oracol device. J Clin Microbiol 2011; 49:3150-3. [PMID: 21715587 PMCID: PMC3165591 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00267-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Current methods for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) require invasive sampling procedures such as visceral aspiration and/or blood drawing. The use of diagnostic tests using oral fluid, which is easier to collect, would be more simple and practical for VL diagnosis, especially under field conditions. Oral fluids from 37 VL patients and 40 healthy controls were collected using Oracol devices. Blood samples and oral fluid specimens from both groups were analyzed by recombinant protein K39 (rK39) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and quantitative real-time PCR. Detection of antibodies in the oral fluid had a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 97.5%. Antibody levels measured in serum and oral fluid showed a significant positive correlation (ρ = 0.655 and P = 0.01). Detection of Leishmania DNA in oral fluid had a sensitivity of 94.6% and a specificity of 90%. The median parasite load estimated in blood was 133 parasites/ml (interquartile range [IR], 10 to 1,048), whereas that in oral fluid specimens was 3 parasites/ml (IR, 0.41 to 92). However, there was no significant linear relationship between parasite loads assessed in the two biological samples (ρ = 0.31 and P = 0.06). VL diagnosis based on specific antibody detection and Leishmania DNA identification using oral fluid samples was equivalent in accuracy to that using blood and therefore is promising for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousr Galaï
- LR 05SP03, Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Najla Chabchoub
- LR 05SP03, Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Meriem Ben-Abid
- LR 05SP03, Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Imène Ben-Abda
- LR 05SP03, Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia
| | | | - Fethi Amri
- Paediatrics Department, Kairouan Regional Hospital, Kairouan, Tunisia
| | - Karim Aoun
- LR 05SP03, Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Aïda Bouratbine
- LR 05SP03, Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia
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Hutse V, Van Hecke K, De Bruyn R, Samu O, Lernout T, Muyembe JJ, Brochier B. Oral fluid for the serological and molecular diagnosis of measles. Int J Infect Dis 2010; 14:e991-7. [PMID: 20851015 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2010.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 06/02/2010] [Accepted: 06/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Since measles presents mostly in children, a non-invasive sample collection technique such as oral fluid sampling would be very useful in the early detection of measles RNA and antibodies. The aim of this study was to validate the detection of anti-measles IgM and measles virus RNA in oral fluid and to make a comparison with the gold standard methods of ELISA using serum (Enzygnost(®) anti-Measles IgM) and in-house nested reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using nasopharyngeal secretions. METHODS Three samples each from 73 measles-positive and 44 measles-negative subjects (serum, oral fluid, and nasopharyngeal secretions) were analyzed. RESULTS The anti-measles IgM ELISA (MicroImmune) on oral fluid was validated against the IgM ELISA (Siemens) for serum and this resulted in a sensitivity of 92% and specificity of 100%. A molecular nested RT-PCR using oral fluid was validated against the standard assay on nasopharyngeal secretions and gave a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 100%. CONCLUSIONS The results confirm that both serological and molecular oral fluid assays are suitable for routine use. The use of oral fluid samples for the detection of measles virus may encourage patients, general practitioners, and pediatricians to participate in the Belgian measles surveillance system and other epidemiological studies in the framework of the World Health Organization elimination program.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Hutse
- Viral Diseases, Scientific Institute of Public Health, Rue Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
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Waku-Kouomou D, Freymuth F, du Châtelet IP, Wild TF, Horvat B. Co-circulation of multiple measles virus genotypes during an epidemic in France in 2008. J Med Virol 2010; 82:1033-43. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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