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Libbey JE, Fujinami RS. Viral mouse models used to study multiple sclerosis: past and present. Arch Virol 2021; 166:1015-1033. [PMID: 33582855 PMCID: PMC7882042 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-04968-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a common inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Although the etiology of MS is unknown, genetics and environmental factors, such as infections, play a role. Viral infections of mice have been used as model systems to study this demyelinating disease of humans. Three viruses that have long been studied in this capacity are Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus, mouse hepatitis virus, and Semliki Forest virus. This review describes the viruses themselves, the infection process, the disease caused by infection and its accompanying pathology, and the model systems and their usefulness in studying MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Libbey
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - R S Fujinami
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA.
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2
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Mangale V, McIntyre LL, Walsh CM, Loring JF, Lane TE. Promoting remyelination through cell transplantation therapies in a model of viral-induced neurodegenerative disease. Dev Dyn 2018; 248:43-52. [PMID: 30067309 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a central nervous system (CNS) disease characterized by chronic neuroinflammation, demyelination, and axonal damage. Infiltration of activated lymphocytes and myeloid cells are thought to be primarily responsible for white matter damage and axonopathy. Several United States Food and Drug Administration-approved therapies exist that impede activated lymphocytes from entering the CNS thereby limiting new lesion formation in patients with relapse-remitting forms of MS. However, a significant challenge within the field of MS research is to develop effective and sustained therapies that allow for axonal protection and remyelination. In recent years, there has been increasing evidence that some kinds of stem cells and their derivatives seem to be able to mute neuroinflammation as well as promote remyelination and axonal integrity. Intracranial infection of mice with the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) results in immune-mediated demyelination and axonopathy, making this an excellent model to interrogate the therapeutic potential of stem cell derivatives in evoking remyelination. This review provides a succinct overview of our recent findings using intraspinal injection of mouse CNS neural progenitor cells and human neural precursors into JHMV-infected mice. JHMV-infected mice receiving these cells display extensive remyelination associated with axonal sparing. In addition, we discuss possible mechanisms associated with sustained clinical recovery. Developmental Dynamics 248:43-52, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vrushali Mangale
- Division of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | - Laura L McIntyre
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, Sue & Bill Gross Stem Cell Center, University of California, Irvine, California
| | - Craig M Walsh
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, Sue & Bill Gross Stem Cell Center, University of California, Irvine, California
| | - Jeanne F Loring
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California
| | - Thomas E Lane
- Division of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah.,Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.,Immunology, Inflammation, and Infectious Disease Initiative, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
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Marro BS, Blanc CA, Loring JF, Cahalan MD, Lane TE. Promoting remyelination: utilizing a viral model of demyelination to assess cell-based therapies. Expert Rev Neurother 2015; 14:1169-79. [PMID: 25245576 DOI: 10.1586/14737175.2014.955854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the CNS. While a broad range of therapeutics effectively reduce the incidence of focal white matter inflammation and plaque formation for patients with relapse-remitting forms of MS, a challenge within the field is to develop therapies that allow for axonal protection and remyelination. In the last decade, growing interest has focused on utilizing neural precursor cells (NPCs) to promote remyelination. To understand how NPCs function in chronic demyelinating environments, several excellent pre-clinical mouse models have been developed. One well accepted model is infection of susceptible mice with neurotropic variants of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) that undergo chronic demyelination exhibiting clinical and histopathologic similarities to MS patients. Combined with the possibility that an environmental agent such as a virus could trigger MS, the MHV model of demyelination presents a relevant mouse model to assess the therapeutic potential of NPCs transplanted into an environment in which inflammatory-mediated demyelination is established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett S Marro
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA
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Zhao J, Zhao J, Perlman S. De novo recruitment of antigen-experienced and naive T cells contributes to the long-term maintenance of antiviral T cell populations in the persistently infected central nervous system. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 183:5163-70. [PMID: 19786545 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mice infected with attenuated strains of mouse hepatitis virus, strain JHM, develop a chronic infection in the brain and spinal cord characterized by low levels of viral Ag persistence and retention of virus-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells at the site of infection. It is not known whether these cells are maintained by proliferation of T cells that entered the CNS during acute infection or are newly recruited from Ag-experienced or naive T cell pools. In this study, using adoptive transfer experiments and bone marrow chimeras, we show that at least some of these cells are recruited from the periphery, predominantly from the viral Ag-experienced T cell pool. Both virus-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells are functional, as assessed by cytokine expression and degranulation after peptide exposure. In addition, populations of virus-specific CD4 T cells undergo dynamic changes in the infected CNS, as previously shown for CD8 T cells, because ratios of cells responding to two CD4 T cell epitopes change by a factor of five during the course of persistence. Collectively, these results show that maintenance of T cell responses in the virus-infected CNS is a dynamic process. Further, virus-specific T cell numbers at this site of infection are maintained by recruitment from peripheral Ag-experienced and naive T cell pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingxian Zhao
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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Templeton SP, Perlman S. Pathogenesis of acute and chronic central nervous system infection with variants of mouse hepatitis virus, strain JHM. Immunol Res 2008; 39:160-72. [PMID: 17917063 PMCID: PMC7090838 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-007-0079-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/1999] [Revised: 11/30/1999] [Accepted: 11/30/1999] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Infection of mice with variants of mouse hepatitis virus, strain JHM (MHV-JHM), provide models of acute and chronic viral infection of the central nervous system (CNS). Through targeted recombination and reverse genetic manipulation, studies of infection with MHV-JHM variants have identified phenotypic differences and examined the effects of these differences on viral pathogenesis and anti-viral host immune responses. Studies employing recombinant viruses with a modified spike (S) glycoprotein of MHV-JHM have identified the S gene as a major determinant of neurovirulence. However, the association of S gene variation and neurovirulence with host ability to generate anti-viral CD8 T cell responses is not completely clear. Partially protective anti-viral immune responses may result in persistent infection and chronic demyelinating disease characterized by myelin removal from axons of the CNS and associated with dense macrophage/microglial infiltration. Demyelinating disease during MHV-JHM infection is immune-mediated, as mice that lack T lymphocytes fail to develop disease despite succumbing to encephalitis with high levels of infectious virus in the CNS. However, the presence of T lymphocytes or anti-viral antibody can induce disease in infected immunodeficient mice. The mechanisms by which these immune effectors induce demyelination share an ability to activate and recruit macrophages and microglia, thus increasing the putative role of these cells in myelin destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven P Templeton
- Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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Navas-Martín S, Weiss SR. Coronavirus replication and pathogenesis: Implications for the recent outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and the challenge for vaccine development. J Neurovirol 2004; 10:75-85. [PMID: 15204926 PMCID: PMC7095027 DOI: 10.1080/13550280490280292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2003] [Accepted: 12/10/2003] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
A novel coronavirus has been recently identified as the causative agent of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak that has accounted for more than 8000 infected people worldwide. This review will discuss current knowledge on coronavirus replication, pathogenesis, evolution, and vaccine strategies, as well as the most recent findings on SARS coronavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Navas-Martín
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, School of Medicine, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, 19104-6076 Philadelphia, PA USA
| | - Susan R. Weiss
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, School of Medicine, 36th Street and Hamilton Walk, 19104-6076 Philadelphia, PA USA
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Abstract
A number of viruses can initiate central nervous system (CNS) diseases that include demyelination as a major feature of neuropathology. In humans, the most prominent demyelinating diseases are progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, caused by JC papovirus destruction of oligodendrocytes, and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, an invariably fatal childhood disease caused by persistent measles virus. The most common neurological disease of young adults in the developed world, multiple sclerosis, is also characterized by lesions of inflammatory demyelination; however, the etiology of this disease remains an enigma. A viral etiology is possible, because most demyelinating diseases of known etiology in both man and animals are viral. Understanding of the pathogenesis of virus-induced demyelination derives for the most part from the study of animal models. Studies with neurotropic strains of mouse hepatitis virus, Theiler's virus, and Semliki Forest virus have been at the forefront of this research. These models demonstrate how viruses enter the brain, spread, persist, and interact with immune responses. Common features are an ability to infect and persist in glial cells, generation of predominantly CD8(+) responses, which control and clear the early phase of virus replication but which fail to eradicate the infection, and lesions of inflammatory demyelination. In most cases demyelination is to a limited extent the result of direct virus destruction of oligodendrocytes, but for the most part is the consequence of immune and inflammatory responses. These models illustrate the roles of age and genetic susceptibility and establish the concept that persistent CNS infection can lead to the generation of CNS autoimmune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- John K Fazakerley
- Centre for Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
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Marten NW, Stohlman SA, Atkinson RD, Hinton DR, Fleming JO, Bergmann CC. Contributions of CD8+ T cells and viral spread to demyelinating disease. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 164:4080-8. [PMID: 10754301 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.164.8.4080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Acute and chronic demyelination are hallmarks of CNS infection by the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus. Although infectious virus is cleared by CD8+ T cells, both viral RNA and activated CD8+ T cells remain in the CNS during persistence potentially contributing to pathology. To dissociate immune from virus-mediated determinants initiating and maintaining demyelinating disease, mice were infected with two attenuated viral variants differing in a hypervariable region of the spike protein. Despite similar viral replication and tropism, one infection was marked by extensive demyelination and paralysis, whereas the other resulted in no clinical symptoms and minimal neuropathology. Mononuclear cells from either infected brain exhibited virus specific ex vivo cytolytic activity, which was rapidly lost during viral clearance. As revealed by class I tetramer technology the paralytic variant was superior in inducing specific CD8+ T cells during the acute disease. However, after infectious virus was cleared, twice as many virus-specific IFN-gamma-secreting CD8+ T cells were recovered from the brains of asymptomatic mice compared with mice undergoing demyelination, suggesting that IFN-gamma ameliorates rather than perpetuates JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus-induced demyelination. The present data thus indicate that in immunocompetent mice, effector CD8+ T cells control infection without mediating either clinical disease or demyelination. In contrast, demyelination correlated with early and sustained infection of the spinal cord. Rapid viral spread, attributed to determinants within the spike protein and possibly perpetuated by suboptimal CD8+ T cell effector function, thus ultimately leads to the process of immune-mediated demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- N W Marten
- Departments of Neurology, Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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Bergmann CC, Altman JD, Hinton D, Stohlman SA. Inverted Immunodominance and Impaired Cytolytic Function of CD8+ T Cells During Viral Persistence in the Central Nervous System. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 1999. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.163.6.3379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Mice infected with the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) clear infectious virus; nevertheless, virus persists in the CNS as noninfectious RNA, resulting in ongoing primary demyelination. Phenotypic and functional analysis of CNS infiltrating cells during acute infection revealed a potent regional CD8+ T cell response comprising up to 50% virus-specific T cells. The high prevalence of virus-specific T cells correlated with ex vivo cytolytic activity and efficient reduction in viral titers. Progressive viral clearance coincided with the loss of cytolytic activity, but retention of IFN-γ secretion and increased expression of the early activation marker CD69, indicating differential regulation of effector function. Although the total number of infiltrating T cells declined following clearance of infectious virus, CD8+ T cells, both specific for the dominant viral epitopes and of unknown specificity, were retained within the CNS, suggesting an ongoing T cell response during persistent CNS infection involving a virus-independent component. Reversed immunodominance within the virus-specific CD8+ T cell population further indicated epitope-specific regulation, supporting ongoing T cell activation. Even in the absence of infectious virus, the CNS thus provides an environment that maintains both unspecific and Ag-specific CD8+ T cells with restricted effector function. Chronic T cell stimulation may thus play a role in preventing viral recrudescence, while increasing the risk of pathological conditions, such as demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John D. Altman
- §Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - David Hinton
- *Neurology,
- ‡Pathology, University of Southern California School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90033; and
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Rowe CL, Baker SC, Nathan MJ, Fleming JO. Evolution of mouse hepatitis virus: detection and characterization of spike deletion variants during persistent infection. J Virol 1997; 71:2959-69. [PMID: 9060655 PMCID: PMC191424 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.71.4.2959-2969.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
High-frequency RNA recombination has been proposed as an important mechanism for generating viral deletion variants of murine coronavirus. Indeed, a number of variants with deletions in the spike glycoprotein have been isolated from persistently infected animals. However, the significance of generating and potentially accumulating deletion variants in the persisting viral RNA population is unclear. To study this issue, we evaluated the evolution of spike variants by examining the population of spike RNA sequences detected in the brains and spinal cords of mice inoculated with coronavirus and sacrificed at 4, 42, or 100 days postinoculation. We focused on the S1 hypervariable region since previous investigators had shown that this region is subject to recombination and deletion. RNA isolated from the brains or spinal cords of infected mice was rescued by reverse transcription-PCR, and the amplified products were cloned and used in differential colony hybridizations to identify individual isolates with deletions. We found that 11 of 20 persistently infected mice harbored spike deletion variants (SDVs), indicating that deletions are common but not required for persistent infection. To determine if a specific type of SDV accumulated during persistence, we sequenced 106 of the deletion isolates. We identified 23 distinct patterns of SDVs, including 5 double-deletion variants. Furthermore, we found that each mouse harbored distinct variants in its central nervous system (CNS), suggesting that SDVs are generated during viral replication in the CNS. Interestingly, mice with the most severe and persisting neurological disease harbored the most prevalent and diverse quasispecies of SDVs. Overall, these findings illustrate the complexity of the population of persisting viral RNAs which may contribute to chronic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Rowe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Loyola University of Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois 60153, USA
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