Hepatitis E virus infection in HIV-infected patients: A large cohort study in Yunnan province, China

Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Infection Among Immunocompromised Individuals: A Brief Narrative Review

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to Hepeviridae family. HEV is the most common cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are estimated 20 million HEV infections worldwide every year, leading to estimated 3.3 million symptomatic cases of HEV infection. The WHO estimates that HEV infection caused approximately 44,000 deaths in 2015, which represents 3.3% of mortality rates due to viral hepatitis. In low-income (LI) countries and lower-middle-income (LMI) countries, HEV is a waterborne infection induced by HEV genotype (gt) 1 and HEV gt 2 that cause large outbreaks and affect young individuals with a high mortality rate in pregnant women from South Asian countries and patients with liver diseases. HEV gt 3, HEV gt 4, and HEV gt 7 are responsible for sporadic infections with zoonotic transmission mainly through the consumption of raw or undercooked meat from different animals. Acute HEV infection is relatively asymptomatic or mild clinical form, in rare cases the disease can be moderate/severe clinical forms and result in fulminant hepatitis or acute liver failure (ALF). Furthermore, HEV infection is associated with extrahepatic manifestations, including renal and neurological clinical signs and symptoms. Pregnant women, infants, older people, immunocompromised individuals, patients with comorbidities, and workers who come into close contact with HEV-infected animals are recognized as major risk groups for severe clinical form of HEV infection and fatal outcome. Chronic HEV infection can occur in immunocompromised individuals with the possibility of progression to cirrhosis.

Chronic hepatitis E: Advancing research and patient care

The hepatitis E virus (HEV) was initially thought to exclusively cause acute hepatitis. However, the first diagnosis of chronic hepatitis E in transplant recipients in 2008 profoundly changed our understanding of this pathogen. We have now begun to understand that specific HEV genotypes can cause chronic infection in certain immunocompromised populations. Over the past decade, dedicated clinical and experimental research has substantiated knowledge on the epidemiology, transmission routes, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnosis, clinical features and treatment of chronic HEV infection. Nevertheless, many gaps and major challenges remain, particularly regarding the translation of knowledge into disease prevention and improvement of clinical outcomes. This article aims to highlight the latest developments in the understanding and management of chronic hepatitis E. More importantly, we attempt to identify major knowledge gaps and discuss strategies for further advancing both research and patient care.

Hepatitis E in a Portuguese cohort of human immunodeficiency virus positive patients: High seroprevalence but no chronic infections

Introduction

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection causes zoonotic hepatitis in Europe, with a higher risk of complications in immunocompromised hosts. HEV natural history in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive patients is not fully understood, and its prevalence is unknown.

Objectives

To study the seroprevalence of HEV and prevalence of chronic HEV in HIV‐positive patients from Porto, Portugal.

Methods

We randomly selected patients from the cohort of HIV‐positive patients followed in our hospital. We performed an enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay to search for immunoglobulin G for HEV. When the absorbance/cut‐off was inferior to 3.5, the test was repeated, and a confirmatory test executed in that sample. For reactive tests and for immunosuppressed patients (CD4 count < 200/mm³) with nonreactive test, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test was also performed.

Results

We included 299 patients. The mean age was 48 and 75.3% were men. Regarding HIV infection, the median follow‐up time was 10 years, the acquisition was mainly heterosexual contact, and 94% were on antiretroviral therapy. Seventy‐six patients (25.4%) had reactive immunoglobulin G (IgG) hepatitis E serology. Patients with a reactive test were older (statistically significant difference). Otherwise, there was no difference between groups concerning birthplace, rural residence, chronic viral hepatitis coinfection, or cirrhosis. Nadir and actual T_CD4+ lymphocyte counts did not differ significantly from patients with HEV reactive and nonreactive serology. Gamma‐glutamyl‐transferase (GGT) was higher in patients with reactive IgG HEV. All serum HEV PCR tests were negative.

Conclusions

Seroprevalence of HEV was 25.4% in HIV‐positive patients. Older age and higher GGT correlated to HEV reactive IgG test. No cases of current hepatitis E were found.

HEV prevalence and potential risk factors in a large multi-ethnic youth cohort in China

BACKGROUND

This cohort study was designed to investigate the prevalence of and potential risk factors of HEV infection in a large multi-ethnic youth cohort in China.

METHODS

Blood samples were collected from participants (n = 6269) and serum was isolated. All serum samples were tested for anti-HEV IgG, anti-HEV IgM antibodies using commercial enzyme immunoassay kits (Wantai Biological Pharmacy Enterprise, Beijing, China).

RESULTS

The overall rate of anti-HEV IgG and anti-HEV IgM prevalence was 4.78% and 0.14%, 0.03% were positive for both anti-HEV IgG and anti-HEV IgM antibodies. Anti-HEV IgG positivity is significantly higher in females (5.27%) compared to males (4.14%) (P = 0.028). Anti-HEV IgG prevalence is significantly (P = 0.0001) higher in Dong (17.57%), Miao (12.23%), Yi (11.04%), Gelao (9.76%), and Bai (10.00%) compared to other ethnic groups. It is significantly higher in Guizhou (11.4%), Sichuan (10.1%), Yunnan (9.3%), and Guangxi (6.9%) than that other province. We found that ethnicity and provincial background are significantly associated with HEV infection in this cohort.

CONCLUSION

This study provides comprehensive information on HEV prevalence in multi-ethnic populations in China. However, our study only focused on a youth population from different provinces of China. Future studies are recommended to investigate HEV prevalence in other age groups of the ethnic populations.

Hepatitis E 3ra Genotype Infection in People Living With HIV in Spain

Background

The objective of our study was to assess the prevalence and incidence of HEV in people living with HIV (PLWH) in a Spanish national cohort.

Methods

Retrospective longitudinal study including PLWH recruited in the cohort of adult HIV-infected patients of the AIDS Research Network in follow-up at 28 Spanish hospitals with available serum samples in 2014 and 2015. All samples were tested for HEV IgG, IgM, and RNA. Samples with detectable HEV viral loads were genotyped. Prevalence and incidence of HEV infection were calculated.

Results

The study sample comprised 845 PLWH. At baseline, 101 patients were positive for HEV IgG antibodies (11.9%), none had HEV IgM antibodies, and 2 presented detectable HEV RNA (0.23%). Forty-two seroconverted for IgG, supposing a cumulative incidence of 5.7%. One subject was positive for IgM (0.13%), and 2 showed detectable HEV RNA (0.27%). One case was infected by the emergent HEV genotype 3ra.

Conclusion

Our study identifies one case of HEV 3ra genotype infection, the main host of which is rabbit, showing a potential zoonotic role of this emerging genotype in Spain.

Exposure to hepatitis E virus in hemodialysis patients from west-central Poland

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes travel-related but also locally acquired infections in industrialized parts of the world, including European countries. Food and blood transfusions are possible sources of transmission. Infections caused by zoonotic variants of the virus (particularly HEV-3) may progress to chronic liver disease in a nonnegligible proportion of immunocompromised people. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of serological markers of HEV infection in 189 patients on renal replacement therapy (RRT, currently on hemodialysis, HD) living in west-central Poland and to determine the factors related to HEV exposure in this group. Testing was carried out using commonly used commercial assays (Wantai Biological Pharmacy Enterprise Co, Beijing, China). Anti-HEV IgG was detected in 94 patients (49.7%); none of the participants had anti-HEV IgM or HEV Ag. Patients on RRT (HD) for less than 6 months were significantly more likely to be anti-HEV IgG-positive than dependent of RRT (HD) for more than half a year (80% vs 47%; P = .014). Exposure to HEV in patients from west-central Poland is frequent, but no clear sources of this infection have been identified. There were no serological features of ongoing liver disease caused by HEV in the study subjects.

Hepatitis E Infection in HIV-Infected Patients

BACKGROUND

The hepatitis E virus (HEV) represents a major cause of acute hepatitis worldwide. The majority of HEV cases occur in low-income countries, mainly Asia and Africa, where HEV causes large outbreaks associated with the consumption of contaminated water and high mortality in specific populations. In high-income countries, HEV infection is considered a zoonotic disease that is linked to the consumption of contaminated food. Although a high proportion of cases have self-limiting asymptomatic or subclinical infections, immunosuppression may modify the pathogenesis and clinical impact of this emerging disease.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Here, we review the current knowledge about the epidemiology, diagnosis, clinical manifestations, management and prevention of HEV infection in HIV-infected subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the increasing knowledge about the pathogenesis, epidemiology and clinical impact of HEV infection, several major factors are faced by HIV-infected patients, including treatment recommendations, immunization and risk practices.

Prevalence of hepatitis E infection in HIV/HCV-coinfected patients in Spain (2012-2014)

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has emerged as a relevant pathogen for HIV-infected patients. However, there is scarce data on HEV infection in HIV/HCV-coinfected individuals with advanced fibrosis, which seems to increase the risk of HEV infection and worsen the prognosis of liver disease. We aimed to determine the prevalence of anti-HEV antibodies, acute hepatitis E, resolved hepatitis E, and exposure to HEV in HIV/HCV-coinfected patients and to evaluate associations with clinical and epidemiological characteristics. We performed a cross-sectional study on 198 HIV/HCV-coinfected patients, 30 healthy controls and 36 HIV-monoinfected patients. We found a low concordance between techniques used for detection of anti-HEV antibodies (ELISA versus Immunoblot), particularly in HIV/HCV-coinfected patients. HIV/HCV-coinfected patients showed the highest prevalence of IgG against HEV, resolved hepatitis E, and exposure to HEV (19.2%, 17.2%, and 22.2% respectively). However, we did not find any samples positive for HEV-RNA nor significant differences between groups. Moreover, HIV/HCV-coinfected patients with CD4 T-cells <350 cells/mm³ had higher prevalence for anti-HEV IgG antibodies, resolved hepatitis E, and exposure to HEV than healthy controls or those with CD4 T-cells ≥ 350 cells/mm³ (p = 0.034, p = 0.035, and p = 0.053; respectively). In conclusion, HIV/HCV-coinfected patients in Spain have a high prevalence for IgG anti-HEV antibodies, resolved hepatitis E, and exposure to HEV; particularly patients with CD4+T-cells <350 cells/mm³.

Risk analysis and seroprevalence of HEV in people living with HIV/AIDS in Brazil

Acute Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) can lead to fulminant hepatic failure, cirrhosis and death. The prevalence of anti-HEV antibodies within this group varies according to the geographical area. However, in South America, studies concerning the detection of HEV in PLHA are rare. Here, we investigated the presence of HEV by serological and molecular detection and evaluated the risk factors associated with infection in PLHA in Pernambuco state, Brazilian Northeast. Serological and molecular detection of HEV was performed in 366 samples of PLHA by ELISA for anti-HEV IgG and RT-PCR, respectively. Anti-HEV IgG prevalence was 4.1% (15/366) and no HEV RNA was detected. Concerning the risk factors, we evaluated, in multivariable analysis, age, years of school, sexual orientation, oral-anal sex, use of injectable drugs and piped water. Among them, only piped water availability could be associated with the HEV infection in PLHA (OR: 0.08; CI 95%: 0.01-0.66; p = 0.0182). This study showed for the first time the association of piped water as protection factor for HEV infection in PLHA. Finally, this is also the first report of HEV seroprevalence in PLHA in the Northeast Brazil.