Selective Activity of Chrysin-6-C-Fucopyranoside from Cyclanthera pedata Toward Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma

Caigua (Cyclanthera pedata (L.) Schrad.) is a traditional herbal remedy traditionally used in Latin America for its health benefits and to treat metabolic disorders, including diabetes. Despite interest in its herbal use, the phytochemical properties of caigua's secondary metabolites are poorly known. This study aimed to isolate the main flavone glycosides from the leaves of caigua landrace cultivated in the Camonica Valley (Italy) using flash chromatography and evaluate their potential activity toward peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channels through luciferase and intracellular calcium assays. We found that the caigua species-specific flavone glycoside, chrysin-6-C-fucopyranoside, showed potent and selective activity toward PPARγ, with no effects on other PPAR subtypes or TRP channels. These findings indicate that the caigua plant could offer a safer alternative to conventional PPARγ agonists, whose use as antidiabetic drugs is limited by severe side effects that currently restrict the clinical use of conventional PPAR agonists.

Six undescribed lavandulylated flavonoids with PTP1B inhibition from the roots of Sophora flavescens

Six undescribed lavandulylated flavonoids (1-6) were isolated from the roots of Sophora flavescens. Remarkably, compounds 1 and 2, which were composed of a flavane unit and a phloroglucinol unit, were the first reported dimers. Compounds 3 and 4 were the first reported neoflavonoids with lavandulyl units. Compounds 5 and 6 were chalcone with oxidized lavandulyl units. Their structures were fully characterized by cumulative analyses of UV, IR, HRESIMS, NMR and ECD spectroscopic data, along with computational calculations through density functional theory. Compounds 1 and 2 showed significant protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B inhibitory activities with IC50 values of 2.669 and 3.596 μM, respectively.

Comparison of the molecular mechanisms of Fuzi Lizhong Pill and Huangqin decoction in the treatment of the cold and heat syndromes of ulcerative colitis based on network pharmacology

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to illuminate the similarities and differences of two prescriptions as "cold" and "heat" drugs for treating ulcerative colitis (UC) with the simultaneous occurrence of heat and cold syndrome via network pharmacology.

METHODS

(1) Active compounds of Fuzi-Lizhong Pill (FLP) and Huangqin Decoction (HQT) were retrieved from the TCMSP database, and their common active compounds were compared using the Venn diagram. (2) Potential proteins targeted to three sets of compounds either (i) shared by FLP and HQT, (ii) unique to FLP or (iii) unique to HQT were screened from the STP, STITCH and TCMSP databases, and three corresponding core compound sets were identified in Herb-Compound-Target (H-C-T) networks. (3) Targets related to UC were identified from the DisGeNET and GeneCards databases and compared with the FLP-HQT common targets to identify potential targets of FLP-HQT compounds related to UC. (4) Three potential target sets were imported into the STRING database for protein‒protein interaction (PPI) analysis, and three core target sets were defined. (5) The binding capabilities and interacting modes between core compounds and key targets were verified by molecular docking via Discovery Studio 2019 and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations via Amber 2018. (6) The target sets were enriched for KEGG pathways using the DAVID database.

RESULTS

(1) FLP and HQT included 95 and 113 active compounds, respectively, with 46 common compounds, 49 FLP-specific compounds and 67 HQT-specific compounds. (2) 174 targets of FLP-HQT common compounds, 168 targets of FLP-specific compounds, and 369 targets of HQT-specific compounds were predicted from the STP, STITCH and TCMSP databases; six core compounds specific to FLP and HQT were screened in the FLP-specific and HQT-specific H-C-T networks, respectively. (3) 103 targets overlapped from the 174 predicted targets and the 4749 UC-related targets; two core compounds for FLP-HQT were identified from the FLP-HQT H-C-T network. (4) 103 FLP-HQT-UC common targets, 168 of FLP-specific targets and 369 of HQT-specific targets had shared core targets (AKT1, MAPK3, TNF, JUN and CASP3) based on the PPI network analysis. (5) Molecular docking demonstrated that naringenin, formononetin, luteolin, glycitein, quercetin, kaempferol and baicalein of FLP and HQT play a critical role in treating UC; meanwhile, MD simulations revealed the stability of protein‒ligand interactions. (6) The enriched pathways indicated that most targets were related to anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and other pathways. Compared with the pathways identified using traditional methods, FLP-specific pathways included the PPAR signaling pathway and the bile secretion pathway, and HQT-specific pathways included the vascular smooth muscle contraction pathway and the natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity pathway etc. CONCLUSION: In this study, we clarified the common mechanisms of FLP and HQT in treating UC and their specific mechanisms in treating cold and heat syndrome in UC through compound, target and pathway distinction and a literature comparison based on network pharmacology; these results provide a new perspective on the detailed mechanism of "multidrugs and single-disease" thought in traditional Chinese medicine.

Metabolites of endophytic fungi isolated from leaves of Bauhinia variegata exhibit antioxidant activity and agonist activity on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α, β/δ and γ

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder that affects millions of people worldwide and is linked to oxidative stress and inflammation. Thiazolidinediones (TZD) improve insulin sensitization and glucose homeostasis mediated by the activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors γ (PPARγ) in patients with type 2 diabetes. However, their use is associated with severe adverse effects such as loss of bone mass, retention of body fluids, liver and heart problems, and increased risk of bladder cancer. Partial PPARγ agonists can promote the beneficial effects of thiazolidinediones with fewer adverse effects. Endophytic fungi colonize plant tissues and have a particularly active metabolism caused by the interaction with them, which leads to the production of natural products with significant biological effects that may be like that of the colonized plant. Here, we identify seven endophytic fungi isolated from Bauhinia variegata leaves that have antioxidant activities. Also, one of the extracts presented pan-agonist activity on PPAR, and another showed activity in PPARα and PPARβ/δ. A better understanding of this relationship could help to comprehend the mechanism of action of antioxidants in treating diabetes and its complications. Moreover, compounds with these capabilities to reduce oxidative stress and activate the receptor that promotes glucose homeostasis are promising candidates in treatment of diabetes.

Sophoraflavanone M, a prenylated flavonoid from Sophora flavescens Ait., suppresses pro-inflammatory mediators through both NF-κB and JNK/AP-1 signaling pathways in LPS-primed macrophages

(2R)-3α,7,4'-trihydroxy-5-methoxy-8-(γ,γ-dimethylallyl)-flavanone is a prenylated flavonoid isolated from the anti-inflammatory herb Sophora flavescens Ait. We firstly named it sophoraflavanone M (SFM) in accordance with trivial names of related constitutes from this plant. Although various studies investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of prenylated flavonoids from Sophora flavescens Ait., that of SFM remains unclear and is yet to be determined. In the current study, we assessed the anti-inflammatory effects of SFM in LPS-induced in vivo and in vitro models. In the serum of endotoxemia mice, SFM significantly suppressed LPS-elevated inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, at nontoxic concentrations, SFM reduced LPS-induced production of inflammatory mediators NO, IL-6, TNF-α, and MCP-1 in mouse primary peritoneal macrophages. Accordingly, in LPS-primed RAW264.7 cell line, it also inhibited these mediators' expression at both transcriptional and translational levels without cytotoxicity. Mechanistically, SFM is found to concurrently inhibit two important inflammatory signaling pathways, NF-κB and JNK/AP-1. SFM restrained phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα as well as the subsequent p65 translocation to dampen NF-κB activity. Meanwhile, it also suppressed JNK phosphorylation to inhibit the transcriptional activity of AP-1. These results provide material basis for traditional application of the anti-inflammatory herb Sophora flavescens Ait. and suggest SFM is a promising natural candidate for alleviating inflammatory conditions.

Phytochemistry and biological properties of isoprenoid flavonoids from Sophora flavescens Ait

Sophora flavescens Ait (Ku-Shen in Chinese) is a popular traditional Chinese herbal medicine in China for a long history. It shows significant pharmacological activities in the treatment of dysentery, eczema, fever, jaundice, vulvar swelling, gastrointestinal hemorrhage and inflammatory disorders. Alkaloids and flavonoids have been identified as virtual components, especially isoprenoid flavanonols are a class of characteristic compounds for S. flavescens. However, few studies have focused on isoprenoid flavonoids analyses and no comprehensive review has yet been published. In the current review, we systematically summarized the isoprenoid flavonoids, a total of 55 compounds have been isolated from S. flavescens, particularly an isoprenyl and a lavandulyl group in backbone structures. Further pharmacological activities, qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses research will contribute to the development of natural isoprenoid flavonoid products in S. flavescens.

An integrated metabolism in vivo analysis and network pharmacology in UC rats reveal anti-ulcerative colitis effects from Sophora flavescens EtOAc extract

Ulcerative colitis (UC), an immune system disease, is characterized by long duration and easy relapse. Sophora flavescens (S. flavescens), also named "Kushen", is a traditional Chinese medicine, widely used to treat UC in clinics. Alkaloids and flavonoids are the main constituents of S. flavescens. Previous studies indicated that the effects of S. flavescens against UC mainly attribute to its alkaloids. In view of the clinical applications of its flavonoids and our preliminary experiments on the effects of S. flavescens treatment, we speculated that flavonoids also could exert an anti-UC effect, but its efficacy and mechanism are still not yet to be revealed. Herein, we examined the pharmacodynamic effects of the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract of S. flavescens EtOAc (SFE) against dextran sodium sulfate-induced UC rats for the first time. Pharmacodynamic effects indicated that SFE could significantly alleviate the loss in the body weight and shortening of the colon length, reduce colon bleeding and improve colon tissue damage of UC rats. A total of 28 prototypes and 41 metabolites were unambiguously or tentatively detected in rat's plasma and urine. Among them, 28 prototypes and 3 phase I metabolites shared 40 UC targets, the targets contributed to 51 metabolic pathways in 5 modules. Additionally, genistein, formononetin, isokurarinone, kurarinone, maackiain, kushenol N, trifolirnizin, kuraridin and norkurarinone were suggested to be potential active compounds in SFE for treating UC by comprehensively investigating the results of network pharmacology analysis, metabolic analysis in vivo, and previous researches. Finally, a combination of metabolic analysis in vivo with network pharmacology can elucidate the material basis and pharmacodynamic effect of traditional Chinese medicines, and lay the foundation for further clarify the anti-UC mechanism of SFE.

A Novel Flavonoid Kushenol Z from Sophora flavescens Mediates mTOR Pathway by Inhibiting Phosphodiesterase and Akt Activity to Induce Apoptosis in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Cells

The roots of Sophora flavescens (SF) are clinically used as a traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of various lung diseases. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which SF inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. A new compound, kushenol Z (KZ), and 14 known flavonoids were isolated from SF. KZ, sophoraflavanone G, and kushenol A demonstrated potent cytotoxicity against NSCLC cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner; KZ showed a wide therapeutic window. We also found that KZ induced NSCLC cell apoptosis by increasing the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and by activating caspase-3 and caspase-9 leading to mitochondrial apoptosis, and upregulated CHOP and activatedcaspase-7 and caspase-12, which triggered the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway. After KZ treatment, we observed cAMP accumulation, which reflected the inhibition of cAMP-phosphodiesterase (PDE), along with the increase in PKA activity; additionally, phospho-p70 S6 kinase was downregulated. KZ also attenuated the phosphorylation of Akt and PRAS40, which was partially rescued by an Akt activator. This suggested that KZ mediated the antiproliferative activity in NSCLC cells by inhibiting the mTOR pathway through the inhibition of cAMP-PDE and Akt. These findings suggested that KZ may be used as a promising cAMP-PDE and Akt inhibitor in targeted chemotherapeutic drug development.

The pharmacology of the genus Sophora (Fabaceae): An updated review

BACKGROUND

The genus Sophora (Fabaceae) represents one of the important medicinal plant genera regarding its chemical constituents and outstanding pharmacological activities.

PURPOSE

In this review, we surveyed the latest findings on the bioactivities of different Sophora extracts and isolated phytochemicals during the past 8 years (2011-2019) updating the latest review article in 2011. The aim of this review is to focus on the molecular pharmacology of Sophora species to provide the rationale basis for the development of novel drugs.

RESULTS

Sophora and its bioactive compounds possess outstanding pharmacological properties, especially as anticancer and anti-inflammatory drugs, in addition to its antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties.

CONCLUSION

Based on their use in traditional medicine, Sophora species exert a plethora of cellular and molecular activities, which render them as attractive candidates for rationale drug development. Randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials are required for further integration of Sophora-based phototherapies into conventional medicine.

Inhibitory effects of flavonoids isolated from Sophora flavescens on indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 activity

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1), a tryptophan catabolising enzyme, is known as a tumour cell survival factor that causes immune escape in several types of cancer. Flavonoids of Sophora flavescens have a variety of biological benefits for humans; however, cancer immunotherapy effect has not been fully investigated. The flavonoids (1-6) isolated from S. flavescens showed IDO1 inhibitory activities (IC₅₀ 4.3-31.4 µM). The representative flavonoids (4-6) of S. flavescens were determined to be non-competitive inhibitors of IDO1 by kinetic analyses. Their binding affinity to IDO1 was confirmed using thermal stability and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assays. The molecular docking analysis and mutagenesis assay revealed the structural details of the interactions between the flavonoids (1-6) and IDO1. These results suggest that the flavonoids (1-6) of S. flavescens, especially kushenol E (6), as IDO1 inhibitors might be useful in the development of immunotherapeutic agents against cancers.

Flavonoids rather than alkaloids as the diagnostic constituents to distinguish Sophorae Flavescentis Radix from Sophorae Tonkinensis Radix et Rhizoma: an HPLC fingerprint study

Sophorae Flavescentis Radix (Sophora flavescens Ait., SFR) and Sophorae Tonkinensis Radix et Rhizoma (S. tonkinensis Gapnep., STR) are two commonly used traditional Chinese medicines from Sophora (Leguminosae) plants, which are believed to possess similar bioactive components with entirely different clinical applications. In order to find out the characteristic chemical constituents potentially leading to the unique medicinal properties claimed for each of the two closely related TCMs, an HPLC fingerprint method was developed for analyses of the alkaloid and flavonoid constituents of SFR and STR, respectively, which were further evaluated and compared through similarity calculation and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA). The results from the present study showed that the alkaloid fingerprints of the two herbs were similar, with many components co-existing in both drugs and various batches of samples from different species being mixed together in the HCA dendrogram. However, their flavonoid constituents were totally different with specific fingerprints being yielded for each herb, and further HCA analysis showed that the tested samples could almost be clearly divided into two groups based on their origins of species. The results from the present study indicated that the flavonoid constituents could serve as the differentially diagnostic constituents of SFR and STR and might potentially attributed to their distinct therapeutic effects.

Increase in muscle endurance in mice by dietary Yamabushitake mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) possibly via activation of PPARδ

Skeletal muscle fiber is largely classified into two types: type 1 (slow‐twitch) and type 2 (fast‐twitch) fibers. Meat quality and composition of fiber types are thought to be closely related. Previous research showed that overexpression of constitutively active peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor (PPAR)δ, a nuclear receptor present in skeletal muscle, increased type 1 fibers in mice. In this study, we found that hexane extracts of Yamabushitake mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) showed PPARδ agonistic activity in vitro. Eight‐week‐old C57BL/6J mice were fed a diet supplemented with 5% (w/w) freeze‐dried Yamabushitake mushroom for 24 hr. After the treatment period, the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles were excised. The Yamabushitake‐supplemented diet up‐regulated the PPARδ target genes Pdk4 and Ucp3 in mouse skeletal muscles in vivo. Furthermore, feeding the Yamabushitake‐supplemented diet to mice for 8 weeks resulted in a significant increase in muscle endurance. These results indicate that Yamabushitake mushroom contains PPARδ agonistic ligands and that dietary intake of Yamabushitake mushroom could activate PPARδ in skeletal muscle of mice. Unexpectedly, we observed no significant alterations in composition of muscle fiber types between the mice fed control and Yamabushitake‐supplemented diets.

Kushenol A and 8-prenylkaempferol, tyrosinase inhibitors, derived from Sophora flavescens

Tyrosinase is known for an enzyme that plays a key role in producing the initial precursor of melanin biosynthesis. Inhibition of the catalytic reaction of this enzyme led to some advantage such as skin-whitening and anti-insect agents. To find a natural compound with inhibitory activity towards tyrosinase, the five flavonoids of kushenol A (1), 8-prenylkaempferol (2), kushenol C (3), formononetin (4) and 8-prenylnaringenin (5) were isolated by column chromatography from a 95% methanol extract of Sophora flavescens. The ability of these flavonoids to block the conversion of L-tyrosine to L-DOPA by tyrosinase was tested in vitro. Compounds 1 and 2 exhibited potent inhibitory activity, with IC50 values less than 10 µM. Furthermore, enzyme kinetics and molecular docking analysis revealed the formation of a binary encounter complex between compounds 1–4 and the enzyme. Also, all of the isolated compounds (1–5) were confirmed to possess antioxidant activity.

Taiwanese Green Propolis Ethanol Extract Delays the Progression of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Rats Treated with Streptozotocin/High-Fat Diet

Taiwanese green propolis ethanol extract (TGPE) is produced only in Taiwan and has a different composition from other types of propolis. TGPE is known for its anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, and anti-microbial properties, but the effects and mechanisms of TGPE in the modulation of diabetes are unclear. In this study, we investigated the effects of TGPE on type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in a streptozotocin/high-fat-diet (STZ/HFD)-induced T2DM rat model. The results revealed that TGPE delayed the development and progression of T2DM and reduced the severity of β-cell failure. TGPE also attenuated inflammation and reactive oxygen species ROS in the rats. Moreover, there were higher levels of oxidant cytokines, leptin, and adiponectin in the serum of the TGPE-treated group. Unlike Brazilian propolis, TGPE promoted hepatic genes PPAR-α and CYP7A1, which were related to lipid catabolism and removal. TGPE may thus delay the progression of T2DM through anti-inflammation effects, anti-oxidation effects, and balancing lipid metabolism. It is suggested that TGPE can be a potential alternative medicine for T2DM.

Sophopterocarpan A, a novel pterocarpine derivative with a benzotetrahydrofuran-fused bicyclo [3.3.1] nonane from Sophora flavescens

Sophopterocarpan A (1), with a novel benzotetrahydrofuran-fused bicyclo [3.3.1] nonane ring, was isolated from the roots of Sophora flavescens Ait. Its unusual structure, including its stereochemistry, was determined on the basis of a comprehensive spectroscopic data analysis. A plausible biogenetic pathway for 1 is presented. Sophopterocarpan A was identified as a potential autophagy activator. Additionally, it was found that 1 exhibited cytotoxic activity in MCF-7 cells with an IC₅₀ of 29.36 μM.

Statistical analysis of human microarray data shows that dietary intervention with n-3 fatty acids, flavonoids and resveratrol enriches for immune response and disease pathways

n-3 Fatty acids, flavonoids and resveratrol are well publicised for their beneficial effects on human health and wellbeing. Identifying common, underlying biological mechanisms targeted by these functional foods would therefore be informative for the public health sector for advising on nutritional health and disease, food and drug product development and consumer interest. The aim of this study was to explore the potential effects of gene expression changes associated with n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA, flavonoids and resveratrol on modifying biological systems and disease pathways. To test this, publicly available human microarray data for significant gene expression changes associated with dietary intervention with EPA/DHA, flavonoids and resveratrol was subjected to pathway analysis and significance testing for overlap with signals from genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for common non-communicable diseases and biological functions. There was an enrichment of genes implicated in immune responses and disease pathways which was common to all of the treatment conditions tested. Analysis of biological functions and disease pathways indicated anti-tumorigenic properties for EPA/DHA. In line with this, significance testing of the intersection of genes associated with these functional foods and GWAS hits for common biological functions (ageing and cognition) and non-communicable diseases (breast cancer, CVD, diabesity, neurodegeneration and psychiatric disorders) identified significant overlap between the EPA/DHA and breast cancer gene sets. Dietary intervention with EPA/DHA, flavonoids and resveratrol can target important biological and disease pathways suggesting a potentially important role for these bioactive compounds in the prevention and treatment of dietary-related diseases.

Formononetin inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced release of high mobility group box 1 by upregulating SIRT1 in a PPARδ-dependent manner

Background

The release of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) induced by inflammatory signals acts as a cellular alarmin to trigger a chain of inflammatory responses. Although the inflammatory actions of HMGB1 are well studied, less is known about the therapeutic agents that can impede its release. This study investigated whether the isoflavonoid formononetin can modulate HMGB1 release in cellular inflammatory responses.

Methods

RAW264.7 murine macrophages were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the presence or absence of formononetin. The levels of HMGB1 release, sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) expression, and HMGB1 acetylation were analyzed by immunoblotting and real-time polymerase chain reaction. The effects of resveratrol and sirtinol, an activator and inhibitor of SIRT1, respectively, on LPS-induced HMGB1 release were also evaluated.

Results

Formononetin modulated cellular inflammatory responses by suppressing the release of HMGB1 by macrophages exposed to LPS. In RAW264.7 cells, formononetin significantly attenuated LPS-induced release of HMGB1 into the extracellular environment, which was accompanied by a reduction in its translocation from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In addition, formononetin significantly induced mRNA and protein expression of SIRT1 in a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ)-dependent manner. These effects of formononetin were dramatically attenuated in cells treated with small interfering RNA (siRNA) against PPARδ or with GSK0660, a specific inhibitor of PPARδ, indicating that PPARδ is involved in formononetin-mediated SIRT1 expression. In line with these effects, formononetin-mediated inhibition of HMGB1 release in LPS-treated cells was reversed by treatment with SIRT1-targeting siRNA or sirtinol, a SIRT1 inhibitor. By contrast, resveratrol, a SIRT1 activator, further potentiated the inhibitory effect of formononetin on LPS-induced HMGB1 release, revealing a possible mechanism by which formononetin regulates HMGB1 release through SIRT1. Furthermore, modulation of SIRT1 expression by transfection of SIRT1- or PPARδ-targeting siRNA significantly counteracted the inhibitory effects of formononetin on LPS-induced HMGB1 acetylation, which was responsible for HMGB1 release.

Discussion

This study shows for the first time that formononetin inhibits HMGB1 release by decreasing HMGB1 acetylation via upregulating SIRT1 in a PPARδ-dependent manner. Formononetin consequently exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. Identification of agents, such as formononetin, which can block HMGB1 release, may help to treat inflammation-related disorders.

Sophora flavescens Ait.: Traditional usage, phytochemistry and pharmacology of an important traditional Chinese medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sophora flavescens (Fabaceae), also known as Kushen (Chinese: ), has been an important species in Chinese medicine since the Qin and Han dynasties. The root of Sophora flavescens has a long history in the traditional medicine of many countries, including China, Japan, Korea, India and some countries in Europe. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Sophora flavescens has been used extensively, mainly in combination with other medicinal plants in prescriptions to treat fever, dysentery, hematochezia, jaundice, oliguria, vulvar swelling, asthma, eczema, inflammatory disorders, ulcers and diseases associated with skin burns. The aim of this review is to provide updated and comprehensive information regarding the botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activities and toxicology of Sophora flavescens and to discuss possible trends and opportunities for further research on Sophora flavescens.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We systematically searched major scientific databases (PubMed, Elsevier, SpringerLink, Google Scholar, Medline Plus, ACS, "Da Yi Yi Xue Sou Suo (http://www.dayi100.com/login.jsp)", China Knowledge Resource Integrated (CNKI) and Web of Science) for information published between 1958 and 2015 on Sophora flavescens. Information was also acquired from local classic herbal literature, conference papers, government reports, and PhD and MSc dissertations.

RESULTS

The broad spectrum of biological activities associated with Sophora flavescens has been considered a valuable resource in both traditional and modern medicine. Extracts are taken either orally or by injection. More than 200 compounds have been isolated from Sophora flavescens, and the major components have been identified as flavonoids and alkaloids. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that at least 50 pure compounds and crude extracts from Sophora flavescens possess wide-ranging antitumor, antimicrobial, antipyretic, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory pharmacological abilities. The anticancer and anti-infection abilities of these components are especially attractive areas for research.

CONCLUSIONS

Sophora flavescens is a promising traditional medicine, but there is a need for more precise studies to test the safety and clinical value of its main active crude extracts and pure compounds and to clarify their mechanisms of action. Moreover, some existing studies have lacked systematic methods and integration with the existing literature, and some of the experiments were isolated, used small sample sizes and were unreliable. More validated data are therefore required.

Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) D.C. Hydroalcoholic Extract Inhibits Neutrophil Functions Related to Innate Host Defense

Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) D.C. is a herb native to South America, and its inflorescences are popularly employed to treat inflammatory diseases. Here, the effects of the in vivo actions of the hydroalcoholic extract obtained from inflorescences of A. satureioides on neutrophil trafficking into inflamed tissue were investigated. Male Wistar rats were orally treated with A. satureioides extract, and inflammation was induced one hour later by lipopolysaccharide injection into the subcutaneous tissue. The number of leukocytes and the amount of chemotactic mediators were quantified in the inflammatory exudate, and adhesion molecule and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) expressions and phorbol-myristate-acetate- (PMA-) stimulated oxidative burst were quantified in circulating neutrophils. Leukocyte-endothelial interactions were quantified in the mesentery tissue. Enzymes and tissue morphology of the liver and kidney were evaluated. Treatment with A. satureioides extract reduced neutrophil influx and secretion of leukotriene B4 and CINC-1 in the exudates, the number of rolling and adhered leukocytes in the mesentery postcapillary venules, neutrophil L-selectin, β 2-integrin and TLR-4 expression, and oxidative burst, but did not cause an alteration in the morphology and activities of liver and kidney. Together, the data show that A. satureioides extract inhibits neutrophil functions related to the innate response and does not cause systemic toxicity.