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Buehler A, Brown E, Paulus L, Eckstein M, Thoma O, Oraiopoulou M, Rother U, Hoerning A, Hartmann A, Neurath MF, Woelfle J, Friedrich O, Waldner MJ, Knieling F, Bohndiek SE, Regensburger AP. Transrectal Absorber Guide Raster-Scanning Optoacoustic Mesoscopy for Label-Free In Vivo Assessment of Colitis. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2300564. [PMID: 37083262 PMCID: PMC10288266 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202300564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Optoacoustic imaging (OAI) enables microscale imaging of endogenous chromophores such as hemoglobin at significantly higher penetration depths compared to other optical imaging technologies. Raster-scanning optoacoustic mesoscopy (RSOM) has recently been shown to identify superficial microvascular changes associated with human skin pathologies. In animal models, the imaging depth afforded by RSOM can enable entirely new capabilities for noninvasive imaging of vascular structures in the gastrointestinal tract, but exact localization of intra-abdominal organs is still elusive. Herein the development and application of a novel transrectal absorber guide for RSOM (TAG-RSOM) is presented to enable accurate transabdominal localization and assessment of colonic vascular networks in vivo. The potential of TAG-RSOM is demonstrated through application during mild and severe acute colitis in mice. TAG-RSOM enables visualization of transmural vascular networks, with changes in colon wall thickness, blood volume, and OAI signal intensities corresponding to colitis-associated inflammatory changes. These findings suggest TAG-RSOM can provide a novel monitoring tool in preclinical IBD models, refining animal procedures and underlines the capabilities of such technologies to address inflammatory bowel diseases in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Buehler
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent MedicineUniversity Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91054ErlangenGermany
| | - Emma Brown
- Department of Physics and Cancer Research UK Cambridge InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeCB2 0REUK
| | - Lars‐Philip Paulus
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent MedicineUniversity Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91054ErlangenGermany
| | - Markus Eckstein
- Institute of PathologyFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91054ErlangenGermany
| | - Oana‐Maria Thoma
- Department of Medicine 1University Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91052ErlangenGermany
| | - Mariam‐Eleni Oraiopoulou
- Department of Physics and Cancer Research UK Cambridge InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeCB2 0REUK
| | - Ulrich Rother
- Department of Vascular SurgeryUniversity Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91054ErlangenGermany
| | - André Hoerning
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent MedicineUniversity Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91054ErlangenGermany
| | - Arndt Hartmann
- Institute of PathologyFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91054ErlangenGermany
| | - Markus F. Neurath
- Department of Medicine 1University Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91052ErlangenGermany
| | - Joachim Woelfle
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent MedicineUniversity Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91054ErlangenGermany
| | - Oliver Friedrich
- Institute of Medical BiotechnologyDepartment of Chemical and Biological EngineeringFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91052ErlangenGermany
| | - Maximilian J. Waldner
- Department of Medicine 1University Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91052ErlangenGermany
| | - Ferdinand Knieling
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent MedicineUniversity Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91054ErlangenGermany
| | - Sarah E. Bohndiek
- Department of Physics and Cancer Research UK Cambridge InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeCB2 0REUK
| | - Adrian P. Regensburger
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent MedicineUniversity Hospital ErlangenFriedrich‐Alexander‐Universität (FAU) Erlangen‐Nürnberg91054ErlangenGermany
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2
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Vandoorne K, Rohde D, Kim HY, Courties G, Wojtkiewicz G, Honold L, Hoyer FF, Frodermann V, Nayar R, Herisson F, Jung Y, Désogère PA, Vinegoni C, Caravan P, Weissleder R, Sosnovik DE, Lin CP, Swirski FK, Nahrendorf M. Imaging the Vascular Bone Marrow Niche During Inflammatory Stress. Circ Res 2019; 123:415-427. [PMID: 29980569 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.118.313302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Inflammatory stress induced by exposure to bacterial lipopolysaccharide causes hematopoietic stem cell expansion in the bone marrow niche, generating a cellular immune response. As an integral component of the hematopoietic stem cell niche, the bone marrow vasculature regulates the production and release of blood leukocytes, which protect the host against infection but also fuel inflammatory diseases. OBJECTIVE We aimed to develop imaging tools to explore vascular changes in the bone marrow niche during acute inflammation. METHODS AND RESULTS Using the TLR (Toll-like receptor) ligand lipopolysaccharide as a prototypical danger signal, we applied multiparametric, multimodality and multiscale imaging to characterize how the bone marrow vasculature adapts when hematopoiesis boosts leukocyte supply. In response to lipopolysaccharide, ex vivo flow cytometry and histology showed vascular changes to the bone marrow niche. Specifically, proliferating endothelial cells gave rise to new vasculature in the bone marrow during hypoxic conditions. We studied these vascular changes with complementary intravital microscopy and positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging. Fluorescence and positron emission tomography integrin αVβ3 imaging signal increased during lipopolysaccharide-induced vascular remodeling. Vascular leakiness, quantified by albumin-based in vivo microscopy and magnetic resonance imaging, rose when neutrophils departed and hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells proliferated more vigorously. CONCLUSIONS Introducing a tool set to image bone marrow either with cellular resolution or noninvasively within the entire skeleton, this work sheds light on angiogenic responses that accompany emergency hematopoiesis. Understanding and monitoring bone marrow vasculature may provide a key to unlock therapeutic targets regulating systemic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrien Vandoorne
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - David Rohde
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - Hye-Yeong Kim
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | | | - Gregory Wojtkiewicz
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - Lisa Honold
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - Friedrich Felix Hoyer
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - Vanessa Frodermann
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - Ribhu Nayar
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - Fanny Herisson
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - Yookyung Jung
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.).,Wellman Center for Photomedicine (Y.J., C.P.L.)
| | - Pauline A Désogère
- Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston; Department of Radiology, Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging (P.A.D., P.C., D.E.S.)
| | - Claudio Vinegoni
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - Peter Caravan
- Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston; Department of Radiology, Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging (P.A.D., P.C., D.E.S.)
| | - Ralph Weissleder
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.).,Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown; and Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (R.W.)
| | - David E Sosnovik
- Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston; Department of Radiology, Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging (P.A.D., P.C., D.E.S.).,Cardiovascular Research Center (D.E.S., M.N.)
| | - Charles P Lin
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.).,Wellman Center for Photomedicine (Y.J., C.P.L.)
| | - Filip K Swirski
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.)
| | - Matthias Nahrendorf
- From the Department of Imaging, Center for Systems Biology (K.V., D.R., H.-Y.K., G.G., G.W., L.H., F.F.H., V.F., R.N., F.H., Y.J., C.V., R.W., C.P.L., F.K.S., M.N.).,Cardiovascular Research Center (D.E.S., M.N.)
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Durymanov M, Kamaletdinova T, Lehmann SE, Reineke J. Exploiting passive nanomedicine accumulation at sites of enhanced vascular permeability for non-cancerous applications. J Control Release 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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4
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Vandoorne K, Vandsburger MH, Jacobs I, Han Y, Dafni H, Nicolay K, Strijkers GJ. Noninvasive mapping of endothelial dysfunction in myocardial ischemia by magnetic resonance imaging using an albumin-based contrast agent. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2016; 29:1500-1510. [PMID: 27604064 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.3599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Noninvasive preclinical methods for the characterization of myocardial vascular function are crucial to an understanding of the dynamics of ischemic cardiac disease. Ischemic heart disease is associated with myocardial endothelial dysfunction, resulting in leakage of plasma albumin into the extravascular space. These features can be harnessed in a novel noninvasive three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging method to measure fractional blood volume (fBV) and vascular permeability (permeability-surface area product, PS) using labeled albumin as a blood pool contrast agent. C57BL/6 mice were imaged before and 3 days after myocardial infarction (MI). Following the quantification of endogenous myocardial R1 , the dynamics of intravenously injected albumin-based contrast agent, extravasating from permeable myocardial blood vessels, were tracked on short-axis magnetic resonance images of the entire heart. This study successfully discriminated between infarcted and remote regions at 3 days post-infarct, based on a reduced fBV and increased PS in the infarcted region. These findings were confirmed using ex vivo fluorescence imaging and histology. We have demonstrated a novel method to quantify blood volume and permeability in the infarcted myocardium, providing an imaging biomarker for the assessment of endothelial dysfunction. This method has the potential to three-dimensionally visualize subtle changes in myocardial permeability and to track endothelial function for longitudinal cardiac studies determining pathophysiological processes during infarct healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrien Vandoorne
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands.
| | | | - I Jacobs
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Y Han
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Hagit Dafni
- Department of Veterinary Resources, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Klaas Nicolay
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Gustav J Strijkers
- Biomedical NMR, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
- Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Academic Medical Center (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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5
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Noninvasive Longitudinal Study of a Magnetic Resonance Imaging Biomarker for the Quantification of Colon Inflammation in a Mouse Model of Colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2016; 22:1286-95. [PMID: 27104818 DOI: 10.1097/mib.0000000000000755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Colonoscopy is the gold standard to diagnose and follow up the evolution of inflammatory bowel diseases. However, this technique can still present a risk of severe complications, a general discomfort in patients, and its diagnostic value is limited to the visualization of the colon mucosal changes. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is emerging as a noninvasive imaging technique of choice to overcome these limitations. The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential of colon wall thickness measured using MRI as an in vivo imaging biomarker of inflammation for inflammatory bowel disease in an animal model of this disease. METHODS On day 0, 2% or 3% Dextran sodium sulfate was added to the drinking water of mice (n = 10/group) for 5 days. Six mice were left as controls. Animals were imaged with colonoscopy and MRI on days 7, 11, and 21 to study the colitis progression. Histology was performed at the end of the protocol. RESULTS The colon wall thickness measured in Dextran sodium sulfate-treated animals was shown to be significantly and dose dependently increased compared to controls. Colonoscopy showed similar results and excellently correlated with MRI measurements and histology. The proposed protocol showed high robustness, with negligible interoperator and intraoperator variability. CONCLUSIONS The findings of this investigation suggest the feasibility of using MRI for the noninvasive assessment of colon wall thickness as a robust surrogate biomarker for colon inflammation detection and follow-up. The data presented show the potential of MRI in in vivo preclinical longitudinal studies, including testing of new drugs or investigation of inflammatory bowel disease development mechanisms.
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6
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Granger DN, Holm L, Kvietys P. The Gastrointestinal Circulation: Physiology and Pathophysiology. Compr Physiol 2016; 5:1541-83. [PMID: 26140727 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c150007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The gastrointestinal (GI) circulation receives a large fraction of cardiac output and this increases following ingestion of a meal. While blood flow regulation is not the intense phenomenon noted in other vascular beds, the combined responses of blood flow, and capillary oxygen exchange help ensure a level of tissue oxygenation that is commensurate with organ metabolism and function. This is evidenced in the vascular responses of the stomach to increased acid production and in intestine during periods of enhanced nutrient absorption. Complimenting the metabolic vasoregulation is a strong myogenic response that contributes to basal vascular tone and to the responses elicited by changes in intravascular pressure. The GI circulation also contributes to a mucosal defense mechanism that protects against excessive damage to the epithelial lining following ingestion of toxins and/or noxious agents. Profound reductions in GI blood flow are evidenced in certain physiological (strenuous exercise) and pathological (hemorrhage) conditions, while some disease states (e.g., chronic portal hypertension) are associated with a hyperdynamic circulation. The sacrificial nature of GI blood flow is essential for ensuring adequate perfusion of vital organs during periods of whole body stress. The restoration of blood flow (reperfusion) to GI organs following ischemia elicits an exaggerated tissue injury response that reflects the potential of this organ system to generate reactive oxygen species and to mount an inflammatory response. Human and animal studies of inflammatory bowel disease have also revealed a contribution of the vasculature to the initiation and perpetuation of the tissue inflammation and associated injury response.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Neil Granger
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, LSU Health Science Center-Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
| | - Lena Holm
- Department of Medical Cell Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Peter Kvietys
- Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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7
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Gianolio E, Boffa C, Orecchia V, Bardini P, Catanzaro V, Poli V, Aime S. A relaxometric method for the assessment of intestinal permeability based on the oral administration of gadolinium-based MRI contrast agents. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2016; 29:475-482. [PMID: 26866929 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.3471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Revised: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/26/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Herein, a new relaxometric method for the assessment of intestinal permeability based on the oral administration of clinically approved gadolinium (Gd)-based MRI contrast agents (CAs) is proposed. The fast, easily performed and cheap measurement of the longitudinal water proton relaxation rate (R1) in urine reports the amount of paramagnetic probe that has escaped the gastrointestinal tract. The proposed method appears to be a compelling alternative to the available methods for the assessment of intestinal permeability. The method was tested on the murine model of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in comparison with healthy mice. Three CAs were tested, namely ProHance®, MultiHance® and Magnevist®. Urine was collected for 24 h after the oral ingestion of the Gd-containing CA at day 3-4 (severe damage stage) and day 8-9 (recovery stage) after treatment with DSS. The Gd content in urine measured by (1)H relaxometry was confirmed by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The extent of urinary excretion was given as a percentage of excreted Gd over the total ingested dose. The method was validated by comparing the results obtained with the established methodology based on the lactulose/mannitol and sucralose tests. For ProHance and Magnevist, the excreted amounts in the severe stage of damage were 2.5-3 times higher than in control mice. At the recovery stage, no significant differences were observed with respect to healthy mice. Overall, a very good correlation with the lactulose/mannitol and sucralose results was obtained. In the case of MultiHance, the percentage of excreted Gd complex was not significantly different from that of control mice in either the severe or recovery stages. The difference from ProHance and Magnevist was explained on the basis of the (known) partial biliary excretion of MultiHance in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliana Gianolio
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Cinzia Boffa
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Valeria Orecchia
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Paola Bardini
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Valeria Catanzaro
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Valeria Poli
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Silvio Aime
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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8
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Dorez H, Sablong R, Canaple L, Saint-Jalmes H, Gaillard S, Moussata D, Beuf O. Endoluminal high-resolution MR imaging protocol for colon walls analysis in a mouse model of colitis. MAGNETIC RESONANCE MATERIALS IN PHYSICS BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2016; 29:657-69. [PMID: 26965510 DOI: 10.1007/s10334-016-0539-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE An endoluminal magnetic resonance (MR) imaging protocol including the design of an endoluminal coil (EC) was defined for high-spatial-resolution MR imaging of mice gastrointestinal walls at 4.7 T. MATERIALS AND METHODS A receive-only radiofrequency single-loop coil was developed for mice colon wall imaging. Combined with a specific protocol, the prototype was first characterized in vitro on phantoms and on vegetables. Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) profiles were compared with a quadrature volume birdcage coil (QVBC). Endoluminal MR imaging protocol combined with the EC was assessed in vivo on mice. RESULTS The SNR measured close to the coil is significantly higher (10 times and up to 3 mm of the EC center) than the SNR measured with the QVBC. The gain in SNR can be used to reduce the in-plane pixel size up to 39 × 39 µm(2) (234 µm slice thickness) without time penalty. The different colon wall layers can only be distinguished on images acquired with the EC. CONCLUSION Dedicated EC provides suitable images for the assessment of mice colon wall layers. This proof of concept provides gains in spatial resolution and leads to adequate protocols for the assessment of human colorectal cancer, and can now be used as a new imaging tool for a better understanding of the pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Dorez
- Université de Lyon, CREATIS, CNRS UMR 5220, INSERM U1044, INSA-Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France.
| | - Raphaël Sablong
- Université de Lyon, CREATIS, CNRS UMR 5220, INSERM U1044, INSA-Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Laurence Canaple
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Université de Lyon 1, UMR 5242 CNRS, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Hervé Saint-Jalmes
- LTSI, INSERM U642, Université Rennes 1, Rennes, France.,CRLCC, Centre Eugène Marquis, Rennes, France
| | - Sophie Gaillard
- Université de Lyon, CREATIS, CNRS UMR 5220, INSERM U1044, INSA-Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Driffa Moussata
- Université de Lyon, CREATIS, CNRS UMR 5220, INSERM U1044, INSA-Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France.,Hôpital Régional Universitaire de Tours-Service Hépato-Gastroentérologie, Tours, France
| | - Olivier Beuf
- Université de Lyon, CREATIS, CNRS UMR 5220, INSERM U1044, INSA-Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
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Brückner M, Lenz P, Mücke MM, Gohar F, Willeke P, Domagk D, Bettenworth D. Diagnostic imaging advances in murine models of colitis. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22:996-1007. [PMID: 26811642 PMCID: PMC4716050 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i3.996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) such as Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are chronic-remittent inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract still evoking challenging clinical diagnostic and therapeutic situations. Murine models of experimental colitis are a vital component of research into human IBD concerning questions of its complex pathogenesis or the evaluation of potential new drugs. To monitor the course of colitis, to the present day, classical parameters like histological tissue alterations or analysis of mucosal cytokine/chemokine expression often require euthanasia of animals. Recent advances mean revolutionary non-invasive imaging techniques for in vivo murine colitis diagnostics are increasingly available. These novel and emerging imaging techniques not only allow direct visualization of intestinal inflammation, but also enable molecular imaging and targeting of specific alterations of the inflamed murine mucosa. For the first time, in vivo imaging techniques allow for longitudinal examinations and evaluation of intra-individual therapeutic response. This review discusses the latest developments in the different fields of ultrasound, molecularly targeted contrast agent ultrasound, fluorescence endoscopy, confocal laser endomicroscopy as well as tomographic imaging with magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography and fluorescence-mediated tomography, discussing their individual limitations and potential future diagnostic applications in the management of human patients with IBD.
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Hao XP, Lucero CM, Turkbey B, Bernardo ML, Morcock DR, Deleage C, Trubey CM, Smedley J, Klatt NR, Giavedoni LD, Kristoff J, Xu A, Del Prete GQ, Keele BF, Rao SS, Alvord WG, Choyke PL, Lifson JD, Brenchley JM, Apetrei C, Pandrea I, Estes JD. Experimental colitis in SIV-uninfected rhesus macaques recapitulates important features of pathogenic SIV infection. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8020. [PMID: 26282376 PMCID: PMC4544774 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucosal damage to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract with resulting microbial translocation is hypothesized to significantly contribute to the heightened and persistent chronic inflammation and immune activation characteristic to HIV infection. Here we employ a non-human primate model of chemically induced colitis in SIV-uninfected rhesus macaques that we developed using dextran sulfate sodium (DSS), to directly test this hypothesis. DSS treatment results in GI barrier damage with associated microbial translocation, inflammation and immune activation. The progression and severity of colitis are longitudinally monitored by a magnetic resonance imaging approach. DSS treatment of SIV-infected African green monkeys, a natural host species for SIV that does not manifest GI tract damage or chronic immune activation during infection, results in colitis with elevated levels of plasma SIV RNA, sCD14, LPS, CRP and mucosal CD4+ T-cell loss. Together these results support the hypothesis that GI tract damage leading to local and systemic microbial translocation, and associated immune activation, are important determinants of AIDS pathogenesis. HIV-1 infection in humans and SIV infection in rhesus macaques are associated with mucosal damage to the gastrointestinal tract, microbial translocation and chronic immune activation. Here the authors develop a non-human primate DSS colitis model that recapitulates these aspects of the disease in uninfected rhesus macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Pei Hao
- Pathology and Histotechnology Laboratory, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 539, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Carissa M Lucero
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 535, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Baris Turkbey
- Molecular Imaging Program, National Cancer Institute, Building 10, Room B3B69F, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA
| | - Marcelino L Bernardo
- Molecular Imaging Program, National Cancer Institute, Building 10, Room B3B69F, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA
| | - David R Morcock
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 535, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Claire Deleage
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 535, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Charles M Trubey
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 535, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Jeremy Smedley
- 1] Laboratory Animal Science Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 14D RM 233, 14 Service RD West, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA [2] Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, 1705 NE Pacific Street, Box 357330, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Nichole R Klatt
- Department of Pharmaceutics, WaNPRC, University of Washington, 3018 Western Avenue, Box 357331, Seattle, Washington 98121, USA
| | - Luis D Giavedoni
- Department of Virology and Immunology, Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, 7620 NW Loop 410, San Antonio, Texas 78227, USA
| | - Jan Kristoff
- 1] Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh, 9044 BST3, 3501 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA [2] School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, 9044 BST3, 3501 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA
| | - Amy Xu
- 1] Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh, 9044 BST3, 3501 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA [2] Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, 9044 BST3, 3501 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA
| | - Gregory Q Del Prete
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 535, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Brandon F Keele
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 535, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Srinivas S Rao
- Laboratory Animal Medicine, Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, NIH, BG 40, 40 Convent Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA
| | - W Gregory Alvord
- Statistical Consulting, Data Management Services, Inc., National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Peter L Choyke
- Molecular Imaging Program, National Cancer Institute, Building 10, Room B3B69F, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 535, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Jason M Brenchley
- Immunopathogenesis Section, Lab of Molecular Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, BG 4 RM 201, 4 Memorial Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA
| | - Cristian Apetrei
- 1] Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh, 9044 BST3, 3501 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA [2] Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, 9044 BST3, 3501 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA
| | - Ivona Pandrea
- 1] Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh, 9044 BST3, 3501 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA [2] Department of Pathology and School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 9017 Biomedical Science Tower 3, 3501 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA
| | - Jacob D Estes
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, BG 535, Post Office Box B, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
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Aychek T, Mildner A, Yona S, Kim KW, Lampl N, Reich-Zeliger S, Boon L, Yogev N, Waisman A, Cua DJ, Jung S. IL-23-mediated mononuclear phagocyte crosstalk protects mice from Citrobacter rodentium-induced colon immunopathology. Nat Commun 2015; 6:6525. [PMID: 25761673 PMCID: PMC4382688 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Gut homeostasis and mucosal immune defense rely on the differential contributions of dendritic cells (DC) and macrophages. Here we show that colonic CX3CR1(+) mononuclear phagocytes are critical inducers of the innate response to Citrobacter rodentium infection. Specifically, the absence of IL-23 expression in macrophages or CD11b(+) DC results in the impairment of IL-22 production and in acute lethality. Highlighting immunopathology as a death cause, infected animals are rescued by the neutralization of IL-12 or IFNγ. Moreover, mice are also protected when the CD103(+) CD11b(-) DC compartment is rendered deficient for IL-12 production. We show that IL-12 production by colonic CD103(+) CD11b(-) DC is repressed by IL-23. Collectively, in addition to its role in inducing IL-22 production, macrophage-derived or CD103(-) CD11b(+) DC-derived IL-23 is required to negatively control the otherwise deleterious production of IL-12 by CD103(+) CD11b(-) DC. Impairment of this critical mononuclear phagocyte crosstalk results in the generation of IFNγ-producing former TH17 cells and fatal immunopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tegest Aychek
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Alexander Mildner
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Simon Yona
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Ki-Wook Kim
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Nardy Lampl
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | | | - Louis Boon
- Bioceros, Yalelaan 46, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Nir Yogev
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, 55131 Mainz, Germany
| | - Ari Waisman
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, 55131 Mainz, Germany
| | - Daniel J. Cua
- Merck Research Laboratories, 901 South California Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1104, USA
| | - Steffen Jung
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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12
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Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 inhibition in brain endothelium protects the blood-brain barrier under physiologic and neuroinflammatory conditions. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2015; 35:28-36. [PMID: 25248836 PMCID: PMC4294393 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2014.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction seen in neuroinflammation contributes to mortality and morbidity in multiple sclerosis, encephalitis, traumatic brain injury, and stroke. Identification of molecular targets maintaining barrier function is of clinical relevance. We used a novel in vivo model of localized aseptic meningitis where tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) was introduced intracerebrally and surveyed cerebral vascular changes and leukocyte-endothelium interactions by intravital videomicroscopy. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP) inhibition significantly reduced leukocyte adhesion to and migration across brain endothelium in cortical microvessels. PARP inactivation diminished BBB permeability in an in vivo model of systemic inflammation. PARP suppression in primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMVEC), an in vitro model of BBB, enhanced barrier integrity and augmented expression of tight junction proteins. PARP inhibition in BMVEC diminished human monocyte adhesion to TNFα-activated BMVEC (up to 65%) and migration (80-100%) across BBB models. PARP suppression decreased expression of adhesion molecules and decreased activity of GTPases (controlling BBB integrity and monocyte migration across the BBB). PARP inhibitors down-regulated expression of inflammatory genes and dampened secretion of pro-inflammatory factors increased by TNFα in BMVEC. These results point to PARP suppression as a novel approach to BBB protection in the setting of endothelial dysfunction caused by inflammation.
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13
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Sharman M, Bacci B, Whittem T, Mansfield C. In vivo histologically equivalent evaluation of gastric mucosal topologic morphology in dogs by using confocal endomicroscopy. J Vet Intern Med 2014; 28:799-808. [PMID: 24597616 PMCID: PMC4895453 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.12332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2013] [Revised: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Confocal endomicroscopy (CEM) is an endoscopic technology permitting in vivo cellular and subcellular imaging. CEM aids real-time clinical assessment and diagnosis of various gastrointestinal diseases in people. CEM allows in vivo characterization of small intestinal mucosal morphology in dogs. OBJECTIVE To determine the feasibility of CEM to evaluate gastric mucosal morphology in dogs and to characterize the appearance in healthy dogs. ANIMALS Fourteen clinically healthy research colony dogs. METHODS Experimental study. Under general anesthesia, dogs underwent standard endoscopic evaluation and CEM of the gastric mucosa. In the initial 6 dogs, fluorescent contrast was provided with the fluorophore acriflavine (0.05% solution), applied topically. Subsequently, 8 dogs were assessed using a combination of fluorescein (10% solution, 15 mg/kg IV), followed by acriflavine administered topically. For each fluorophore, a minimum of 5 sites were assessed. RESULTS Confocal endomicroscopy provided high quality in vivo histologically equivalent images of the gastric mucosa, but reduced flexibility of the endoscope tip limited imaging of the cranial stomach in some dogs. Intravenous administration of fluorescein allowed assessment of cellular cytoplasmic and microvasculature features. Topical application of acriflavine preferentially stained cellular nucleic acids, allowing additional evaluation of nuclear morphology. Identification of Helicobacter-like organisms was possible in 13 dogs. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Confocal endomicroscopy provides in vivo images allowing assessment of gastric mucosal morphology during endoscopy, potentially permitting real-time diagnosis of gastrointestinal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M.J. Sharman
- Translational Research and Animal Clinical Trial Study (TRACTS) Group, the Faculty of Veterinary ScienceThe University of MelbourneMelbourneVic.Australia
| | - B. Bacci
- Translational Research and Animal Clinical Trial Study (TRACTS) Group, the Faculty of Veterinary ScienceThe University of MelbourneMelbourneVic.Australia
| | - T. Whittem
- Translational Research and Animal Clinical Trial Study (TRACTS) Group, the Faculty of Veterinary ScienceThe University of MelbourneMelbourneVic.Australia
| | - C.S. Mansfield
- Translational Research and Animal Clinical Trial Study (TRACTS) Group, the Faculty of Veterinary ScienceThe University of MelbourneMelbourneVic.Australia
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14
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Sharman MJ, Bacci B, Whittem T, Mansfield CS. In vivo confocal endomicroscopy of small intestinal mucosal morphology in dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27:1372-8. [PMID: 24128334 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.12214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Confocal endomicroscopy (CEM) is an endoscopic technology that permits in vivo cellular and subcellular imaging of the gastrointestinal mucosa. OBJECTIVE To determine the feasibility of CEM to evaluate small intestinal mucosal topologic morphology in dogs and to characterize the appearance in healthy dogs. ANIMALS Fourteen clinically healthy research colony dogs. METHODS Experimental study. Dogs were anesthetized for standard endoscopic evaluation of the small intestine followed by CEM. Two fluorophores were used to provide contrast: fluorescein (10% solution, 15 mg/kg IV) before administration of topical acriflavine (0.05% solution) via an endoscopy spray catheter. A minimum of 5 sites within the small intestine were assessed and at each location, sequential adjustment of imaging depth allowed collection of a three-dimensional volume equivalent to an 'optical biopsy'. CEM-guided pinch biopsies were obtained for histologic examination. RESULTS CEM provided high-quality in vivo cellular and subcellular images. Intravenous administration of fluorescein provided sufficient contrast to allow assessment of the vasculature, cellular cytoplasmic features and goblet cell numbers, and distribution. Topical application of acriflavine preferentially stained cellular nucleic acids, allowing evaluation of nuclear morphology. Quality of captured images was occasionally affected by motion artifact, but improved with operator experience. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE CEM provides in vivo images that allow for cellular and subcellular assessment of intestinal mucosal morphology during endoscopy. This has implications for aiding in vivo diagnosis of gastrointestinal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Sharman
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic, Australia
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15
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Crielaard BJ, Lammers T, Schiffelers RM, Storm G. Drug targeting systems for inflammatory disease: one for all, all for one. J Control Release 2011; 161:225-34. [PMID: 22226771 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2011] [Revised: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 12/17/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
In various systemic disorders, structural changes in the microenvironment of diseased tissues enable both passive and active targeting of therapeutic agents to these tissues. This has led to a number of targeting approaches that enhance the accumulation of drugs in the target tissues, making drug targeting an attractive strategy for the treatment of various diseases. Remarkably, the strategic principles that form the basis of drug targeting are often employed for tumor targeting, while chronic inflammatory diseases appear to draw much less attention. To provide the reader with a general overview of the current status of drug targeting to inflammatory diseases, the passive and active targeting strategies that have been used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and multiple sclerosis (MS) are discussed. The last part of this review addresses the dualism of platform technology-oriented ("one for all") and disease-oriented drug targeting research ("all for one"), both of which are key elements of effective drug targeting research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart J Crielaard
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Sela-Passwell N, Kikkeri R, Dym O, Rozenberg H, Margalit R, Arad-Yellin R, Eisenstein M, Brenner O, Shoham T, Danon T, Shanzer A, Sagi I. Antibodies targeting the catalytic zinc complex of activated matrix metalloproteinases show therapeutic potential. Nat Med 2011; 18:143-7. [PMID: 22198278 DOI: 10.1038/nm.2582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Endogenous tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) have key roles in regulating physiological and pathological cellular processes. Imitating the inhibitory molecular mechanisms of TIMPs while increasing selectivity has been a challenging but desired approach for antibody-based therapy. TIMPs use hybrid protein-protein interactions to form an energetic bond with the catalytic metal ion, as well as with enzyme surface residues. We used an innovative immunization strategy that exploits aspects of molecular mimicry to produce inhibitory antibodies that show TIMP-like binding mechanisms toward the activated forms of gelatinases (matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9). Specifically, we immunized mice with a synthetic molecule that mimics the conserved structure of the metalloenzyme catalytic zinc-histidine complex residing within the enzyme active site. This immunization procedure yielded selective function-blocking monoclonal antibodies directed against the catalytic zinc-protein complex and enzyme surface conformational epitopes of endogenous gelatinases. The therapeutic potential of these antibodies has been demonstrated with relevant mouse models of inflammatory bowel disease. Here we propose a general experimental strategy for generating inhibitory antibodies that effectively target the in vivo activity of dysregulated metalloproteinases by mimicking the mechanism employed by TIMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Netta Sela-Passwell
- Department of Structural Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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