Identifying potential paraben transformation products and evaluating changes in toxicity as a result of transformation

The association between estrogenic activity evolution and the formation of different products during the photochemical transformation of parabens in water

Photochemical transformation is a critical factor influencing the environmental fate of pharmaceutical and personal care products in aquatic ecosystems. However, the relationship between toxicity evolution and the formation of various transformation products has been seldom explored. This study investigates the behavior and changes in estrogenic activity during the photochemical transformation of a series of typical endocrine-disrupting parabens (PBs), focusing on the effects of increasing alkyl-chain length (MPB, EPB, PPB and BPB). Based on MS/MS analysis, four types of transformation products were identified: (1) p-hydroxybenzoic acid (HB), which exhibits no estrogenic activity; (2) hydroxylated products (OH-PBs); (3) dimer products formed between HB and PBs (HB-PBs); and (4) dimer products formed from identical PBs (PBs-PBs), comprising three distinct isomers. In the absence of standard sample, OH-PBs were synthesized and their estrogenic activity was evaluated using a yeast two-hybrid reporter assay. The EC50 values were determined to be <1 × 10-3 M for OH-MPB, 2.05 × 10-4 M for OH-EPB, 5.05 × 10-5 M for OH-PPB, and 1.89 × 10-5 M for OH-BPB. These indicate that the estrogenic activity of OH-PBs is one order of magnitude lower than that of the corresponding PBs. Both HB-PBs and the three isomers of PBs-PBs exhibited significantly higher estrogenic activities than their corresponding parent compounds, increasing 9 - 14 and 32 - 184 times, respectively, based on theoretical calculations. Among the three PBs-PBs isomers, the highest estrogenic activity was observed in the ether dimer, followed by the biphenyl dimers. Consistent with the parent compounds, the estrogenic activities of OH-PBs, HB-PBs, and PBs-PBs increased with the length of the alkyl-chain. The estrogenic activity of MPB and EPB followed an overall downward trend during the photochemical transformation, whereas PPB and BPB remained stable initially before declining rapidly. This behavior was associated with the contributions of toxic transformation products. These findings elucidate the relationship between molecular structure, transformation products, and estrogenic activity, highlighting the importance of understanding estrogenic activity evolution during the photochemical transformation of PBs.

Investigation of common and unreported parabens alongside other plastic-related contaminants in human milk using non-targeted strategies

Human milk studies analyzing widely used contaminants mainly utilize a targeted approach to screen and quantify a limited number of compounds. While targeted analysis allows health officials to quantify the levels of these chemicals in human milk, it fails to detect the presence of other unknowns that may be of equal importance. Hence, the objective of this study was to apply non-targeted analysis to detect and identify different prevalent contaminants, specifically common or unreported parabens as well as other plastic-related contaminants (PRCs) in human milk. Extracts of 594 human milk samples collected in Canada (Montreal) and South Africa (Vhembe and Pretoria) in 2018-2019 were analyzed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to confirm the presence of methyl, ethyl and propyl parabens. Additional investigations revealed the presence of sulfated species of these parabens, suggesting their conjugation potential in human milk. Further analysis using in-source fragmentation, identified the presence of four other parabens in human milk, including phenyl paraben as well as 2-ethylhexyl 4-hydroxybenzoate, an unusual paraben exclusive to South African samples. Other PRCs that were detected included several phthalate metabolites, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and 1,3 diphenyl guanidine, a tire-related chemical. This is the first study to have used different non-targeted analyses for the detection and confirmation of several common and unusual parabens alongside different PRCs in human milk.

Review of the Integrated Approaches for Monitoring and Treating Parabens in Water Matrices

Due to their antibacterial and antifungal properties, parabens are commonly used as biocides and preservatives in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Parabens have been reported to exist in various water matrices at low concentrations, which renders the need for sample preparation before their quantification using analytical techniques. Thus, sample preparation methods such as solid-phase extraction (SPE), rotating-disk sorptive extraction (RDSE), and vortex-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid extraction (VA-DLLE) that are commonly used for parabens extraction and preconcentration have been discussed. As a result of sample preparation methods, analytical techniques now detect parabens at trace levels ranging from µg/L to ng/L. These compounds have been detected in water, air, soil, and human tissues. While the full impact of parabens on human health and ecosystems is still being debated in the scientific community, it is widely recognized that parabens can act as endocrine disruptors. Furthermore, some studies have suggested that parabens may have carcinogenic effects. The presence of parabens in the environment is primarily due to wastewater discharges, which result in widespread contamination and their concentrations increased during the COVID-19 pandemic waves. Neglecting the presence of parabens in water exposes humans to these compounds through contaminated food and drinking water. Although there are reviews that focus on the occurrence, fate, and behavior of parabens in the environment, they frequently overlook critical aspects such as removal methods, policy development, and regulatory frameworks. Addressing this gap, the effective treatment of parabens in water relies on combined approaches that address both cost and operational challenges. Membrane filtration methods, such as nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO), demonstrate high efficacy but are hindered by maintenance and energy costs due to extensive fouling. Innovations in anti-fouling and energy efficiency, coupled with pre-treatment methods like adsorption, help mitigate these costs and enhance scalability. Furthermore, combining adsorption with advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) or biological treatments significantly improves economic and energy efficiency. Integrating systems like O₃/UV with activated carbon, along with byproduct recovery strategies, further advances circular economy goals by minimizing waste and resource use. This review provides a thorough overview of paraben monitoring in wastewater, current treatment techniques, and the regulatory policies that govern their presence. Furthermore, it provides perspectives that are critical for future scientific investigations and shaping policies aimed at mitigating the risks of parabens in drinking water.

Parabens, bisphenols, and triclosan in coral polyps, algae, and sediments from sanya, China: Occurrence, profiles, and environmental implications

Parabens, bisphenols (BPs), and triclosan (TCS) are common environmental phenols widely applied in industrial products, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products. They are endocrine disruptors and pervade the natural environment, causing significant detrimental impacts on ecosystems, including marine habitats. Therefore, in this study, 40 samples comprising coral polyps, algae, and sediments were collected from Sanya, Hainan Province, China, in which the presence and compositional profiles of parabens, BPs, and TCS were examined to identify their fate in the oceans. The results unveiled the ubiquitous occurrence of at least one paraben or bisphenol in all samples, with TCS detected in over 80% of cases. Notably, coral samples contained the most contaminants (median concentration: 9.42 ng/g dry weight-dw), followed by sediment samples (5.95 ng/g dw) and algal samples (3.58 ng/g dw). Attributed to their broadest application, methylparaben (MeP) and propylparaben (PrP) emerged as the primary paraben constituents. MeP displayed the highest median concentration in coral samples (4.42 ng/g dw), probably related to its high-water solubility and the filtration mechanism employed by the coral polyps during seawater intake. Intriguingly, bisphenol P (BPP) superseded bisphenol A (BPA) as the dominant bisphenol, especially in the algal samples, probably owing to the lipophilic character of BPP and the enhanced biodegradability of BPA within aquatic environments. The highest concentration of TCS (3.44 ng/g dw) was found in the sediment samples, associated with its long half-life in the sediments. Furthermore, the correlation between multiple parabens and TCS implies their co-use to augment antimicrobial efficacy. Future research should prioritize the examination of these phenols in diverse marine environmental media. Corresponding toxicological experiments should be conducted to visualize their transport dynamics, degradation byproducts, and toxicity to marine biota to gain insights into the risks they pose to the marine ecosystem.

Accumulation of Parabens, Their Metabolites, and Halogenated Byproducts in Migratory Birds of Prey: A Comparative Study in Texas and North Carolina, USA

Parabens are alkyl esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid that are commonly used as preservatives in personal care products such as cosmetics. Recent studies have revealed the presence of parabens in surface and tap water because of their use as disinfection products; however, little is known about their occurrence in biological samples and their bioaccumulation potential, particularly in raptor birds known as sentinels for pollutant detection. We examined the occurrence and tissue distribution of parabens, their metabolites, and halogenated byproducts in the liver, kidney, brain, and muscle of birds of prey from Texas and North Carolina (USA). Methylparaben (MeP), propylparaben (PrP), and butylparaben (BuP) were detected in more than 50% of all tissues examined, with the kidney exhibiting the highest concentration of MeP (0.65-6.84 ng/g wet wt). Para-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA), a primary metabolite, had the highest detection frequency (>50%) and a high accumulation range in the liver, of 4.64 to 12.55 ng/g. The chlorinated compounds chloromethylparaben and chloroethylparaben were found in over half of the tissues, of which dichloromethylparaben (2.20-3.99 ng/g) and dichloroethylparaben (1.01-5.95 ng/g) in the kidney exhibited the highest concentrations. The dibrominated derivatives dibromideethylparaben (Br2EtP) was detected in more than 50% of samples, particularly in muscle and brain. Concentrations in the range of 0.14 to 17.38 ng/g of Br2EtP were detected in the kidney. Dibromidepropylparaben (Br2PrP) was not frequently detected, but concentrations ranged from 0.09 to 21.70 ng/g in muscle. The accumulations of total amounts (sum) of parent parabens (∑P), metabolites (∑M), and halogenated byproducts (∑H) in different species were not significantly different, but their distribution in tissues differed among the species. Positive correlations were observed among MeP, PrP, BuP, and PHBA in the liver, suggesting similar origins and metabolic pathways. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:2365-2376. © 2024 The Author(s). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

The effects of methylparaben exposure on biofilm tolerance to chlorine disinfection

Parabens are emerging contaminants that have been detected in drinking water. Their presence in DW distribution systems (DWDS) can alter bacterial behaviour, characteristics, and structure, which may compromise DW disinfection. This work provides insights into the impact of methylparaben (MP) on the tolerance to chlorine disinfection and antibiotics from dual-species biofilms formed by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia isolated from DW and grown on high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene (PPL). Results showed that dual-species biofilms grown on PPL were more tolerant to chlorine disinfection, expressing a decrease of over 50 % in logarithmic reduction values of culturable cells in relation to non-exposed biofilms. However, bacterial tolerance to antibiotics was not affected by MP presence. Although MP-exposed dual-species biofilms grown on HDPE and PPL were metabolically more active than non-exposed counterparts, HDPE seems to be the material with lower impact on DW risk management and disinfection, if MP is present. Overall, results suggest that MP presence in DW may compromise chlorine disinfection, and consequently affect DW quality and stability, raising potential public health issues.

Parabens effects on female reproductive health - Review of evidence from epidemiological and rodent-based studies

Parabens have been used as antimicrobial preservatives since the 1920s. The prevalent use of parabens increases their detection in the environment and in women's biological samples including reproductive tissues. Recent studies suggest parabens may alter endocrine function and thus female reproductive health may be affected. In this literature review, we summarize findings on parabens and female reproduction while focusing on epidemiological and rodent-based studies. The topics reviewed include paraben effects on cyclicity, pregnancy, newborn and pubertal development, reproductive hormones, and ovarian and uterine specific outcomes. Overall, the scientific literature on paraben effects on female reproduction is limited and with some conflicting results. Yet, some epidemiological and/or rodent-based experimental studies report significant findings in relation to paraben effects on cyclicity, fertility, gestation length, birth weight, postnatal development and pubertal onset, hormone levels, and hormone signaling in reproductive tissues. Future epidemiological and experimental studies are needed to better understand paraben effects on female reproduction while focusing on human related exposures including mixtures, physiologic concentrations of parabens, and multi-generational studies.

Butylparaben induces glycolipid metabolic disorders in mice via disruption of gut microbiota and FXR signaling

Butylparaben, a common preservative, is widely used in food, pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Epidemiological studies have revealed the close relationship between butylparaben and diabetes; however the mechanisms of action remain unclear. In this study, we administered butylparaben orally to mice and observed that exposure to butylparaben induced glucose intolerance and hyperlipidemia. RNA sequencing results demonstrated that the enrichment of differentially expressed genes was associated with lipid metabolism, bile acid metabolism, and inflammatory response. Western blot results further validated that butylparaben promoted hepatic lipogenesis, inflammation, gluconeogenesis, and insulin resistance through the inhibition of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) pathway. The FXR agonists alleviated the butylparaben-induced metabolic disorders. Moreover, 16 S rRNA sequencing showed that butylparaben reduced the abundance of Bacteroidetes, S24-7, Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus, and elevated the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. The gut microbiota dysbiosis caused by butylparaben led to decreased bile acids (BAs) production and increased inflammatory response, which further induced hepatic glycolipid metabolic disorders. Our results also demonstrated that probiotics attenuated butylparaben-induced disturbances of the gut microbiota and hepatic metabolism. Taken collectively, the findings reveal that butylparaben induced gut microbiota dysbiosis and decreased BAs production, which further inhibited FXR signaling, ultimately contributing to glycolipid metabolic disorders in the liver.

Current strategies on bioremediation of personal care products and detergents: Sustainability and life cycle assessment

The increased use of personal care products and detergents in modern society has raised concerns about their potential adverse effects on the environment. These products contain various chemical compounds that can persist in water bodies, leading to water pollution and ecological disturbances. Bioremediation has emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges, utilizing the natural capabilities of microorganisms to degrade or remove these contaminants. This review examines the current strategies employed in the bioremediation of personal care products and detergents, with a specific focus on their sustainability and environmental impact. This bioremediation is essential for environmental rejuvenation, as it uses living organisms to detergents and other daily used products. Its distinctiveness stems from sustainable, nature-centric ways that provide eco-friendly solutions for pollution eradication and nurturing a healthy planet, all while avoiding copying. Explores the use of microbial consortia, enzyme-based treatments, and novel biotechnological approaches in the context of environmental remediation. Additionally, the ecological implications and long-term sustainability of these strategies are assessed. Understanding the strengths and limitations of these bioremediation techniques is essential for developing effective and environmentally friendly solutions to mitigate the impact of personal care products and detergents on ecosystems.

Human exposure to methyl and butyl parabens and their transformation products in settled dust collected from urban, semi-urban, rural, and tribal settlements in a tropical environment

The present study involved monitoring the distribution of two widely consumed parabens (methyl paraben (MeP) and butyl paraben (BuP)) and their transformation products in indoor dust from different categories of settlement (urban, semi-urban, rural, and tribal homes). The results revealed a prevalent occurrence of parabens in all the settlement categories. A non-normal distribution pattern for MeP and BuP levels across the sampling sites was noted. While comparing the residence time of parabens in dust samples, it was found that the half-lives of the analytes were greater in the dust from urban (MeP t1/2: 47.510 h; BuP t1/2: 22.354 h) and rural (MeP t1/2: 27.725 h and BuP t1/2: 31.500 h) areas. The presence of paraben metabolites, such as hydroxy methylparaben (OH-MeP), para hydroxy benzoic acid (p-HBA), and benzoic acid (BA) in dust samples supports their transformation within indoor spaces. The average daily intake of parabens through dust ingestion and dermal absorption by children was higher than adults. BuP was the prime contributor (>85%) to the total estradiol equivalency quotient (tEEQ) in all the settlement categories.

Effect of pH on UV/H2O2-mediated removal of single, mixed and halogenated parabens from water

Adjusting pH values in aqueous environments can significantly improve the efficiency by which parabens and halo-parabens are removed. In this study, 20 neutral and deprotonated species were selected as models to investigate their pH-dependent removal mechanisms and kinetics by a UV/H2O2 process using density functional theory (DFT). Compared to neutral species, deprotonated species exhibit higher reactivity to HO• due to their high electron cloud density. H atom abstraction (HAA) reactions on the substitution groups are the most favorable pathways for neutral species, while radical adduct formation (RAF) reactions are the most favorable for deprotonated species. Single electron transfer (SET) reactions can be neglected for neutral species, while these reactions become a viable route for deprotonated molecules. The total reaction rate constants range from 1.63 × 109 to 3.74 × 1010 M- 1 s- 1 at pH 7.0, confirming the experimental results. Neutral and weakly alkaline conditions are favorable for the degradation of MeP and halo-parabens in the UV/H2O2 process. The order of removal efficiency at optimum pH is dihalo-parabens > mono-halo-parabens ≈ F, F-MeP > MeP. Furthermore, the transformation products must undergo oxidative degradation due to their high toxicity. Our findings provide new insights into the removal of parabens and their halogenated derivatives from wastewater.

Noxious ramifications of cosmetic pollutants on gastrointestinal microbiome: A pathway to neurological disorders

On exposure to cosmetic pollutants, gastrointestinal dysbiosis, which is characterised by a disturbance in the gut microbiota, has come into focus as a possible contributor to the occurrence of neurotoxic consequences. It is normal practice to use personal care products that include parabens, phthalates, sulphates, triclosans/triclocarbans and micro/nano plastics. These substances have been found in a variety of bodily fluids and tissues, demonstrating their systemic dispersion. Being exposed to these cosmetic pollutants has been linked in recent research to neurotoxicity, including cognitive decline and neurodevelopmental problems. A vital part of sustaining gut health and general well-being is the gut flora. Increased intestinal permeability, persistent inflammation, and impaired metabolism may result from disruption of the gut microbial environment, which may in turn contribute to neurotoxicity. The link between gastrointestinal dysbiosis and the neurotoxic effects brought on by cosmetic pollutants may be explained by a number of processes, primarily the gut-brain axis. For the purpose of creating preventative and therapeutic measures, it is crucial to comprehend the intricate interactions involving cosmetic pollutants, gastrointestinal dysbiosis, and neurotoxicity. This review provides an in-depth understanding of the various hazardous cosmetic pollutants and its potential role in the occurrence of neurological disorders via gastrointestinal dysbiosis, providing insights into various described and hypothetical mechanisms regarding the complex toxic effects of these industrial pollutants.

Physiological impact of personal care product constituents on non-target aquatic organisms

Personal care products (PCPs) are products used in cleaning, beautification, grooming, and personal hygiene. The rise in diversity, usage, and availability of PCPs has resulted in their higher accumulation in the environment. Thus, these constitute an emerging category of environmental contaminants due to the potential of its constituents (chemical and non-chemical) to induce various physiological effects even at lower concentrations (ng/L). For analyzing the impact of the PCPs constituents on the non-target organism about 300 article including research articles, review articles and guidelines were studied from 2000 to 2023. This review aims to firstly discuss the fate and accumulation of PCPs in the aquatic environment and organisms; secondly provides overview of environmental risks that are linked to PCPs; thirdly review the trends, current status of regulations and risks associated with PCPs and finally discuss the knowledge gaps and future perspectives for future research. The article discusses important constituents of PCPs such as antimicrobials, cleansing agents and disinfectants, fragrances, insect repellent, moisturizers, plasticizers, preservatives, surfactants, UV filters, and UV stabilizers. Each of them has been found to display certain toxic impact on the aquatic organisms especially the plasticizers and UV filters. These continuously and persistently release biologically active and inactive components which interferes with the physiological system of the non-target organism such as fish, corals, shrimps, bivalves, algae, etc. With a rise in the number of toxicity reports, concerns are being raised over the potential impacts of these contaminant on aquatic organism and humans. The rate of adoption of nanotechnology in PCPs is greater than the evaluation of the safety risk associated with the nano-additives. Hence, this review article presents the current state of knowledge on PCPs in aquatic ecosystems.

Parabens as environmental contaminants of aquatic systems affecting water quality and microbial dynamics

Among different pollutants of emerging concern, parabens have gained rising interest due to their widespread detection in water sources worldwide. This occurs because parabens are used in personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and food, in which residues are generated and released into aquatic environments. The regulation of the use of parabens varies across different geographic regions, resulting in diverse concentrations observed globally. Concentrations of parabens exceeding 100 μg/L have been found in wastewater treatment plants and surface waters while drinking water (DW) sources typically exhibit concentrations below 6 μg/L. Despite their low levels, the presence of parabens in DW is a potential exposure route for humans, raising concerns for both human health and environmental microbiota. Although a few studies have reported alterations in the functions and characteristics of microbial communities following exposure to emerging contaminants, the impact of the exposure to parabens by microbial communities, particularly biofilm colonizers, remains largely understudied. This review gathers the most recent information on the occurrence of parabens in water sources, as well as their effects on human health and aquatic organisms. The interactions of parabens with microbial communities are reviewed for the first time, filling the knowledge gaps on the effects of paraben exposure on microbial ecosystems and their impact on disinfection tolerance and antimicrobial resistance, with potential implications for public health.

Electrochemistry-mass spectrometry bridging the gap between suspect and target screening of valsartan transformation products in wastewater treatment plant effluent

Degradation of xenobiotics in wastewater treatment plants may lead to the formation of transformation products with higher persistence or increased (eco-)toxic potential compared to the parent compounds. Accordingly, the identification of transformation products from wastewater treatment plant effluents has gained increasing attention. Here, we show the potential of electrochemistry hyphenated to liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry for the prediction of oxidative degradation in wastewater treatment plants using the antihypertensive drug valsartan as a model compound. This approach identifies seven electrochemical transformation products of valsartan, which are used to conduct a suspect screening in effluent of the main wastewater treatment plant in the city of Münster in Germany. Apart from the parent compound valsartan, an electrochemically predicted transformation product, the N-dealkylated ETP336, is detected in wastewater treatment plant effluent. Subsequently, a targeted liquid chromatographytandem mass spectrometry method for the detection of valsartan and its electrochemical transformation products is set up. Here, electrochemical oxidation is used to generate reference materials of the transformation products in situ by hyphenating electrochemistry online to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Using this setup, multiple reaction monitoring transitions are set up without the need for laborious and costly synthesis and isolation of reference materials for the transformation products. The targeted method is then applied to extracts from wastewater treatment plant effluent and the presence of ETP336 and valsartan in the samples is verified. The presented workflow can be used to set up targeted analysis methods for previously unknown transformation products even without the need for expensive high-resolution mass spectrometers.

Influences of Wastewater Treatment on the Occurrence of Parabens, p-Hydroxybenzoic Acid and Their Chlorinated and Hydroxylated Transformation Products in the Brazos River (Texas, USA)

Parabens are ubiquitous, being found in surface waters around the world. Although little is known about the release of paraben transformation products and fate of transformation products in surface water. This study evaluates both parabens and paraben transformation products in the Brazos River upstream and downstream of a wastewater facility located in Waco, Texas. Concentrations of thirteen compounds were reported in this study, five parent parabens and eight paraben disinfection by-products. Analyte concentrations were spatially evaluated to determine if release of wastewater effluent affects their concentrations in the river. Two Brazos River tributaries were also sampled to determine if they released parabens and related compounds to the Brazos. Sampling occurred weekly for one year with at least 40 samples collected at each site. Analyses were completed for both yearly and seasonal data. Sites downstream of wastewater treatment outfalls had lower concentrations of methyl paraben during the yearly analysis and across multiple seasons in the seasonal analysis with average yearly annual methyl paraben concentrations decreasing from 0.83 ng/L at site 3 to 0.09 ng/L at site 4. Para-hydroxybenzoic acid was the compound present in greatest concentration at most sites across most seasons, with the highest average annual concentration of 10.30 ng/L at site 2. Spatial changes in para-hydroxybenzoic acid varied by season, with seasonal trends only identifiable after normalization by flow. Dichlorinated paraben concentrations increased in the river at sites downstream of wastewater treatment with a yearly average dichlorinated methyl paraben concentration of 0.490 ng/L at site 3 to 1.53 at site 4, just downstream of the major wastewater treatment plant. Concentration increases indicate that wastewater effluent contains sufficiently high dichlorinated paraben concentrations to effect concentrations downstream of effluent discharges. Dichlorinated species also persisted in the environment, with no significant decreases at sites further downstream during any season with an annual average dichlorinated methyl paraben concentration of 1.23 ng/L at site 6. Methyl paraben concentrations decreased at the site furthest downstream to a concentration of 0.081 ng/L, while dichlorinated methyl paraben concentrations remained stable with a concentration of 1.10 ng/L at the site furthest downstream. Due to the dichlorinated species being released in higher concentrations in effluent than parents and being more resistant to degradation, the dichlorinated parabens are more likely to be environmentally relevant than are parent parabens.

Evaluating seasonal differences in paraben transformation at two different wastewater treatment plants in Texas and comparing parent compound transformation to byproduct formation

Parabens are commonly used preservatives that are weakly estrogenic. Wastewater effluent is the greatest contributor to the spread of parabens into rivers and other surface water. While previous studies indicate parabens are well removed in wastewater treatment by way of transformation, not much is known about the paraben transformation products. This study evaluates paraben transformation and release at two different wastewater treatment plants in Texas. Paraben concentrations were quantified for influent and effluent by season and by year at both treatment plants. Both seasonal and annual transformation rates were compared between the two wastewater treatment plants. Compounds were compared to evaluate differences in transformation rates and to determine if decreases in parent product concentrations are correlated to changes in transformation product concentrations. The study took place over one year and evaluated each season. Spring had higher influent concentrations and transformation rates at treatment plant 1, while summer had higher influent concentrations and transformation rates at treatment plant 2. PHBA was present in greatest amounts in influent and effluent at both sites with average yearly influent concentrations at 223.9 pM at plant 1 and 211.4 pM at plant 2. Transformation rates of parent parabens were greater at plant 1 with concentration of all three shorter chained parabens decreasing by over 50% after treatment. Formation of dichlorinated transformation products were greater at plant 1 with concentrations of Cl₂MeP increasing by 1200% after treatment and Cl₂EtP increasing by 940%. While shorter chained parabens generally had a greater transformation rate, no correlations were found between decreases in methyl and ethyl parabens and the formation of their respective dichlorinated transformation products.

Room temperature fabrication of magnetic covalent organic frameworks for efficient enrichment of parabens in water

A novel 4 + 2 covalent magnetic organic framework (COF) with core-shell structure was synthesized for the first time with N, N, N', N'-Tetrakis (4-aminophenyl)-1, 4- benzenediamine (TPDA) and 2, 6-Pyridinedicarboxaldehyde (PCBA) at room temperature. The synthesized magnetic TPDA-PCBA-COF has a large specific surface area and superparamagnetism, which makes it an ideal sorbent for trace analytes enrichment. To this end, we combined it with magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) to enrich trace parabens in environmental water. The parameters affecting the enrichment efficiency of magnetic solid phase extraction, such as the amount of Fe₃O₄@TPDA-PCBA-COF, extraction time, pH of samples, salt concentration, desorption solvent volume and desorption time, were optimized. A simple method for extraction and determination of parabens in water samples by MSPE combined with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was established under optimized conditions. The validation results revealed that the linear ranges were at 1.0-5.0 × 10² ng mL^-1 with R value between 0.9915 and 0.9999, the spiked recoveries were in the range of 82.8% to 99.9% and RSDs were lower than 10%. The method was further applied to the determination of parabens in water samples, with recoveries in the range of 82.2% to 110.0% and RSDs ≤ 7.7%. These results suggest that the magnetic TPDA-PCBA-COF could be used as a promising adsorbent for efficient extraction and quantitation of parabens in environmental water samples.

Occurrence and fate of contaminants of emerging concern and their transformation products after uptake by pak choi (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis)

Recovery and reuse of nutrients is a major challenge in agriculture. A new process contributing to a circular economy is the anaerobic digestion of food waste, which is a sustainable way of recycling nutrients as the digestate can be used as fertiliser in agriculture and horticulture. However, the digestate may be polluted with contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) that can be circulated back into the food chain, posing a risk to the environment and human health. In this work, the nutrient solution was spiked with 18 selected CECs frequently detected in food waste biogas facilities, and subsequent uptake and fate of these CECs were evaluated in pak choi grown in two different nutrient solutions (mineral and organic). All spiked compounds except two (propylparaben, fenbendazole) were taken up by pak choi plants, with perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and sertraline displaying the highest concentrations (270 and 190 μg/kg fresh weight, respectively). There were no statistically significant differences in uptake between mineral and organic nutrient solutions. Uptake of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) was negatively correlated with perfluorocarbon chain length and dependent on the functional group (r = -0.73). Sixteen transformation products (TPs) were tentatively identified using suspect screening, most of which were Phase II or even Phase III metabolites. Six of these TPs were identified for the first time in plant metabolism and their metabolic pathways were considered.

Environmental contamination status with common ingredients of household and personal care products exhibiting endocrine-disrupting potential

The continuous use of household and personal care products (HPCPs) produces an immense amount of chemicals, such as parabens, bisphenols, benzophenones and alkylphenol ethoxylates, which are of great concern due to their well-known endocrine-disrupting properties. These chemicals easily enter the environment through man-made activities, thus contaminating the biota, including soil, water, plants and animals. Thus, on top of the direct exposure on account of their presence in HPCPs, humans are also susceptible to secondary indirect exposure attributed to the ubiquitous environmental contamination. The aim of this review was therefore to examine the sources and occurrence of these noteworthy contaminants (i.e. parabens, bisphenols, benzophenones, alkylphenol ethoxylates), to summarise the available research on their environmental presence and to highlight their bioaccumulation potential. The most notable environmental contaminants appear to be MeP and PrP among parabens, BPA and BPS among bisphenols, BP-3 among benzophenones and NP among alkylphenols. Their maximum detected concentrations in the environment are mostly in the range of ng/L, while in human tissues, their maximum concentrations achieved μg/L due to bioaccumulation, with BP-3 and nonylphenol showing the highest potential to bioaccumulate. Finally, of another great concern is the fact that even the unapproved parabens and benzophenones have been detected in the environment.