Primary Cilia in Cystic Kidney Disease

Synchronized temporal-spatial analysis via microscopy and phosphoproteomics (STAMP) of quiescence

Coordinated cell cycle regulation is essential for homeostasis, with most cells in the body residing in quiescence (G0). Many pathologies arise due to disruptions in tissue-specific G0, yet little is known about the temporal-spatial mechanisms that establish G0 and its signaling hub, primary cilia. Mechanistic insight is limited by asynchronous model systems and failure to connect context-specific, transient mechanisms to function. To address this gap, we developed STAMP (synchronized temporal-spatial analysis via microscopy and phosphoproteomics) to track changes in cellular landscape occurring throughout G0 transition and ciliogenesis. We synchronized ciliogenesis and G0 transition in two cell models and combined microscopy with phosphoproteomics to order signals for further targeted analyses. We propose that STAMP is broadly applicable for studying temporal-spatial signaling in many biological contexts. The findings revealed through STAMP provide critical insight into healthy cellular functions often disrupted in pathologies, paving the way for targeted therapeutics.

Synchronized Temporal-spatial Analysis via Microscopy and Phospho-proteomics (STAMP) of Quiescence

Coordinated cell cycle regulation is essential for homeostasis, with most cells in the body residing in quiescence (G 0 ). Many pathologies arise due to disruptions in tissue-specific G 0 , yet little is known about the temporal-spatial mechanisms that establish G 0 and its signaling hub, primary cilia. Mechanistic insight is limited by asynchronous model systems and failure to connect context-specific, transient mechanisms to function. To address this gap, we developed STAMP ( S ynchronized T emporal-spatial A nalysis via M icroscopy and P hospho-proteomics) to track changes in cellular landscape occurring throughout G 0 transition and ciliogenesis. For the first time, we synchronized ciliogenesis and G 0 transition in two cell models and combined microscopy with phospho-proteomics to order signals for further targeted analyses. We propose that STAMP is broadly applicable for studying temporal-spatial signaling in many biological contexts. The findings revealed through STAMP provide critical insight into healthy cellular functions often disrupted in pathologies, paving the way for targeted therapeutics.

TEASER

STAMP of signaling in quiescent cells unravels transient phosphorylations in cellular functions.

Impaired Glucose Metabolism, Primary Cilium Defects, and Kidney Cystogenesis in Glycogen Storage Disease Type Ia

Key Points

Metabolism adaptations due to glucose-6 phosphate accumulation in glycogen storage disease type Ia kidneys, toward a Warburg-like metabolism, promoted cell proliferation. Metabolic perturbations directly affected primary cilium structure and cystogenesis in glycogen storage disease type Ia kidneys.

Background

Glycogen storage disease type Ia (GSDIa) is a rare metabolic disorder caused by mutations in the catalytic subunit of glucose-6 phosphatase (G6PC1). This leads to severe hypoglycemia, and most young patients with GSDIa develop CKD. The kidney pathology is characterized by the development of cysts, which typically occur at an advanced stage of CKD.

Methods

To elucidate the molecular mechanisms responsible for cyst formation, we characterized renal metabolism, molecular pathways involved in cell proliferation, and primary cilium integrity using mice in which G6pc1 was specifically deleted in the kidney from an in utero stage.

Results

GSDIa mice exhibited kidney fibrosis, high inflammation, and cyst formation, leading to kidney dysfunction. In addition, the loss of G6PC1 led to the ectopic accumulation of glycogen and lipids in the kidneys and a metabolic shift toward a Warburg-like metabolism. This metabolic adaptation was due to an excess of glucose-6 phosphate, which supports cell proliferation, driven by the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal–regulated kinases and protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin pathways. Treatment of GSDIa mice with rapamycin, a target of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway, reduced cell proliferation and kidney damage. Our results also identified lipocalin 2 as a contributor to renal inflammation and an early biomarker of CKD progression in GSDIa mice. Its inactivation partially prevented kidney lesions in GSDIa. Importantly, primary cilium defects were observed in the kidneys of GSDIa mice.

Conclusions

Metabolic adaptations because of glucose-6 phosphate accumulation in GSDIa renal tubules, toward a Warburg-like metabolism, promoted cell proliferation and cyst formation in a similar manner to that observed in various cystic kidney diseases. This was associated with downregulation of primary cilium gene expression and, consequently, altered cilium morphology.

Renal Pathology of Ciliopathies

Renal ciliopathies are a group of genetic disorders that affect the function of the primary cilium in the kidney, as well as other organs. Since primary cilia are important for regulation of cell signaling pathways, ciliary dysfunction results in a range of clinical manifestations, including renal failure, cyst formation, and hypertension. We summarize the current understanding of the pathophysiological and pathological features of renal ciliopathies in childhood, including autosomal dominant and recessive polycystic kidney disease, nephronophthisis, and Bardet-Biedl syndrome, as well as skeletal dysplasia associated renal ciliopathies. The genetic basis of these disorders is now well-established in many cases, with mutations in a large number of cilia-related genes such as PKD1, PKD2, BBS, MKS, and NPHP being responsible for the majority of cases. Renal ciliopathies are broadly characterized by development of interstitial fibrosis and formation of multiple renal cysts which gradually enlarge and replace normal renal tissue, with each condition demonstrating subtle differences in the degree, location, and age-related development of cysts and fibrosis. Presentation varies from prenatal diagnosis of congenital multisystem syndromes to an asymptomatic childhood with development of complications in later adulthood and therefore clinicopathological correlation is important, including increasing use of targeted genetic testing or whole genome sequencing, allowing greater understanding of genetic pathophysiological mechanisms.

ALS-linked C9orf72-SMCR8 complex is a negative regulator of primary ciliogenesis

Massive GGGGCC (G4C2) repeat expansion in C9orf72 and the resulting loss of C9orf72 function are the key features of ~50% of inherited amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia cases. However, the biological function of C9orf72 remains unclear. We previously found that C9orf72 can form a stable GTPase activating protein (GAP) complex with SMCR8 (Smith-Magenis chromosome region 8). Herein, we report that the C9orf72-SMCR8 complex is a major negative regulator of primary ciliogenesis, abnormalities in which lead to ciliopathies. Mechanistically, the C9orf72-SMCR8 complex suppresses the primary cilium as a RAB8A GAP. Moreover, based on biochemical analysis, we found that C9orf72 is the RAB8A binding subunit and that SMCR8 is the GAP subunit in the complex. We further found that the C9orf72-SMCR8 complex suppressed the primary cilium in multiple tissues from mice, including but not limited to the brain, kidney, and spleen. Importantly, cells with C9orf72 or SMCR8 knocked out were more sensitive to hedgehog signaling. These results reveal the unexpected impact of C9orf72 on primary ciliogenesis and elucidate the pathogenesis of diseases caused by the loss of C9orf72 function.

Calcium signaling in polycystic kidney disease- cell death and survival

Polycystic kidney disease is typified by cysts in the kidney and extra-renal manifestations including hypertension and heart failure. The main genetic underpinning this disease are loss-of function mutations to the two polycystin proteins, polycystin 1 and polycystin 2. Molecularly, the disease is characterized by changes in multiple signaling pathways including down regulation of calcium signaling, which, in part, is contributed by the calcium permeant properties of polycystin 2. These signaling pathways enable the cystic cells to survive and avoid cell death. This review focuses on the studies that have emerged in the past 5 years describing how the structural insights gained from PC-1 and PC-2 inform the calcium dependent molecular pathways of autophagy and the unfolded protein response that are regulated by the polycystin proteins and how it leads to cell survival and/or cell death.

Shortening of primary cilia length is associated with urine concentration in the kidneys

BACKGROUND

The primary cilium, a microtubule-based cellular organelle present in certain kidney cells, functions as a mechano-sensor to monitor fluid flow in addition to various other biological functions. In kidneys, the primary cilia protrude into the tubular lumen and are directly exposed to pro-urine flow and components. However, their effects on urine concentration remain to be defined. Here, we investigated the association between primary cilia and urine concentration.

METHODS

Mice either had free access to water (normal water intake, NWI) or were not allowed access to water (water deprivation, WD). Some mice received tubastatin, an inhibitor of histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6), which regulates the acetylation of α-tubulin, a core protein of microtubules.

RESULTS

WD decreased urine output and increased urine osmolality, concomitant with apical plasma membrane localization of aquaporin 2 (AQP2) in the kidney. After WD, compared with after NWI, the lengths of primary cilia in renal tubular epithelial cells were shortened and HDAC6 activity increased. WD induced deacetylation of α-tubulin without altering α-tubulin levels in the kidney. Tubastatin prevented the shortening of cilia through increasing HDAC6 activity and consequently increasing acetylated α-tubulin expression. Furthermore, tubastatin prevented the WD-induced reduction of urine output, urine osmolality increase, and apical plasma membrane localization of AQP2.

CONCLUSIONS

WD shortens primary cilia length through HDAC6 activation and α-tubulin deacetylation, while HDAC6 inhibition blocks the WD-induced changes in cilia length and urine output. This suggests that cilia length alterations are involved, at least in part, in the regulation of body water balance and urine concentration.

Cystic Diseases of the Kidneys: From Bench to Bedside

Exploration into the causes of hereditary renal cystic diseases demonstrates a deep-rooted connection with the proteomic components of the cellular organelle cilia. Cilia are essential to the signaling cascades, and their dysfunction has been tied to a range of renal cystic diseases initiating with studies on the oak ridge polycystic kidney (ORPK) mouse model. Here, we delve into renal cystic pathologies that have been tied with ciliary proteosome and highlight the genetics associated with each. The pathologies are grouped based on the mode of inheritance, where inherited causes that result in cystic kidney disease phenotypes include autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease, nephronophthisis (Bardet-Biedl syndrome and Joubert Syndrome), and autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease. Alternatively, phakomatoses-, also known as neurocutaneous syndromes, associated cystic kidney diseases include tuberous sclerosis (TS) and Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease. Additionally, we group the pathologies by the mode of inheritance to discuss variations in recommendations for genetic testing for biological relatives of a diagnosed individual.

Renal plasticity revealed through reversal of polycystic kidney disease in mice

Initiation of cyst formation in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) occurs when kidney tubule cells are rendered null for either PKD1 or PKD2 by somatic 'second hit' mutations. Subsequent cyst progression remodels the organ through changes in tubule cell shape, proliferation and secretion. The kidney develops inflammation and fibrosis. We constructed a mouse model in which adult inactivation of either Pkd gene can be followed by reactivation of the gene at a later time. Using this model, we show that re-expression of Pkd genes in cystic kidneys results in rapid reversal of ADPKD. Cyst cell proliferation is reduced, autophagy is activated and cystic tubules with expanded lumina lined by squamoid cells revert to normal lumina lined by cuboidal cells. Increases in inflammation, extracellular matrix deposition and myofibroblast activation are reversed, and the kidneys become smaller. We conclude that phenotypic features of ADPKD are reversible and that the kidney has an unexpected capacity for plasticity controlled at least in part by ADPKD gene function.

Nephronophthisis-Pathobiology and Molecular Pathogenesis of a Rare Kidney Genetic Disease

The exponential rise in our understanding of the aetiology and pathophysiology of genetic cystic kidney diseases can be attributed to the identification of cystogenic genes over the last three decades. The foundation of this was laid by positional cloning strategies which gradually shifted towards next-generation sequencing (NGS) based screenings. This shift has enabled the discovery of novel cystogenic genes at an accelerated pace unlike ever before and, most notably, the past decade has seen the largest increase in identification of the genes which cause nephronophthisis (NPHP). NPHP is a monogenic autosomal recessive cystic kidney disease caused by mutations in a diverse clade of over 26 identified genes and is the most common genetic cause of renal failure in children. NPHP gene types present with some common pathophysiological features alongside a diverse range of extra-renal phenotypes associated with specific syndromic presentations. This review provides a timely update on our knowledge of this disease, including epidemiology, pathophysiology, anatomical and molecular features. We delve into the diversity of the NPHP causing genes and discuss known molecular mechanisms and biochemical pathways that may have possible points of intersection with polycystic kidney disease (the most studied renal cystic pathology). We delineate the pathologies arising from extra-renal complications and co-morbidities and their impact on quality of life. Finally, we discuss the current diagnostic and therapeutic modalities available for disease management, outlining possible avenues of research to improve the prognosis for NPHP patients.

Establishment of a Ciliogenesis-Associated Signaling Model for Polycystic Kidney Disease

BACKGROUND

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) represents the most prevalent inherited progressive kidney disorder in humans. Due to complexity of the genetic network behind the disease, the molecular mechanisms of PKD are still poorly understood yet.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to develop a ciliogenesis-associated gene network for PKD patients and comprehensively understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease.

METHOD

The potential hub genes were selected based on the differential expression analysis from the GEO database. Meanwhile, the primary hub genes were further elucidated by both in vivo and in vitro experiments.

RESULTS

In this study, we established a comprehensive differentially expressed genes profile (including GNAS, PI4KB, UMOD, SLC7A13, and MIOX) for PKD patients compared with the control specimen. At the same time, enrichment analysis was utilized to demonstrate that the G-protein-related signaling and cilia assembling signaling pathways were closely associated with PKD development. The further investigations of the interaction between 2 genes (GNAS and PI4KB) with in vivo and in vitro analyses revealed that PI4KB functioned as a downstream factor for GNAS and spontaneously activated the phosphorylation of Akt into p-Akt for ciliogenesis in PKD formation. The PI4KB depletion mutant zebrafish model displayed a PKD phenotype as well as absence of primary cilia in the kidney.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our work discovered an innovative potential signaling pathway model for PKD formation, which provided a valuable insight for future study of the mechanism of this disease.

Autosomic dominant polycystic kidney disease and metformin: Old knowledge and new insights on retarding progression of chronic kidney disease

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common congenital kidney disorder, generally caused by mutations in the PKD1 and PKD2 genes, coding for polycystins 1 and 2. Its pathogenesis is accompanied by alterations of the cAMP, mTOR, MAPK/ERK, and JAK/STAT pathways. ADPKD is clinically characterized by the formation of many growing cysts with kidney enlargement and a progressive damage to the parenchyma, up to its complete loss of function, and the onset of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The current aim of ADPKD therapy is the inhibition of cyst development and retardation of chronic kidney disease progression. Several drugs have been recently included as potential therapies for ADPKD including metformin, the drug of choice for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus, according to its potential inhibitory effects on cystogenesis. In this review, we summarize preclinical and clinical evidence endorsing or rejecting metformin administration in ADPKD evolution and pathological mechanisms. We explored the biology of APDKD and the role of metformin in slowing down cystogenesis searching PubMed and Clinical Trials to identify relevant data from the database inception to December 2020. From our research analysis, evidence for metformin as emerging cure for ADPKD mainly arise from preclinical studies. In fact, clinical studies are still scanty and stronger evidence is awaited. Its effects are likely mediated by inhibition of the ERK pathway and increase of AMPK levels, which are both linked to ADPKD pathogenesis.

The cellular pathways and potential therapeutics of Polycystic Kidney Disease

Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) refers to a group of disorders, driven by the formation of cysts in renal tubular cells and is currently one of the leading causes of end-stage renal disease. The range of symptoms observed in PKD is due to mutations in cilia-localising genes, resulting in changes in cellular signalling. As such, compounds that are currently in preclinical and clinical trials target some of these signalling pathways that are dysregulated in PKD. In this review, we highlight these pathways including cAMP, EGF and AMPK signalling and drugs that target them and may show promise in lessening the disease burden of PKD patients. At present, tolvaptan is the only approved therapy for ADPKD, however, it carries several adverse side effects whilst comparatively, no pharmacological drug is approved for ARPKD treatment. Aside from this, drugs that have been the subject of multiple clinical trials such as metformin, which targets AMPK signalling and somatostatins, which target cAMP signalling have shown great promise in reducing cyst formation and cellular proliferation. This review also discusses other potential and novel targets that can be used for future interventions, such as β-catenin and TAZ, where research has shown that a reduction in the overexpression of these signalling components results in amelioration of disease phenotype. Thus, it becomes apparent that well-designed preclinical investigations and future clinical trials into these pathways and other potential signalling targets are crucial in bettering disease prognosis for PKD patients and could lead to personalised therapy approaches.

Testis-enriched circular RNA circ-Bbs9 plays an important role in Leydig cell proliferation by regulating a CyclinD2-dependent pathway

Circular RNAs belong to a new category of non-coding RNAs, characterised by a circular structure, conservation, stability and high expression in eukaryotes. They often show tissue- or cell-specific expression. Here, we identified a testis-enriched circular RNA (circRNA), circular Bbs9 (circ-Bbs9) that is highly expressed in mouse testis. An RNase R treatment experiment confirmed that circ-Bbs9 is indeed a circRNA. In situ hybridisation experiments showed that circ-Bbs9 is expressed in Leydig cells along seminiferous tubules and in the cytoplasm of the TM3 Leydig cell line. Knocking down the circ-Bbs9 in TM3 cells by lentivirus vectors arrested cell proliferation, whereas overexpression of circ-Bbs9 induced cell proliferation significantly. Knocking down circ-Bbs9 inhibited the protein level of cyclin D2 (Ccnd2) and RNA immunoprecipitation results showed that circ-Bbs9 interacts with Ccnd2. Our results show that use of the Hedgehog pathway Smoothened Agonist (SAG) HCl and antagonists cyclopamine and gant6 affects the expression levels of Glioma-Associated Oncogene Homolog 1 (Gli1), Ccnd2 and other genes in this pathway. Our research reveals that a Leydig cell-specific circRNA, circ-Bbs9, plays a critical role in Leydig cell proliferation through regulating the levels of cell cycle-related Ccnd2. Thus, our results emphasise the important role of circRNA in the male reproductive system.

Targeting E3 Ubiquitin Ligases and Deubiquitinases in Ciliopathy and Cancer

Cilia are antenna-like structures present in many vertebrate cells. These organelles detect extracellular cues, transduce signals into the cell, and play an essential role in ensuring correct cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation in a spatiotemporal manner. Not surprisingly, dysregulation of cilia can cause various diseases, including cancer and ciliopathies, which are complex disorders caused by mutations in genes regulating ciliary function. The structure and function of cilia are dynamically regulated through various mechanisms, among which E3 ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases play crucial roles. These enzymes regulate the degradation and stabilization of ciliary proteins through the ubiquitin-proteasome system. In this review, we briefly highlight the role of cilia in ciliopathy and cancer; describe the roles of E3 ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases in ciliogenesis, ciliopathy, and cancer; and highlight some of the E3 ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases that are potential therapeutic targets for these disorders.

Epb41l5 interacts with Iqcb1 and regulates ciliary function in zebrafish embryos

Erythrocyte protein band 4.1 like 5 (EPB41L5) is an adaptor protein beneath the plasma membrane that functions to control epithelial morphogenesis. Here we report a previously uncharacterized role of EPB41L5 in controlling ciliary function. We found that EPB41L5 forms a complex with IQCB1 (previously known as NPHP5), a ciliopathy protein. Overexpression of EPB41L5 reduced IQCB1 localization at the ciliary base in cultured mammalian epithelial cells. Conversely, epb41l5 knockdown increased IQCB1 localization at the ciliary base. epb41l5-deficient zebrafish embryos or embryos expressing C-terminally modified forms of Epb41l5 developed cilia with reduced motility and exhibited left-right patterning defects, an outcome of abnormal ciliary function. We observed genetic synergy between epb41l5 and iqcb1. Moreover, EPB41L5 decreased IQCB1 interaction with CEP290, another ciliopathy protein and a component of the ciliary base and centrosome. Together, these observations suggest that EPB41L5 regulates the composition of the ciliary base and centrosome through IQCB1 and CEP290.

Molecular pathways involved in injury-repair and ADPKD progression

The major hallmark of Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD) is the formation of many fluid-filled cysts in the kidneys, which ultimately impairs the normal renal structure and function, leading to end-stage renal disease (ESRD). A large body of evidence suggests that injury-repair mechanisms are part of ADPKD progression. Once cysts have been formed, proliferation and fluid secretion contribute to the cyst size increase, which eventually causes stress on the surrounding tissue resulting in local injury and fibrosis. In addition, renal injury can cause or accelerate cyst formation. In this review, we will describe the various mechanisms activated during renal injury and tissue repair and show how they largely overlap with the molecular mechanisms activated during PKD progression. In particular, we will discuss molecular mechanisms such as proliferation, inflammation, cell differentiation, cytokines and growth factors secretion, which are activated following the renal injury to allow the remodelling of the tissue and a proper organ repair. We will also underline how, in a context of PKD-related gene mutations, aberrant or chronic activation of these developmental pathways and repair/remodelling mechanisms results in exacerbation of the disease.

Ciliary Genes in Renal Cystic Diseases

Cilia are microtubule-based organelles, protruding from the apical cell surface and anchoring to the cytoskeleton. Primary (nonmotile) cilia of the kidney act as mechanosensors of nephron cells, responding to fluid movements by triggering signal transduction. The impaired functioning of primary cilia leads to formation of cysts which in turn contribute to development of diverse renal diseases, including kidney ciliopathies and renal cancer. Here, we review current knowledge on the role of ciliary genes in kidney ciliopathies and renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Special focus is given on the impact of mutations and altered expression of ciliary genes (e.g., encoding polycystins, nephrocystins, Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) proteins, ALS1, Oral-facial-digital syndrome 1 (OFD1) and others) in polycystic kidney disease and nephronophthisis, as well as rare genetic disorders, including syndromes of Joubert, Meckel-Gruber, Bardet-Biedl, Senior-Loken, Alström, Orofaciodigital syndrome type I and cranioectodermal dysplasia. We also show that RCC and classic kidney ciliopathies share commonly disturbed genes affecting cilia function, including VHL (von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor), PKD1 (polycystin 1, transient receptor potential channel interacting) and PKD2 (polycystin 2, transient receptor potential cation channel). Finally, we discuss the significance of ciliary genes as diagnostic and prognostic markers, as well as therapeutic targets in ciliopathies and cancer.

28 novel mutations identified from 33 Chinese patients with cilia-related kidney disorders

BACKGROUND

Cilia play an important role in cellular signaling pathways. Defective ciliary function causes a variety of disorders involve retina, skeleton, liver, kidney or others. Cilia-related kidney disorders are characterized by cystic renal disease, nephronophthisis and renal failure in general.

METHODS

In this study, we collected 33 families clinically suspected of cilia-related kidney disorders. Capture-based next-generation sequencing (NGS) of 88 related genes, Sanger sequencing, pedigree analysis and functional study were performed to analyze their genetic cause.

RESULTS

40 mutations in PKD1, PKD2, PKHD1, DYNC2H1 and TMEM67 genes were identified from 27 of 33 affected families. 70% (28/40) of the mutations were first found in patients. We reported a very early-onset autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) family caused by a novel heterozygous PKD1 mutation; another fetus with DYNC2H1 compound heterozygous missense mutations showed mainly kidney dysplasia instead of skeletal abnormalities; and a novel PKD1 mutation, c.12445-3C > G, was confirmed to cause two wrong splicing modes. As for previously reported mutations, such as PKD1, c.6395 T > G (p.F2132C) and c.6868G > T (p.D2290Y), we had new and different findings.

CONCLUSION

The findings provided new references for genotype-phenotype analyses and broadened the mutation spectrum of detected genes, which were significantly valuable for prenatal diagnosis and genetic counseling.

Prothymosin α promotes STAT3 acetylation to induce cystogenesis in Pkd1-deficient mice

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is characterized by the expansion of fluid-filled cysts in the kidney, which impair the function of kidney and eventually leads to end-stage renal failure. It has been previously demonstrated that transgenic overexpression of prothymosin α (ProT) induces the development of PKD; however, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we used a mouse PKD model that sustains kidney-specific low-expression of Pkd1 to illustrate that aberrant up-regulation of ProT occurs in cyst-lining epithelial cells, and we further developed an in vitro cystogenesis model to demonstrate that the suppression of ProT is sufficient to reduce cyst formation. Next, we found that the expression of ProT was accompanied with prominent augmentation of protein acetylation in PKD, which results in the activation of downstream signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3. The pathologic role of STAT3 in PKD has been previously reported. We determined that this molecular mechanism of protein acetylation is involved with the interaction between ProT and STAT3; consequently, it causes the deprivation of histone deacetylase 3 from the indicated protein. Conclusively, these results elucidate the significant role of ProT, including protein acetylation and STAT3 activation in PKD, which represent potential for ameliorating the disease progression of PKD.-Chen, Y.-C., Su, Y.-C., Shieh, G.-S., Su, B.-H., Su, W.-C., Huang, P.-H., Jiang, S.-T., Shiau, A.-L., Wu, C.-L. Prothymosin α promotes STAT3 acetylation to induce cystogenesis in Pkd1-deficient mice.

Ciliogenesis associated kinase 1: targets and functions in various organ systems

Ciliogenesis associated kinase 1 (CILK1) was previously known as intestinal cell kinase because it was cloned from that origin. However, CILK1 is now recognized as a widely expressed and highly conserved serine/threonine protein kinase. Mutations in the human CILK1 gene have been associated with ciliopathies, a group of human genetic disorders with defects in the primary cilium. In mice, both Cilk1 knock-out and Cilk1 knock-in mutations have recapitulated human ciliopathies. Thus, CILK1 has a fundamental role in the function of the cilium. Several candidate substrates have been proposed for CILK1 and the challenge is to relate these to the mutant phenotypes. In this review, we summarize what is known about CILK1 functions and targets, and discuss gaps in current knowledge that motivate further experimentation to fully understand the role of CILK1 in organ development in humans.

Cell-Autonomous Hedgehog Signaling Is Not Required for Cyst Formation in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease

BACKGROUND

PKD1 or PKD2, the two main causal genes for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), encode the multipass transmembrane proteins polycystin-1 (PC1) and polycystin-2 (PC2), respectively. Polycystins localize to the primary cilium, an organelle essential for cell signaling, including signal transduction of the Hedgehog pathway. Mutations in ciliary genes that build and maintain the cilium also cause renal cystic disease through unknown pathways. Although recent studies have found alterations in Hedgehog signaling in ADPKD-related models and tissues, the relationship between Hedgehog and polycystic kidney disease is not known.

METHODS

To examine the potential role of cell-autonomous Hedgehog signaling in regulating kidney cyst formation in vivo in both early- and adult-onset mouse models of ADPKD, we used conditional inactivation of Pkd1 combined with conditional modulation of Hedgehog signaling components in renal epithelial cells, where mutations in Pkd1 initiate cyst formation. After increasing or decreasing levels of Hedgehog signaling in cells that underwent inactivation of Pkd1, we evaluated the effects of these genetic manipulations on quantitative parameters of polycystic kidney disease severity.

RESULTS

We found that in Pkd1 conditional mutant mouse kidneys, neither downregulation nor activation of the Hedgehog pathway in epithelial cells along the nephron significantly influenced the severity of the polycystic kidney phenotype in mouse models of developmental or adult-onset of ADPKD.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that loss of Pkd1 function results in kidney cysts through pathways that are not affected by the activity of the Hedgehog pathway.

Polycystin 1 loss of function is directly linked to an imbalance in G-protein signaling in the kidney

The development of the kidney relies on the establishment and maintenance of a precise tubular diameter of its functional units, the nephrons. This process is disrupted in polycystic kidney disease (PKD), resulting in dilations of the nephron and renal cyst formation. In the course of exploring G-protein-coupled signaling in the Xenopus pronephric kidney, we discovered that loss of the G-protein α subunit, Gnas, results in a PKD phenotype. Polycystin 1, one of the genes mutated in human PKD, encodes a protein resembling a G-protein-coupled receptor. Furthermore, deletion of the G-protein-binding domain present in the intracellular C terminus of polycystin 1 impacts functionality. A comprehensive analysis of all the G-protein α subunits expressed in the Xenopus pronephric kidney demonstrates that polycystin 1 recruits a select subset of G-protein α subunits and that their knockdown - as in the case of Gnas - results in a PKD phenotype. Mechanistically, the phenotype is caused by increased endogenous G-protein β/γ signaling and can be reversed by pharmacological inhibitors as well as knocking down Gnb1. Together, our data support the hypothesis that G proteins are recruited to the intracellular domain of PKD1 and that this interaction is crucial for its function in the kidney.

Casein kinase 1ε and 1α as novel players in polycystic kidney disease and mechanistic targets for (R)-roscovitine and (S)-CR8

Following the discovery of (R)-roscovitine's beneficial effects in three polycystic kidney disease (PKD) mouse models, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) inhibitors have been investigated as potential treatments. We have used various affinity chromatography approaches to identify the molecular targets of roscovitine and its more potent analog (S)-CR8 in human and murine polycystic kidneys. These methods revealed casein kinases 1 (CK1) as additional targets of the two drugs. CK1ε expression at the mRNA and protein levels is enhanced in polycystic kidneys of 11 different PKD mouse models as well as in human polycystic kidneys. A shift in the pattern of CK1α isoforms is observed in all PKD mouse models. Furthermore, the catalytic activities of both CK1ε and CK1α are increased in mouse polycystic kidneys. Inhibition of CK1ε and CK1α may thus contribute to the long-lasting attenuating effects of roscovitine and (S)-CR8 on cyst development. CDKs and CK1s may constitute a dual therapeutic target to develop kinase inhibitory PKD drug candidates.