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Turk BR, Theda C, Fatemi A, Moser AB. X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy: Pathology, pathophysiology, diagnostic testing, newborn screening and therapies. Int J Dev Neurosci 2020; 80:52-72. [PMID: 31909500 PMCID: PMC7041623 DOI: 10.1002/jdn.10003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is a rare X‐linked disease caused by a mutation of the peroxisomal ABCD1 gene. This review summarizes our current understanding of the pathogenic cell‐ and tissue‐specific roles of lipid species in the context of experimental therapeutic strategies and provides an overview of critical historical developments, therapeutic trials and the advent of newborn screening in the USA. In ALD, very long‐chain fatty acid (VLCFA) chain length‐dependent dysregulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial radical generating systems inducing cell death pathways has been shown, providing the rationale for therapeutic moiety‐specific VLCFA reduction and antioxidant strategies. The continuing increase in newborn screening programs and promising results from ongoing and recent therapeutic investigations provide hope for ALD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bela R Turk
- Hugo W Moser Research Institute, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christiane Theda
- Neonatal Services, Royal Women's Hospital, Murdoch Children's Research Institute and University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ali Fatemi
- Hugo W Moser Research Institute, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ann B Moser
- Hugo W Moser Research Institute, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Turk BR, Theda C, Fatemi A, Moser AB. X-linked Adrenoleukodystrophy: Pathology, Pathophysiology, Diagnostic Testing, Newborn Screening, and Therapies. Int J Dev Neurosci 2019:S0736-5748(19)30133-9. [PMID: 31778737 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2019.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is a rare X-linked disease caused by a mutation of the peroxisomal ABCD1 gene. This review summarizes our current understanding of the pathogenic cell- and tissue-specific role of lipid species in the context of experimental therapeutic strategies and provides an overview of critical historical developments, therapeutic trials, and the advent of newborn screening in the United States. In ALD, very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) chain-length-dependent dysregulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial radical generating systems inducing cell death pathways has been shown, providing the rationale for therapeutic moiety-specific VLCFA reduction and antioxidant strategies. The continuing increase in newborn screening programs and promising results from ongoing and recent therapeutic investigations provide hope for ALD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bela R Turk
- Hugo W Moser Research Institute, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 707 N. Broadway, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Christiane Theda
- Neonatal Services, Royal Women's Hospital, Murdoch Children's Research Institute and University of Melbourne, 20 Flemington Road, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Ali Fatemi
- Hugo W Moser Research Institute, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 707 N. Broadway, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Ann B Moser
- Hugo W Moser Research Institute, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 707 N. Broadway, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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3
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Deletion of TSPO Resulted in Change of Metabolomic Profile in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20061387. [PMID: 30893912 PMCID: PMC6470938 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20061387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration is the main cause of vision loss in the aged population worldwide. Drusen, extracellular lesions formed underneath the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, are a clinical feature of AMD and associated with AMD progression. RPE cells support photoreceptor function by providing nutrition, phagocytosing outer segments and removing metabolic waste. Dysfunction and death of RPE cells are early features of AMD. The translocator protein, TSPO, plays an important role in RPE cholesterol efflux and loss of TSPO results in increased intracellular lipid accumulation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. This study aimed to investigate the impact of TSPO knockout on RPE cellular metabolism by identifying the metabolic differences between wildtype and knockout RPE cells, with or without treatment with oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL). Using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS), we differentiated several metabolic pathways among wildtype and knockout cells. Lipids amongst other intracellular metabolites were the most influenced by loss of TSPO and/or oxLDL treatment. Glucose, amino acid and nucleotide metabolism was also affected. TSPO deletion led to up-regulation of fatty acids and glycerophospholipids, which in turn possibly affected the cell membrane fluidity and stability. Higher levels of glutathione disulphide (GSSG) were found in TSPO knockout RPE cells, suggesting TSPO regulates mitochondrial-mediated oxidative stress. These data provide biochemical insights into TSPO-associated function in RPE cells and may shed light on disease mechanisms in AMD.
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Maeba R, Araki A, Fujiwara Y. Serum Ethanolamine Plasmalogen and Urine Myo-Inositol as Cognitive Decline Markers. Adv Clin Chem 2018; 87:69-111. [PMID: 30342713 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acc.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have suggested that metabolic disorders, particularly type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and dementia, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), were linked at the clinical and molecular levels. Brain insulin deficiency and resistance may be key events in AD pathology mechanistically linking AD to T2DM. Ethanolamine plasmalogens (PlsEtns) are abundant in the brain and play essential roles in neuronal function and myelin formation. As such, PlsEtn deficiency may be pathologically relevant in some neurodegenerative disorders such as AD. Decreased brain PlsEtn associated with dementia may reflect serum PlsEtn deficiency. We hypothesized that myo-inositol plays a role in myelin formation through its facilitation of PlsEtn biosynthesis. Excessive urinary myo-inositol (UMI) loss would likely result in PlsEtn deficiency potentially leading to demyelinating diseases such as dementia. Accordingly, measurement of both serum PlsEtn and baseline UMI excretion could improve the detection of cognitive impairment (CI) in a more specific and reliable manner. To verify our hypothesis, we conducted a clinical observational study of memory clinic outpatients (MCO) and cognitively normal elderly (NE) for nearly 4.5years. We demonstrated that serum PlsEtn concentration associated with UMI excretion was useful for predicting advancing dementia in patients with mild CI. Because hyperglycemia and associated insulin resistance might be a leading cause of increased baseline UMI excretion, serum PlsEtn quantitation would be useful in detecting CI among the elderly with hyperglycemia. Our findings suggest that myo-inositol is a novel candidate molecule linking T2DM to AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryouta Maeba
- Department of Biochemistry, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Atsushi Araki
- Department of Diabetes, Metabolism and Endocrinology, Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Fujiwara
- Research Team for Social Participation and Community Health, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo, Japan
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5
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Farooqui AA, Horrocks LA. Phospholipase A₂-Generated Lipid Mediators in the Brain: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly. Neuroscientist 2016; 12:245-60. [PMID: 16684969 DOI: 10.1177/1073858405285923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) generates arachidonic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and lysophospholipids from neural membrane phospholipids. These metabolites have a variety of physiological effects by themselves and also are substrates for the synthesis of more potent lipid mediators such as eicosanoids, platelet activating factor, and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). At low concentrations, these mediators act as second messengers. They affect and modulate several cell functions, including signal transduction, gene expression, and cell proliferation, but at high concentrations, these lipid mediators cause neurotoxicity. Among the metabolites generated by PLA2, 4-HNE is the most cytotoxic metabolite and is associated with the apoptotic type of neural cell death. Levels of 4-HNE are markedly increased in neurological disorders such as Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, ischemia, spinal cord trauma, and head injury. The purpose of this review is to summarize and integrate the vast literature on metabolites generated by PLA2 for a wider audience. The authors hope that this discussion will jump-start more studies not only on the involvement of PLA2 in neurological disorders but also on the importance of PLA2-generated lipid mediators in physiological and pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akhlaq A Farooqui
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 43210, USA
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Anthonymuthu TS, Kenny EM, Bayır H. Therapies targeting lipid peroxidation in traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 2016; 1640:57-76. [PMID: 26872597 PMCID: PMC4870119 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Lipid peroxidation can be broadly defined as the process of inserting a hydroperoxy group into a lipid. Polyunsaturated fatty acids present in the phospholipids are often the targets for peroxidation. Phospholipids are indispensable for normal structure of membranes. The other important function of phospholipids stems from their role as a source of lipid mediators - oxygenated free fatty acids that are derived from lipid peroxidation. In the CNS, excessive accumulation of either oxidized phospholipids or oxygenated free fatty acids may be associated with damage occurring during acute brain injury and subsequent inflammatory responses. There is a growing body of evidence that lipid peroxidation occurs after severe traumatic brain injury in humans and correlates with the injury severity and mortality. Identification of the products and sources of lipid peroxidation and its enzymatic or non-enzymatic nature is essential for the design of mechanism-based therapies. Recent progress in mass spectrometry-based lipidomics/oxidative lipidomics offers remarkable opportunities for quantitative characterization of lipid peroxidation products, providing guidance for targeted development of specific therapeutic modalities. In this review, we critically evaluate previous attempts to use non-specific antioxidants as neuroprotectors and emphasize new approaches based on recent breakthroughs in understanding of enzymatic mechanisms of lipid peroxidation associated with specific death pathways, particularly apoptosis. We also emphasize the role of different phospholipases (calcium-dependent and -independent) in hydrolysis of peroxidized phospholipids and generation of pro- and anti-inflammatory lipid mediators. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:Brain injury and recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamil Selvan Anthonymuthu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Elizabeth Megan Kenny
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Hülya Bayır
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA; Childrens׳s Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA.
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Yamashita S, Kanno S, Nakagawa K, Kinoshita M, Miyazawa T. Extrinsic plasmalogens suppress neuronal apoptosis in mouse neuroblastoma Neuro-2A cells: importance of plasmalogen molecular species. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra00632e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmalogen, especially those having 22:6, suppressed neuronal apoptosisviadeath receptor and mitochondrial pathways. These mechanisms of action of plasmalogen may be responsible for regulation of membrane functions and second messenger production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Yamashita
- Department of Food Science
- Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
- Obihiro
- Japan
- Food and Biodynamic Chemistry Laboratory
| | - Susumu Kanno
- Food and Biodynamic Chemistry Laboratory
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
| | - Kiyotaka Nakagawa
- Food and Biodynamic Chemistry Laboratory
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
| | - Mikio Kinoshita
- Department of Food Science
- Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
- Obihiro
- Japan
| | - Teruo Miyazawa
- Food and Biodynamic Chemistry Laboratory
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science
- Tohoku University
- Sendai
- Japan
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Tanaka K, Farooqui AA, Siddiqi NJ, Alhomida AS, Ong WY. Effects of docosahexaenoic Acid on neurotransmission. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2014; 20:152-7. [PMID: 24116288 PMCID: PMC3792211 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2012.20.2.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2011] [Revised: 12/01/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is the major polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in the brain and a structural component of neuronal membranes. Changes in DHA content of neuronal membranes lead to functional changes in the activity of receptors and other proteins which might be associated with synaptic function. Accumulating evidence suggests the beneficial effects of dietary DHA supplementation on neurotransmission. This article reviews the beneficial effects of DHA on the brain; uptake, incorporation and release of DHA at synapses, effects of DHA on synapses, effects of DHA on neurotransmitters, DHA metabolites, and changes in DHA with age. Further studies to better understand the metabolome of DHA could result in more effective use of this molecule for treatment of neurodegenerative or neuropsychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Tanaka
- Department of Pharmacology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119260
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Liu Q, Zhang J. Lipid metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Bull 2014; 30:331-45. [PMID: 24733655 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-013-1410-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipids play crucial roles in cell signaling and various physiological processes, especially in the brain. Impaired lipid metabolism in the brain has been implicated in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), and other central nervous system insults. The brain contains thousands of lipid species, but the complex lipid compositional diversity and the function of each of lipid species are currently poorly understood. This review integrates current knowledge about major lipid changes with the molecular mechanisms that underlie AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease and School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, China,
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Braverman NE, Moser AB. Functions of plasmalogen lipids in health and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2012; 1822:1442-52. [PMID: 22627108 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2012.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 674] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 04/21/2012] [Accepted: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Plasmalogens are a unique class of membrane glycerophospholipids containing a fatty alcohol with a vinyl-ether bond at the sn-1 position, and enriched in polyunsaturated fatty acids at the sn-2 position of the glycerol backbone. These two features provide novel properties to these compounds. Although plasmalogens represent up to 20% of the total phospholipid mass in humans their physiological roles have been challenging to identify, and are likely to be particular to different tissues, metabolic processes and developmental stages. Their biosynthesis starts in peroxisomes, and defects at these steps cause the malformation syndrome, Rhizomelic Chondrodysplasia Punctata (RCDP). The RCDP phenotype predicts developmental roles for plasmalogens in bone, brain, lens, lung, kidney and heart. Recent studies have revealed secondary plasmalogen deficiencies associated with more common disorders and allow us to tease out additional pathways dependent on plasmalogen functions. In this review, we present current knowledge of plasmalogen biology in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy E Braverman
- Department of Human Genetics and Pediatrics, McGill University-Montreal Childrens Hospital Research Institute, Montreal, Canada.
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Berry KAZ, Hankin JA, Barkley RM, Spraggins JM, Caprioli RM, Murphy RC. MALDI imaging of lipid biochemistry in tissues by mass spectrometry. Chem Rev 2011; 111:6491-512. [PMID: 21942646 PMCID: PMC3199966 DOI: 10.1021/cr200280p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karin A. Zemski Berry
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado Denver, Mail Stop 8303, 12801 E. 17 Ave., Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Joseph A. Hankin
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado Denver, Mail Stop 8303, 12801 E. 17 Ave., Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Robert M. Barkley
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado Denver, Mail Stop 8303, 12801 E. 17 Ave., Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Jeffrey M. Spraggins
- Department of Biochemistry and Mass Spectrometry Research Center, Vanderbilt University, 9160 MRB 3, 465 21 Ave. S., Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Richard M. Caprioli
- Department of Biochemistry and Mass Spectrometry Research Center, Vanderbilt University, 9160 MRB 3, 465 21 Ave. S., Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Robert C. Murphy
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado Denver, Mail Stop 8303, 12801 E. 17 Ave., Aurora, CO 80045
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Frisardi V, Panza F, Seripa D, Farooqui T, Farooqui AA. Glycerophospholipids and glycerophospholipid-derived lipid mediators: A complex meshwork in Alzheimer’s disease pathology. Prog Lipid Res 2011; 50:313-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2011.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Revised: 06/09/2011] [Accepted: 06/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Braverman N, Zhang R, Chen L, Nimmo G, Scheper S, Tran T, Chaudhury R, Moser A, Steinberg S. A Pex7 hypomorphic mouse model for plasmalogen deficiency affecting the lens and skeleton. Mol Genet Metab 2010; 99:408-16. [PMID: 20060764 PMCID: PMC2839039 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2009.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2009] [Revised: 12/04/2009] [Accepted: 12/04/2009] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 1 is a peroxisome biogenesis disorder with the clinical features of rhizomelia, abnormal epiphyseal calcifications, congenital cataracts, and profound growth and developmental delays. It is a rare autosomal recessive disorder, caused by defects in the peroxisome receptor, PEX7. The pathology results from a deficiency of plasmalogens, a critical class of ether phospholipids whose functions are largely unknown. To study plasmalogens in an animal model, avoid early mortality and facilitate therapeutic investigations in this disease, we engineered a hypomorphic mouse model in which Pex7 transcript levels are reduced to less than 5% of wild type. These mice are born in expected ratios, are fertile and have a normal life span. However, they are petite and develop early cataracts. Further investigations showed delayed endochondral ossification and abnormalities in lens fibers. The biochemical features of reduced Pex7 function were reproduced in this model, including tissue plasmalogen deficiency, phytanic acid accumulation, reduced import of Pex7 ligands and consequent defects in plasmalogen biosynthesis and phytanic acid oxidation. Dietary supplementation with batyl alcohol, a plasmalogen precursor, recovered ether phospholipids in blood, but did not alter the clinical phenotype. The relatively mild phenotype of these mice mimics patients with milder PEX7 defects, and highlights the skeleton and lens as sensitive markers of plasmalogen deficiency. The role of plasmalogens in the normal function of these tissues at various ages can now be studied and additional therapeutic interventions tested in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Braverman
- Department of Human Genetics and Pediatrics, Montreal Children's Hospital Research Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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Khan M, Singh J, Singh I. Plasmalogen deficiency in cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy and its modulation by lovastatin. J Neurochem 2008; 106:1766-79. [PMID: 18540993 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05513.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy (cALD), an accumulation of very long chain fatty acids stems from a defect of the peroxisomal ALD protein (ALDP) and results in the loss of myelin/oligodendrocytes, induction of inflammatory disease and mental deterioration. In brain white matter of cALD patients, we observed not only increased levels of very long chain fatty acid but also reduced levels of plasmenylethanolamine (PlsEtn) and increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The loss of PlsEtn was greatest in the plaque area and lesser but significant at histologically normal-looking areas of the cALD brain. The reduction in PlsEtn was related to oxidative stress, as supported by increased levels of reactive lipid aldehydes (4-hydroxynonenal and acrolein) and deleterious oxidized proteins (protein carbonyl) in all areas of the cALD brain. This inverse relationship between the levels of PlsEtn and reactive oxygen species (ROS) was further supported in an in vitro study using gene-silencing for dihydroxyacetone phosphate-acyl transferase, a key enzyme for PlsEtn biosynthesis. Levels of PlsEtn were also found decreased in vitro following gene-silencing for the ALDP/ALD-related protein. Furthermore, low levels of PlsEtn were detected in brain white matter of ALDP knock out (KO) mice. A treatment of ALDP KO mice with lovastatin increased PlsEtn levels in the brain. Further, in an in vitro study, lovastatin treatment of rat C6 glial cells increased PlsEtn biosynthesis and reduced the cytokine-induced ROS accumulation. In summary, this study reports that altered metabolism of PlsEtn and ROS in cALD may be corrected by lovastatin treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mushfiquddin Khan
- Department of Pediatrics, Darby Children Research Institute, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA.
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Farooqui AA, Horrocks LA, Farooqui T. Interactions between neural membrane glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid mediators: A recipe for neural cell survival or suicide. J Neurosci Res 2007; 85:1834-50. [PMID: 17393491 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The neural membranes contain phospholipids, sphingolipids, cholesterol, and proteins. Glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids are precursors for lipid mediators involved in signal transduction processes. Degradation of glycerophospholipids by phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) generates arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA). Arachidonic acid is metabolized to eicosanoids and DHA is metabolized to docosanoids. The catabolism of glycosphingolipids generates ceramide, ceramide 1-phosphate, sphingosine, and sphingosine 1-phosphate. These metabolites modulate PLA(2) activity. Arachidonic acid, a product derived from glycerophospholipid catabolism by PLA(2), modulates sphingomyelinase (SMase), the enzyme that generates ceramide and phosphocholine. Furthermore, sphingosine 1-phosphate modulates cyclooxygenase, an enzyme responsible for eicosanoid production in brain. This suggests that an interplay and cross talk occurs between lipid mediators of glycerophospholipid and glycosphingolipid metabolism in brain tissue. This interplay between metabolites of glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid metabolism may play an important role in initiation and maintenance of oxidative stress associated with neurologic disorders as well as in neural cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Recent studies indicate that PLA(2) and SMase inhibitors can be used as neuroprotective and anti-apoptotic agents. Development of novel inhibitors of PLA(2) and SMase may be useful for the treatment of oxidative stress, and apoptosis associated with neurologic disorders such as stroke, Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, and head and spinal cord injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akhlaq A Farooqui
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
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Mancuso DJ, Han X, Jenkins CM, Lehman JJ, Sambandam N, Sims HF, Yang J, Yan W, Yang K, Green K, Abendschein DR, Saffitz JE, Gross RW. Dramatic Accumulation of Triglycerides and Precipitation of Cardiac Hemodynamic Dysfunction during Brief Caloric Restriction in Transgenic Myocardium Expressing Human Calcium-independent Phospholipase A2γ. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:9216-27. [PMID: 17213206 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m607307200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously, we identified calcium-independent phospholipase A2gamma (iPLA2gamma) with multiple translation initiation sites and dual mitochondrial and peroxisomal localization motifs. To determine the role of iPLA2gamma in integrating lipid and energy metabolism, we generated transgenic mice containing the alpha-myosin heavy chain promoter (alphaMHC) placed proximally to the human iPLA2gamma coding sequence that resulted in cardiac myocyte-restricted expression of iPLA2gamma (TGiPLA2gamma). TGiPLA2gamma mice possessed multiple phenotypes including: 1) a dramatic approximately 35% reduction in myocardial phospholipid mass in both the fed and mildly fasted states; 2) a marked accumulation of triglycerides during brief caloric restriction that represented 50% of total myocardial lipid mass; and 3) acute fasting-induced hemodynamic dysfunction. Biochemical characterization of the TGiPLA2gamma protein expressed in cardiac myocytes demonstrated over 25 distinct isoforms by two-dimensional SDS-PAGE Western analysis. Immunohistochemistry identified iPLA2gamma in the peroxisomal and mitochondrial compartments in both wild type and transgenic myocardium. Electron microscopy revealed the presence of loosely packed and disorganized mitochondrial cristae in TGiPLA2gamma mice that were accompanied by defects in mitochondrial function. Moreover, markedly elevated levels of 1-hydroxyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine and 1-hydroxyl-2-docosahexaenoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine were prominent in the TGiPLA2gamma myocardium identifying the production of signaling metabolites by this enzyme in vivo. Collectively, these results identified the participation of iPLA2gamma in the remarkable lipid plasticity of myocardium, its role in generating signaling metabolites, and its prominent effects in modulating energy storage and utilization in myocardium in different metabolic contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Mancuso
- Division of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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Fullerton MD, Hakimuddin F, Bakovic M. Developmental and metabolic effects of disruption of the mouse CTP:phosphoethanolamine cytidylyltransferase gene (Pcyt2). Mol Cell Biol 2007; 27:3327-36. [PMID: 17325045 PMCID: PMC1899976 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01527-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The CDP-ethanolamine pathway is responsible for the de novo biosynthesis of ethanolamine phospholipids, where CDP-ethanolamine is coupled with diacylglycerols to form phosphatidylethanolamine. We have disrupted the mouse gene encoding CTP:phosphoethanolamine cytidylyltransferase, Pcyt2, the main regulatory enzyme in this pathway. Intercrossings of Pcyt2(+/-) animals resulted in small litter sizes and unexpected Mendelian frequencies, with no null mice genotyped. The Pcyt2(-/-) embryos die after implantation, prior to embryonic day 8.5. Examination of mRNA expression, protein content, and enzyme activity in Pcyt2(+/-) animals revealed the anticipated 50% decrease due to the gene dosage effect but rather a 20 to 35% decrease. [(14)C]ethanolamine radiolabeling of hepatocytes, liver, heart, and brain corroborated Pcyt2 gene expression and activity data and showed a decreased rate of phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis in heterozygotes. Total phospholipid content was maintained in Pcyt2(+/-) tissues; however, this was not due to compensatory increases in the decarboxylation of phosphatidylserine. These results establish the necessity of Pcyt2 for murine development and demonstrate that a single Pcyt2 allele in heterozygotes can maintain phospholipid homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan D Fullerton
- Department of Human Health and Nutirtionla Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
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Farooqui AA, Ong WY, Horrocks LA. Inhibitors of brain phospholipase A2 activity: their neuropharmacological effects and therapeutic importance for the treatment of neurologic disorders. Pharmacol Rev 2006; 58:591-620. [PMID: 16968951 DOI: 10.1124/pr.58.3.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The phospholipase A(2) family includes secretory phospholipase A(2), cytosolic phospholipase A(2), plasmalogen-selective phospholipase A(2), and calcium-independent phospholipase A(2). It is generally thought that the release of arachidonic acid by cytosolic phospholipase A(2) is the rate-limiting step in the generation of eicosanoids and platelet activating factor. These lipid mediators play critical roles in the initiation and modulation of inflammation and oxidative stress. Neurological disorders, such as ischemia, spinal cord injury, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, prion diseases, and epilepsy are characterized by inflammatory reactions, oxidative stress, altered phospholipid metabolism, accumulation of lipid peroxides, and increased phospholipase A(2) activity. Increased activities of phospholipases A(2) and generation of lipid mediators may be involved in oxidative stress and neuroinflammation associated with the above neurological disorders. Several phospholipase A(2) inhibitors have been recently discovered and used for the treatment of ischemia and other neurological diseases in cell culture and animal models. At this time very little is known about in vivo neurochemical effects, mechanism of action, or toxicity of phospholipase A(2) inhibitors in human or animal models of neurological disorders. In kainic acid-mediated neurotoxicity, the activities of phospholipase A(2) isoforms and their immunoreactivities are markedly increased and phospholipase A(2) inhibitors, quinacrine and chloroquine, arachidonyl trifluoromethyl ketone, bromoenol lactone, cytidine 5-diphosphoamines, and vitamin E, not only inhibit phospholipase A(2) activity and immunoreactivity but also prevent neurodegeneration, suggesting that phospholipase A(2) is involved in the neurodegenerative process. This also suggests that phospholipase A(2) inhibitors can be used as neuroprotectants and anti-inflammatory agents against neurodegenerative processes in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akhlaq A Farooqui
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 1645 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1218, USA
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Marszalek JR, Lodish HF. Docosahexaenoic acid, fatty acid-interacting proteins, and neuronal function: breastmilk and fish are good for you. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2006; 21:633-57. [PMID: 16212510 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.cellbio.21.122303.120624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In contrast to other tissues, the nervous system is enriched in the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs): arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4 n-6) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3). Despite their abundance in the nervous system, AA and DHA cannot be synthesized de novo by mammals; they, or their precursors, must be ingested from dietary sources and transported to the brain. During late gestation and the early postnatal period, neurodevelopment is exceptionally rapid, and substantial amounts of PUFAs, especially DHA, are critical to ensure neurite outgrowth as well as proper brain and retina development. Here, we review the various functions of DHA in the nervous system, the proteins involved in its internalization and metabolism into phospholipids, and its relationship to several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph R Marszalek
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA.
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Horrocks LA, Farooqui AA. Docosahexaenoic acid in the diet: its importance in maintenance and restoration of neural membrane function. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2004; 70:361-72. [PMID: 15041028 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2003.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/18/2003] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The central nervous system has the second highest concentration of lipids after adipose tissue. Long chain fatty acids, particularly arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, are integral components of neural membrane phospholipids. Alterations in neural membrane phospholipid components cannot only influence crucial intracellular and intercellular signaling but also alter many membrane physical properties such as fluidity, phase transition temperature, bilayer thickness, and lateral domains. A deficiency of docosahexaenoic acid markedly affects neurotransmission, membrane-bound enzyme and ion channel activities, gene expression, intensity of inflammation, and immunity and synaptic plasticity. Docosahexaenoic acid deficiency is associated with normal aging, Alzheimer disease, hyperactivity, schizophrenia, and peroxisomal disorders. Although the molecular mechanism of docosahexaenoic acid involvement in the disorders remains unknown, the supplementation of docosahexaenoic acid in the diet restores gene expression and modulates neurotransmission. Also, improvements are seen in signal transduction processes associated with behavioral deficits, learning activity, peroxisomal disorders, and psychotic changes in schizophrenia, depression, hyperactivity, stroke, and Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lloyd A Horrocks
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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