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Sen A, Erdivanlı B, Tümkaya L, Uydu HA, Mercantepe T, Batcik Ş, Ozdemir A. The effects of dexmedetomidine on trauma-induced secondary injury in rat brain. Neurol Res 2024; 46:23-32. [PMID: 37842946 DOI: 10.1080/01616412.2023.2257446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of dexmedetomidine (Dex), a sedative drug with little or no depressant effect on respiratory centers, on secondary injury in rat brain tissue by means of the Na+/K+ ATPase enzyme, which maintains the cell membrane ion gradient; malondialdehyde, an indicator of membrane lipid peroxidation; glutathione, an indicator of antioxidant capacity; and histopathological analyses. METHODS Eighteen rats were randomized into three groups: the trauma group received anesthesia, followed by head trauma with a Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Apparatus; the Trauma+Dex group received an additional treatment of 100 µg/kg intraperitoneal dexmedetomidine daily for three days; the Control group received anesthesia only. RESULTS The highest MDA levels compared to the Control group were found in the Trauma group. Mean levels in the Trauma+Dex group were lower, albeit still significantly high compared to the Control group. Glutathione levels were similar in all groups. Na/K-ATPase levels were significantly lower in the Trauma group compared to both the Control group and the Trauma+Dex group. Histopathologic findings of tissue degeneration including edema, vascular congestion and neuronal injury, and cleaved caspase-3 levels were lower in the Trauma+Dex group compared with the Trauma group. CONCLUSIONS Dexmedetomidine administered during the early stage of traumatic brain injury may inhibit caspase-3 cleavageHowever, the mechanism does not seem to be related to the improvement of MDA or GSH levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Sen
- Department of Anesthesiology and Reanimation, Trabzon Faculty of Medicine, University of Health Sciences, Trabzon, Turkey
| | - Basar Erdivanlı
- Department of Anestjesıology and Reamınatıon, Faculty of Medıcıne, Recep Tayyıp Erdogan Unıversıty
| | - Levent Tümkaya
- Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Rize, Turkey
| | - Hüseyin Avni Uydu
- Histology and Embryology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Rize, Turkey
| | - Tolga Mercantepe
- Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Rize, Turkey
| | - Şule Batcik
- Department of Anestjesıology and Reamınatıon, Faculty of Medıcıne, Recep Tayyıp Erdogan Unıversıty
| | - Abdullah Ozdemir
- Department of Anestjesıology and Reamınatıon, Faculty of Medıcıne, Recep Tayyıp Erdogan Unıversıty
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Haro Girón S, Monserrat Sanz J, Ortega MA, Garcia-Montero C, Fraile-Martínez O, Gómez-Lahoz AM, Boaru DL, de Leon-Oliva D, Guijarro LG, Atienza-Perez M, Diaz D, Lopez-Dolado E, Álvarez-Mon M. Prognostic Value of Malondialdehyde (MDA) in the Temporal Progression of Chronic Spinal Cord Injury. J Pers Med 2023; 13:jpm13040626. [PMID: 37109013 PMCID: PMC10144495 DOI: 10.3390/jpm13040626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Oxidative stress is a major signature of spinal cord injury (SCI). The altered levels of various oxidative stress markers have been demonstrated in acute and chronic SCI. However, the variation of these markers in patients with chronic SCI depending on the time since the initial injury has not been explored yet. Objective: Our aim was to measure plasma levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), a marker of lipid peroxidation in patients with SCI stratified in different periods of suffering the injury (0–5 years, 5–10 years, and more than 10 years). Patients and methods: This cross-sectional study enrolled patients with SCI (N = 105) from different periods of the lesion and healthy control (HC) subjects (N = 38): short period (SCI SP, N = 31, time of evolution less than 5 years); early chronic (SCI ECP, N = 32, time of evolution 5–15 years); and late chronic (SCI LCP, N = 42, time of evolution more than 15 years). The plasma levels of MDA were measured using a commercially available colorimetric assay. Results: Patients with SCI had significantly higher plasma levels of MDA than HC subjects. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis for plasma MDA levels in patients with SCI demonstrated areas under the curve (AUC) of 1 (HC vs. SCI-SP); 0.998 (HC vs. SCI-ECP); and 0.964 (HC vs. SCI-LCP). Additionally, three ROC curves were used to compare the different concentrations of MDA between the subgroups of patients with SCI, and the resulting AUCs were: 0.896 (SCI-SP vs. SCI-ECP); 0.840 (SCI-ECP vs. SCI-LCP); and 0.979 (SCI-SP vs. SCI-LCP). Conclusion: Plasma concentration of MDA can be considered as an oxidative stress biomarker to assess the prognosis of SCI in chronic stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Haro Girón
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jorge Monserrat Sanz
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel A. Ortega
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Cielo Garcia-Montero
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Oscar Fraile-Martínez
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana M. Gómez-Lahoz
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Diego Liviu Boaru
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Diego de Leon-Oliva
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis G. Guijarro
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Unit of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of System Biology (CIBEREHD), University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcala de Henares, Spain
| | - Mar Atienza-Perez
- Service of Rehabilitation, National Hospital for Paraplegic Patients, Carr. de la Peraleda, S/N, 45004 Toledo, Spain
| | - David Diaz
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Elisa Lopez-Dolado
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Service of Rehabilitation, National Hospital for Paraplegic Patients, Carr. de la Peraleda, S/N, 45004 Toledo, Spain
| | - Melchor Álvarez-Mon
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Alcalá, 28801 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramón y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain
- Service of Internal Medicine and Immune System Diseases-Rheumatology, University Hospital Príncipe de Asturias, (CIBEREHD), 28806 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
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Onder C, Onder C, Akesen S, Yumusak E, Akesen B. Riluzole is Effective on Spinal Decompression for Treating Acute Spinal Injury When Compared With Methylprednisolone and the Combination of Two Drugs: In Vivo Rat Model. Global Spine J 2023:21925682231159068. [PMID: 36812057 DOI: 10.1177/21925682231159068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Randomized controlled animal experiment. OBJECTIVES To determine and compare the efficacy of riluzole, MPS and the combination of two drugs in a rat model with acute spinal trauma, electrophysiologically and histopathologically. METHODS 59 rats were divided into 4 groups as control, riluzole (6 mg/kg, every 12 hours for 7 days), MPS (30 mg/kg, 2nd and 4th hours after injury) and riluzole + MPS. Spinal trauma was created and the subjects were followed for 7 days. Electrophysiological recordings were made via neuromonitoring. The subjects were sacrificed and histopathological examination was made. RESULTS For the amplitude values, mean alteration in the period from the spinal cord injury to the end of the 7th day is 15.89 ± 20.00%, 210.93 ± 199.44%, 24.75% ± 10.13% increase and 18.91 ± 30.01% decrease for the control, riluzole, riluzole + MPS and MPS groups, respectively. Although the riluzole treatment group produced the greatest increase in amplitude, it was observed that no treatment provided a significant improvement compared to the control group, in terms of latency and amplitude. It was observed that there was significantly less cavitation area in the riluzole treatment group compared to the control group (P = .020). (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS Electrophysiologically, no treatment was found to provide significant improvement. Histopathologically, it was observed that riluzole provided significant neural tissue protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cem Onder
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Uludağ University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Cigdem Onder
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Sehitkamil Hospital, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Selcan Akesen
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology and Reanimation, Uludağ University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Ezgi Yumusak
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, Uludağ University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Burak Akesen
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Uludağ University, Bursa, Turkey
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Rafie F, Khaksari M, Amiresmaili S, Soltani Z, Pourranjbar M, Shirazpour S, Jafari E. Protective effects of early exercise on neuroinflammation, and neurotoxicity associated by traumatic brain injury: a behavioral and neurochemical approach. Int J Neurosci 2022:1-14. [PMID: 36379667 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2022.2144294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The benefits of exercise in TBI have been proven. However, the time-dependent effects of exercise initiation and the involved mechanisms are controversial. We investigated the effects of preconditioning, continuous, early, and delayed treadmill exercise on motor behavior, brain edema, inflammation, and oxidative stress in experimental traumatic brain injury (TBI). MATERIALS AND METHODS 48 male rats were assigned into two groups: sedentary control (Sham and TBI) and exercise groups: 1MB (preconditioning, initiation beginning at 1 month before trauma), 1MBA (continuous, initiation beginning at 1 month before and continuing 1 month after trauma), 24hA (early, initiation beginning at 24 h after trauma), and 1WA (delay, initiation beginning at 1 week after trauma). The rats in exercise groups were forced to run on a treadmill five days a week for 30 min per day. Rotarod and open file were used to assess motor behavior. ELISA was also used to measure total antioxidant capacity (TAC), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in serum and CSF. RESULTS Exercise significantly decreased neurological impairments, motor deficits, and apoptosis compared with the sedentary group. Early (within 24 h) and ongoing (1 MBA) exercise significantly improved motor behavior after TBI. In addition, these exercise programs inhibited brain edema and the number of apoptotic cells. MDA and TNF-α levels increased in all exercise groups, but the effects were greater after early exercise than after delayed exercise, resulting in a significant decrease in TAC levels in serum and CSF. We discovered a positive correlation between MDA, TAC, and TNF-α concentration in serum and CSF. CONCLUSION Our finding suggests that early exercise (24hA) and 1MBA groups afford neuroprotection and reduce the second injury consequence, probably by reducing neuronal apoptosis and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Forouzan Rafie
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Kerman Medical Science University, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mohammad Khaksari
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Kerman Medical Science University, Kerman, Iran
- Endocrine and Metabolism Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology Sciences, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | | | - Zahra Soltani
- Endocrine and Metabolism Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology Sciences, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mohammad Pourranjbar
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology sciences, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Sara Shirazpour
- Endocrine and Metabolism Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology Sciences, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology sciences, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
- Physiology Research Center, Institute of Basic and Clinical Physiology sciences, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Elham Jafari
- Pathology and Stem Cell Research Center and Department of pathology, Kerman University of Medical Science, Kerman, Iran
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Effect of MCI-186 on Lipid Peroxidation in Experimental Traumatic Brain Damage in Rats. Korean J Neurotrauma 2022; 18:188-197. [DOI: 10.13004/kjnt.2022.18.e30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Kahveci R, Kahveci FO, Gokce EC, Gokce A, Kısa Ü, Sargon MF, Fesli R, Gürer B. Effects of Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides on Different Pathways Involved in the Development of Spinal Cord Ischemia Reperfusion Injury: Biochemical, Histopathologic, and Ultrastructural Analysis in a Rat Model. World Neurosurg 2021; 150:e287-e297. [PMID: 33689849 DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2021.02.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Inflammation and oxidative stress are 2 important factors in the emergence of paraplegia associated with spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion injury (SCIRI) after thoracoabdominal aortic surgery. Here it is aimed to investigate the effects of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide (GLPS) on SCIRI. METHODS Rats were randomly selected into 4 groups of 8 animals each: sham, ischemia, methylprednisolone, and GLPS. To research the impacts of various pathways that are efficacious in formation of SCIRI, tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 1β, nitric oxide, superoxide dismutase levels, and catalase, glutathione peroxidase activities, malondialdehyde levels, and caspase-3 activity were measured in tissues taken from the spinal cord of rats in all groups killed 24 hours after ischemia reperfusion injury. The Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan locomotor scale and inclined plane test were used for neurologic assessment before and after SCIRI. In addition, histologic and ultrastructural analyses of tissue samples in all groups were performed. RESULTS SCIRI also caused marked increase in tissue tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 1β, nitric oxide, malondialdehyde levels, and caspase-3 activity, because of inflammation, increased free radical generation, lipid peroxidation, and apoptosis, respectively. On the other hand, SCIRI caused significant reduction in tissue superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase activities. Pretreatment with GLPS likewise diminished the level of the spinal cord edema, inflammation, and tissue injury shown by pathologic and ultrastructural examination. Pretreatment with GLPS reversed all these biochemical changes and improved the altered neurologic status. CONCLUSIONS These outcomes propose that pretreatment with GLPS prevents progression of SCIRI by alleviating inflammation, oxidation, and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramazan Kahveci
- Department of Neurosurgery, Balıkesir University, Faculty of Medicine, Balıkesir, Turkey
| | - Fatih Ozan Kahveci
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Balıkesir Atatürk City Hospital, Balıkesir, Turkey
| | - Emre Cemal Gokce
- Department of Neurosurgery, Abdurrahman Yurtaslan Ankara Oncology Education and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Aysun Gokce
- Department of Pathology, Ministry of Health, Diskapi Yildirim Beyazit Education and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Üçler Kısa
- Department of Biochemistry, Kirikkale University, Faculty of Medicine, Kirikkale, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Fevzi Sargon
- Department of Anatomy, Lokman Hekim University, Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ramazan Fesli
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tarsus Medical Park Hospital, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Bora Gürer
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Health Sciences, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Education and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey.
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O'Hare Doig RL, Santhakumar S, Fehily B, Raja S, Solomon T, Bartlett CA, Fitzgerald M, Hodgetts SI. Acute Cellular and Functional Changes With a Combinatorial Treatment of Ion Channel Inhibitors Following Spinal Cord Injury. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:85. [PMID: 32670018 PMCID: PMC7331598 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.00085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Reducing the extent of secondary degeneration following spinal cord injury (SCI) is necessary to preserve function, but treatment options have thus far been limited. A combination of the ion channel inhibitors Lomerizine (Lom), YM872 and oxATP, to inhibit voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, Ca2+ permeable AMPA receptors, and purinergic P2X7 receptors respectively, effectively limits secondary consequences of injury in in vitro and in vivo models of CNS injury. Here, we investigated the efficacy of these inhibitors in a clinically relevant model of SCI. Fischer (F344) rats were subjected to a moderate (150 kD) contusive SCI at thoracic level T10 and assessed at 2 weeks or 10 weeks post-injury. Lom was delivered orally twice daily and YM872 and oxATP were delivered via osmotic mini-pump implanted at the time of SCI until 2 weeks following injury. Open field locomotion analysis revealed that treatment with the three inhibitors in combination improved the rate of functional recovery of the hind limb (compared to controls) as early as 1-day post-injury, with beneficial effects persisting to 14 days post-injury, while all three inhibitors were present. At 2 weeks following combinatorial treatment, the functional improvement was associated with significantly decreased cyst size, increased immunoreactivity of β-III tubulin+ve axons, myelin basic protein, and reduced lipid peroxidation by-products, and increased CC1+ve oligodendrocytes and NG2+ve/PDGFα+ve oligodendrocyte progenitor cell densities, compared to vehicle-treated SCI animals. The combination of Lom, oxATP, and YM872 shows preclinical promise for control of secondary degeneration following SCI, and further investigation of long-term sustained treatment is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan L O'Hare Doig
- Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.,Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.,Neil Sachse Centre for Spinal Cord Research, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Adelaide Spinal Research Group, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Sreya Santhakumar
- Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.,Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Brooke Fehily
- Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Sushmitha Raja
- Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Tanya Solomon
- Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Carole A Bartlett
- Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Melinda Fitzgerald
- Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.,Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA, Australia.,Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Stuart I Hodgetts
- Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.,Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA, Australia
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Alizadeh A, Dyck SM, Karimi-Abdolrezaee S. Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury: An Overview of Pathophysiology, Models and Acute Injury Mechanisms. Front Neurol 2019; 10:282. [PMID: 30967837 PMCID: PMC6439316 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 571] [Impact Index Per Article: 114.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a life changing neurological condition with substantial socioeconomic implications for patients and their care-givers. Recent advances in medical management of SCI has significantly improved diagnosis, stabilization, survival rate and well-being of SCI patients. However, there has been small progress on treatment options for improving the neurological outcomes of SCI patients. This incremental success mainly reflects the complexity of SCI pathophysiology and the diverse biochemical and physiological changes that occur in the injured spinal cord. Therefore, in the past few decades, considerable efforts have been made by SCI researchers to elucidate the pathophysiology of SCI and unravel the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms of tissue degeneration and repair in the injured spinal cord. To this end, a number of preclinical animal and injury models have been developed to more closely recapitulate the primary and secondary injury processes of SCI. In this review, we will provide a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in our understanding of the pathophysiology of SCI. We will also discuss the neurological outcomes of human SCI and the available experimental model systems that have been employed to identify SCI mechanisms and develop therapeutic strategies for this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arsalan Alizadeh
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Spinal Cord Research Center, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Scott Matthew Dyck
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Spinal Cord Research Center, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Soheila Karimi-Abdolrezaee
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Spinal Cord Research Center, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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Use of the CatWalk Gait Device to Assess Differences in Locomotion between Genders in Rats Inherently and following Spinal Cord Injury. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1155/2016/6276348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A possible cause of differences in recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI) is gender. The effect of gender on locomotor recovery following SCI, however, remains controversial and has produced conflicting results regarding gender’s impact on outcome. A significant shortcoming of previous studies was small sample size. The current work tested what, if any, significant differences existed between genders after SCI with CatWalk Gait Analysis that uses an automated device to measure the foot placement and gait of animals as they voluntarily cross an illuminated glass runway. We hypothesized that, by employing larger sample sizes in a reproducible and clinically relevant contusive SCI paradigm, subtle distinctions in locomotor recovery between sexes, if they exist, would be elucidated. During 13 weeks of functional assessment after SCI, a number of CatWalk parameters, including swing, single stance, and stride length, were significantly affected by gender only as identified by use of ANCOVA analysis, considering age, weight, and baseline performance as covariates. We report here our findings for 197 parameters that were assessed before and after SCI. Evaluating differences in locomotor recovery between sexes after SCI could point to a gender-related advantage and provide novel directions for the development of future therapeutics.
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10
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Mestre H, Ramirez M, Garcia E, Martiñón S, Cruz Y, Campos MG, Ibarra A. Lewis, Fischer 344, and sprague-dawley rats display differences in lipid peroxidation, motor recovery, and rubrospinal tract preservation after spinal cord injury. Front Neurol 2015; 6:108. [PMID: 26029162 PMCID: PMC4432686 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2015.00108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The rat is the most common animal model for the preclinical validation of neuroprotective therapies in spinal cord injury (SCI). Lipid peroxidation (LP) is a hallmark of the damage triggered after SCI. Free radicals react with fatty acids causing cellular and membrane disruption. LP accounts for a considerable amount of neuronal cell death after SCI. To better understand the implications of inbred and outbred rat strain selection on preclinical SCI research, we evaluated LP after laminectomy sham surgery and a severe contusion of the T9 spinal cord in female Sprague-Dawley (SPD), Lewis (LEW), and Fischer 344 (F344) rats. Further analysis included locomotor recovery using the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) scale and retrograde rubrospinal tract tracing. LEW had the highest levels of LP products 72 h after sham surgery and SCI, significantly different from both F344 and SPD. SPD rats had the fastest functional recovery and highest BBB scores; these were not significantly different to F344. However, LEW rats achieved the lowest BBB scores throughout the 2-month follow-up, yielding significant differences when compared to SPD and F344. To see if the improvement in locomotion was secondary to an increase in axon survival, we evaluated rubrospinal neurons (RSNs) via retrograde labeling of the rubrospinal tract and quantified cells at the red nuclei. The highest numbers of RSNs were observed in SPD rats then F344; the lowest counts were seen in LEW rats. The BBB scores significantly correlated with the amount of positively stained RSN in the red nuclei. It is critical to identify interstrain variations as a potential confound in preclinical research. Multi-strain validation of neuroprotective therapies may increase chances of successful translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto Mestre
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Anahuac Mexico Norte , Mexico City , Mexico
| | | | - Elisa Garcia
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Anahuac Mexico Norte , Mexico City , Mexico ; CAMINA Project Research Center , Mexico City , Mexico
| | | | - Yolanda Cruz
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Anahuac Mexico Norte , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Maria G Campos
- Pharmacology Medical Research Unit, National Medical Center "Century XXI", IMSS , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Antonio Ibarra
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Anahuac Mexico Norte , Mexico City , Mexico ; CAMINA Project Research Center , Mexico City , Mexico
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Datto JP, Bastidas JC, Miller NL, Shah AK, Arheart KL, Marcillo AE, Dietrich WD, Pearse DD. Female Rats Demonstrate Improved Locomotor Recovery and Greater Preservation of White and Gray Matter after Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury Compared to Males. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:1146-57. [PMID: 25715192 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The possibility of a gender-related difference in recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI) remains a controversial subject. Current empirical animal research lacks sizable test groups to definitively determine whether significant differences exist. Evaluating locomotor recovery variances between sexes following a precise, clinically relevant spinal cord contusion model can provide valuable insight into a possible gender-related advantage in outcome post-SCI. In the current study, we hypothesized that by employing larger sample sizes in a reproducible contusive SCI paradigm, subtle distinctions in locomotor recovery between sexes, if they exist, would be elucidated through a broad range of behavioral tests. During 13 weeks of functional assessment after a thoracic (T8) contusive SCI in rat, significant differences owing to gender existed for the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan score and CatWalk hindlimb swing, support four, and single stance analyses. Significant differences in locomotor performance were noticeable as early as 4 weeks post-SCI. Stereological tissue-volume analysis determined that females, more so than males, also exhibited greater volumes of preserved gray and white matter within the injured cord segment as well as more spared ventral white matter area at the center of the lesion. The stereological tissue analysis differences favoring females directly correlated with the female rats' greater functional improvement observed at endpoint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey P Datto
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida
| | - Johana C Bastidas
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida
| | - Nicole L Miller
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida
| | - Anna K Shah
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida
| | - Kristopher L Arheart
- 2 The Departments of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida
| | - Alexander E Marcillo
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida
| | - W Dalton Dietrich
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida.,3 The Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida.,4 The Department of Cell Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida.,5 The Department of Neurology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida.,6 The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida
| | - Damien D Pearse
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida.,3 The Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida.,6 The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida.,7 The Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida
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12
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Bozkurt AA, Mustafa G, Tarık A, Adile O, Murat SH, Mesut K, Yıldıray K, Coskun S, Murat C. Syringaldehyde exerts neuroprotective effect on cerebral ischemia injury in rats through anti-oxidative and anti-apoptotic properties. Neural Regen Res 2015; 9:1884-90. [PMID: 25558237 PMCID: PMC4281426 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.145353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There are few studies on the neuroprotective effects of syringaldehyde in a rat model of cerebral ischemia. The study aimed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective effects of syringaldehyde on ischemic brain cells. Rat models of cerebral ischemia were intraperitoneally administered syringaldehyde. At 6 and 24 hours after syringaldehyde administration, cell damage in the brain of cerebral ischemia rats was obviously reduced, superoxide dismutase activity and nuclear respiratory factor 1 expression in the brain tissue were markedly increased, malondiadehyde level was obviously decreased, apoptosis-related cysteine peptidase caspase-3 and -9 immunoreactivity was obviously decreased, and neurological function was markedly improved. These findings suggest that syringaldehyde exerts neuroprotective effects on cerebral ischemia injury through anti-oxidation and anti-apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aras Adem Bozkurt
- Department of Neurosurgery, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey
| | - Guven Mustafa
- Department of Neurosurgery, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey
| | - Akman Tarık
- Department of Neurosurgery, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey
| | - Ozkan Adile
- Department of Neurology, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey
| | - Sen Halil Murat
- Department of Neurology, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey
| | - Kılıcoglu Mesut
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Kalkan Yıldıray
- Deparment of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Rize, Turkey
| | - Silan Coskun
- Department of Pharmacology, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey
| | - Cosar Murat
- Department of Neurosurgery, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey
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Priestley JV, Michael-Titus AT, Tetzlaff W. Limiting spinal cord injury by pharmacological intervention. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2012; 109:463-484. [PMID: 23098731 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-52137-8.00029-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The direct primary mechanical trauma to neurons, glia and blood vessels that occurs with spinal cord injury (SCI) is followed by a complex cascade of biochemical and cellular changes which serve to increase the size of the injury site and the extent of cellular and axonal loss. The aim of neuroprotective strategies in SCI is to limit the extent of this secondary cell loss by inhibiting key components of the evolving injury cascade. In this review we will briefly outline the pathophysiological events that occur in SCI, and then review the wide range of neuroprotective agents that have been evaluated in preclinical SCI models. Agents will be considered under the following categories: antioxidants, erythropoietin and derivatives, lipids, riluzole, opioid antagonists, hormones, anti-inflammatory agents, statins, calpain inhibitors, hypothermia, and emerging strategies. Several clinical trials of neuroprotective agents have already taken place and have generally had disappointing results. In attempting to identify promising new treatments, we will therefore highlight agents with (1) low known risks or established clinical use, (2) behavioral data gained in clinically relevant animal models, (3) efficacy when administered after the injury, and (4) robust effects seen in more than one laboratory and/or more than one model of SCI.
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Neuroprotective effects of PEP-1-Cu,Zn-SOD against ischemic neuronal damage in the rabbit spinal cord. Neurochem Res 2011; 37:307-13. [PMID: 21964799 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-011-0613-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2011] [Revised: 09/13/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
A rabbit model of spinal cord ischemia has been introduced as a good model to investigate the pathophysiology of ischemia-reperfusion (I-R)-induced paraplegia. In the present study, we observed the effects of Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD1) against ischemic damage in the ventral horn of L(5-6) levels in the rabbit spinal cord. For this study, the expression vector PEP-1 was constructed, and this vector was fused with SOD1 to create a PEP-1-SOD1 fusion protein that easily penetrated the blood-brain barrier. Spinal cord ischemia was induced by transient occlusion of the abdominal aorta for 15 min. PEP-1-SOD1 (0.5 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally administered to rabbits 30 min before ischemic surgery. The administration of PEP-1-SOD1 significantly improved neurological scores compared to those in the PEP-1 (vehicle)-treated ischemia group. Also, in this group, the number of cresyl violet-positive cells at 72 h after I-R was much higher than that in the vehicle-treated ischemia group. Malondialdehyde levels were significantly decreased in the ischemic spinal cord of the PEP-1-SOD1-treated ischemia group compared to those in the vehicle-treated ischemia group. In contrast, the administration of PEP-1-SOD1 significantly ameliorated the ischemia-induced reduction of SOD and catalase levels in the ischemic spinal cord. These results suggest that PEP-1-SOD1 protects neurons from spinal ischemic damage by decreasing lipid peroxidation and maintaining SOD and catalase levels in the ischemic rabbit spinal cord.
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Low dose estrogen prevents neuronal degeneration and microglial reactivity in an acute model of spinal cord injury: effect of dosing, route of administration, and therapy delay. Neurochem Res 2011; 36:1809-16. [PMID: 21611834 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-011-0498-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI), depending on the severity of injury, leads to neurological dysfunction and paralysis. Methylprednisolone, the only currently available therapy renders limited protection in SCI. Therefore, other therapeutic agents must be tested to maximize neuroprotection and functional recovery. Previous data from our laboratory indicate that estrogen (17β-estradiol) at a high dose may attenuate multiple damaging pathways involved in SCI and improve locomotor outcome. Since use of high dose estrogen may have detrimental side effects and therefore may never be used in the clinic, the current study investigated the efficacy of this steroid hormone at very low doses in SCI. In particular, we tested the impact of dosing (1-10 μg/kg), mode of delivery (intravenous vs. osmotic pump), and delay in estrogen application (15 min-4 h post-SCI) on microgliosis and neuronal death in acute SCI in rats. Treatment with 17β-estradiol (1-10 μg/kg) significantly reduced microglial activation and also attenuated apoptosis of neurons compared to untreated SCI animals. The attenuation of cell death and inflammation by estrogen was observed regardless of mode and time of delivery following injury. These findings suggest estrogen as a potential agent for the treatment of individuals with SCI.
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Abstract
One of the most investigated molecular mechanisms involved in the secondary pathophysiology of acute spinal cord injury (SCI) is free radical-induced, iron-catalyzed lipid peroxidation (LP) and protein oxidative/nitrative damage to spinal neurons, glia, and microvascular cells. The reactive nitrogen species peroxynitrite and its highly reactive free radicals are key initiators of LP and protein nitration in the injured spinal cord, the biochemistry, and pathophysiology of which are first of all reviewed in this article. This is followed by a presentation of the antioxidant mechanistic approaches and pharmacological compounds that have been shown to have neuroprotective properties in preclinical SCI models. Two of these, which act by inhibition of LP, are high-dose treatment with the glucocorticoid steroid methylprednisolone (MP) and the nonglucocorticoid 21-aminosteroid tirilazad, have been demonstrated in the multicenter NASCIS clinical trials to produce at least a modest improvement in neurological recovery when administered within the first 8 hours after SCI. Although these results have provided considerable validation of oxidative damage as a clinically practical neuroprotective target, there is a need for the discovery of safer and more effective antioxidant compounds for acute SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward D Hall
- Spinal Cord & Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, USA.
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Girod M, Shi Y, Cheng JX, Cooks RG. Mapping lipid alterations in traumatically injured rat spinal cord by desorption electrospray ionization imaging mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 2010; 83:207-15. [PMID: 21142140 DOI: 10.1021/ac102264z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) mass spectrometry (MS) is used in an imaging mode to interrogate the lipid profiles of 15 μm thin tissue cross sections of injured rat spinal cord and normal healthy tissue. Increased relative intensities of fatty acids, diacylglycerols, and lysolipids (between +120% and +240%) as well as a small decrease in intensities of lipids (-30%) were visualized in the lesion epicenter and adjacent areas after spinal cord injury. This indicates the hydrolysis of lipids during the demyelination process due to activation of phospholipase A(2) enzyme. In addition, signals corresponding to oxidative degradation products, such as prostaglandin and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, exhibited increased signal intensity by a factor of 2 in the negative ion mode in lesions relative to the normal healthy tissue. Analysis of malondialdehyde, a product of lipid peroxidation and marker of oxidative stress, was accomplished in the ambient environment using reactive DESI mass spectrometry imaging. This was achieved by electrospraying reagent solution containing dinitrophenylhydrazine as high-velocity charged droplets onto the tissue section. The hydrazine reacts selectively and rapidly with the carbonyl groups of malondialdehyde, and signal intensity of twice the intensity was detected in the lesions compared to healthy spinal cord. With a small amount of tissue sample, DESI-MS imaging provides information on the composition and distribution of specific compounds (limited by the occurrence of isomeric lipids with very similar fragmentation patterns) in lesions after spinal cord injury in comparison with normal healthy tissue allowing identification of the extent of the lesion and its repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Girod
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Analytical Instrumentation Development, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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Sribnick EA, Samantaray S, Das A, Smith J, Matzelle DD, Ray SK, Banik NL. Postinjury estrogen treatment of chronic spinal cord injury improves locomotor function in rats. J Neurosci Res 2010; 88:1738-50. [PMID: 20091771 PMCID: PMC3127445 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes loss of neurological function and, depending on serverity, may cause paralysis. The only recommended pharmacotherapy for the treatment of SCI is high-dose methylprednisolone, and its use is controversial. We have previously shown that estrogen treatment attenuated cell death, axonal and myelin damage, calpain and caspase activities, and inflammation in acute SCI. The aim of this study was to examine whether posttreatment of SCI with estrogen would improve locomotor function by protecting cells and axons and reducing inflammation during the chronic phase following injury. Moderately severe injury (40 g . cm force) was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats following laminectomy at T10. Three groups of animals were used: sham (laminectomy only), vehicle (dimethyl sulfoxide; DMSO)-treated injury group, and estrogen-treated injury group. Animals were treated with 4 mg/kg estrogen at 15 min and 24 hr postnjury, followed by 2 mg/kg estrogen daily for the next 5 days. After treatment, animals were sacrificed at the end of 6 weeks following injury, and 1-cm segments of spinal cord (lesion, rostral to lesion, and caudal to lesion) were removed for biochemical analyses. Estrogen treatment reduced COX-2 activity, blocked nuclear factor-kappaB translocation, prevented glial reactivity, attenuated neuron death, inhibited activation and activity of calpain and caspase-3, decreased axonal damage, reduced myelin loss in the lesion and penumbra, and improved locomotor function compared with vehicle-treated animals. These findings suggest that estrogen may be useful as a promising therapeutic agent for prevention of damage and improvement of locomotor function in chronic SCI. (c) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A. Sribnick
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Supriti Samantaray
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Arabinda Das
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Joshua Smith
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - D. Denise Matzelle
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Swapan K. Ray
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina
| | - Naren L. Banik
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
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Yu Q, Zhou Q, Huang H, Wang Y, Tian S, Duan D. Protective Effect of Etomidate on Spinal Cord Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury Induced by Aortic Occlusion in Rabbits. Ann Vasc Surg 2010; 24:225-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.avsg.2009.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2009] [Revised: 05/18/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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20
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Del Bel EA, Silva CAD, Mladinic M. O trauma raquimedular. COLUNA/COLUMNA 2009. [DOI: 10.1590/s1808-18512009000400017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A medula espinhal dos mamíferos adultos não permite a regeneração de axônios. Por razões ainda desconhecidas, as fibras neurais falham em cruzar o sítio da lesão, como se não houvesse crescimento, desde a primeira tentativa. Quais mecanismos poderiam explicar a perda da capacidade de regeneração? As cicatrizes formadas pelas células da glia seriam uma consequência da falha na regeneração ou a causa? Diversas linhas de evidência sugerem que a regeneração da medula espinhal seria impedida no sistema nervoso central pela ação de fatores locais no sítio da lesão, e que o sistema nervoso central não-lesado é um meio permissivo para o crescimento axonal, na direção de alvos específicos. Uma vez que os axônios são induzidos adequadamente a cruzar a lesão com o auxílio de implantes, fármacos ou células indiferenciadas, as fibras em regeneração podem encontrar a via específica e estabelecer conexões corretas. O que ainda não se sabe é que combinação de moléculas induz/inibe o potencial de regeneração do tecido e que mecanismos permitem aos neurônios formarem conexões específicas com os alvos com os quais são programados a fazer.
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Christie SD, Comeau B, Myers T, Sadi D, Purdy M, Mendez I. Duration of lipid peroxidation after acute spinal cord injury in rats and the effect of methylprednisolone. Neurosurg Focus 2009; 25:E5. [PMID: 18980479 DOI: 10.3171/foc.2008.25.11.e5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT Oxidative stress leading to lipid peroxidation is a major cause of secondary injury following spinal cord injury (SCI). The objectives of this study were to determine the duration of lipid peroxidation following acute SCI and the efficacy of short-and long-term administration of methylprednisolone on decreasing lipid peroxidation. METHODS A total of 226 female Wistar rats underwent clip-compression induced SCI. In the first part of the study, spinal cords of untreated rats were assayed colorimetrically for malondialdehyde (MDA) to determine lipid peroxidation levels at various time points between 0 and 10 days. In the second part of the study, animals were treated with methylprednisolone for either 24 hours or 7 days. Control animals received equal volumes of normal saline. Treated and control rats were killed at various time points between 0 and 7 days. RESULTS The MDA levels initially peaked 4 hours postinjury. By 12 hours, the MDA levels returned to baseline. A second increase was observed from 24 hours to 5 days. Both peak values differed statistically from the trough values (p < 0.008). The methylprednisolone reduced MDA levels (p < 0.04) within 12 hours of injury. No effect was seen at 24 hours or later. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study indicate that oxidative stress persists for 5 days following SCI in rats, and although methylprednisolone reduces MDA levels within the first 12 hours, it has no effect on the second lipid peroxidation peak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean D Christie
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
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Yamada K, Tanaka N, Nakanishi K, Kamei N, Ishikawa M, Mizuno T, Igarashi K, Ochi M. Modulation of the secondary injury process after spinal cord injury in Bach1-deficient mice by heme oxygenase-1. J Neurosurg Spine 2009; 9:611-20. [PMID: 19035757 DOI: 10.3171/spi.2008.10.08488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT Oxidative stress contributes to secondary injury after spinal cord injury (SCI). The expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), which protects cells from various insults including oxidative stress, is upregulated in injured spinal cords. Mice deficient in Bach1 (Bach1-/-), a transcriptional repressor of the HO-1 and beta-globin genes, express high levels of HO-1 mRNA and protein in various organs. The authors hypothesized that HO-1 modulates the secondary injury process after SCI in Bach1(-/-) mice. METHODS Male C57BL/6 (wild-type) and homozygous Bach1(-/-) C57BL/6 mice were subjected to moderate SCI, and differences in hindlimb motor function, and electrophysiological, molecular biological, and histopathological changes were assessed for 2 weeks. RESULTS Functional recovery was greater, and motor evoked potentials were significantly larger in Bach1(-/-) mice than in wild-type mice throughout the observation period. The expression of HO-1 mRNA in the spinal cord was significantly increased in both mice until 3 days after injury, and it was significantly higher in Bach1(-/-) mice than in wild-type mice at every assessment point. Histological examination using Luxol fast blue staining at 1 day after injury showed that the injured areas were smaller in Bach1(-/-) mice than in wild-type mice. The HO-1 immunoreactivity was not detected in uninjured spinal cord, but 3 days postinjury the number of HO-1-immunoreactive cells was obviously higher in the injured area in both mice, particularly in Bach1(-/-) mice. The HO-1 was primarily induced in microglia/macrophage in both mice. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that HO-1 modulates the secondary injury process, and high HO-1 expression may preserve spinal cord function in the early stages after SCI in Bach1(-/-) mice. Treatment that induces HO-1 expression at these early stages may preserve the functional outcome after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyotaka Yamada
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical Science, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan.
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Cengiz SL, Ustun ME, Topcu C, Ahmet AK. The efficacy of intratechal administration of a very low dose potirelin after acute spinal cord injury. Injury 2008; 39:1403-7. [PMID: 19036363 DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2008.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2007] [Revised: 04/05/2008] [Accepted: 05/07/2008] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECT The objective of this study was to determine the effect of a very low dose protirelin in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) glucose, magnesium and lactate levels after spinal cord trauma (SCT) in rabbits. We also aimed to evaluate whether this very low dose might induce analeptic effect. MATERIAL AND METHODS Twenty rabbits were divided equally into two groups: group I (n=10) was the control group, suffered from SCT but received only saline after SCT. Group II (n=10) (treatment group), received a very low dose of 0.05 mg/kg thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), analogue protirelin intratechally after SCT. The basal CSF glucose, magnesium and lactate levels were recorded in both groups. CSF lactate, glucose and magnesium contents were recorded at the same time (an hour before and after) SCT. Serum thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), freetriiodothyronine (FT3) and freethyroxine (FT4) were measured in all rabbits before and after SCT. RESULTS Before spinal cord trauma, there were not any significant differences in glucose, lactate and magnesium levels between group I and II whereas, after spinal cord trauma in group II, the significant suppression in elevation of lactate and glucose depletion (p<0.05) were observed while no significant suppression was observed in magnesium level (p>0.05) as compared with group I (Table 3). In respect of serum TSH levels, there were not any significant differences between two groups before and after SCT. CONCLUSIONS This study showed that intratechal TRH has no analeptic effect on serum TSH, FT3 and FT4 levels but can attenuate the increase of lactate levels following spinal cord trauma. No significant decrease in magnesium level and also suppression of glucose decline in group II, may be related to the neuroprotective effects of TRH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahika Liva Cengiz
- Neurosurgery Department, Selcuk University, Meram Faculty of Medicine, Konya, Turkey
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Sribnick EA, Matzelle DD, Ray SK, Banik NL. Estrogen treatment of spinal cord injury attenuates calpain activation and apoptosis. J Neurosci Res 2006; 84:1064-75. [PMID: 16902996 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurologic injury, and currently, the only recommended pharmacotherapy is high-dose methylprednisolone, which has limited efficacy. Estrogen is a multi-active steroid with anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic effects. Estrogen may modulate intracellular Ca2+ and prevent inflammation. For this study, male rats were divided into three groups. Sham-group animals received a laminectomy at T12. Injured rats received both laminectomy and 40 gram centimeter force SCI. Estrogen-group rats received 4 mg/kg 17beta-estradiol (estrogen) at 15 min and 24 hr post-injury, and vehicle-group rats received equal volumes of dimethyl sulfoxide. Animals were sacrificed at 48 hr post-injury, and 1-cm segments of the lesion, rostral penumbra, and caudal penumbra were excised. The degradation of 68 kD neurofilament protein (NFP) and estrogen receptors (ER) was examined by Western blot analysis. Protein levels of calpain and the activities of calpain and caspase-3 were also examined. Levels of cytochrome c were determined in both cytosolic and mitochondrial fractions. Cell death with DNA fragmentation was examined using the TUNEL assay. At the lesion, samples from both vehicle and estrogen treated animals showed increased levels of 68 kD NFP degradation, calpain content, calpain activity, cytochrome c release, and degradation of ERalpha and ERbeta, as compared to sham. In the caudal penumbra, estrogen treatment significantly attenuated 68 kD NFP degradation, calpain content, calpain activity, levels of cytosolic cytochrome c, and ERbeta degradation. At the lesion, vehicle-treated animals displayed more TUNEL+ cells, and estrogen treatment significantly attenuated this cell death marker. We conclude that estrogen may inhibit cell death in SCI through calpain inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Anthony Sribnick
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA.
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25
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Ates O, Cayli S, Altinoz E, Gurses I, Yucel N, Kocak A, Yologlu S, Turkoz Y. Effects of resveratrol and methylprednisolone on biochemical, neurobehavioral and histopathological recovery after experimental spinal cord injury. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2006; 27:1317-25. [PMID: 17007738 DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-7254.2006.00416.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To investigate the neuroprotective effect of resveratrol in an experimental spinal cord injury (SCI) model in rats. METHODS Male Wistar albino rats weighing 200-250 g were randomized into six groups. Weight-drop trauma was performed for SCI. Group 1 underwent laminectomy alone. Group 2 underwent laminectomy followed by SCI. Groups 3, 4, 5, and 6 underwent laminectomy followed by SCI and received resveratrol (100 mg/kg), methylprednisolone (MP) (30 mg/kg), resveratrol (100 mg/kg) plus MP (30 mg/kg), and ethanol (2%), respectively. The rats were divided into two subgroups for biochemical analysis (killed at 24 h after surgery) and for neurobehavioral and histopathological evaluation (killed at 6 weeks after surgery). Posttraumatic neurological recovery after surgery was recorded weekly. RESULTS Groups 3 and 5 revealed significantly lower malon-dialdehyde, nitric oxide, xanthine oxidase, and higher glutathione levels than group 4 (P<0.05). Neurological recovery rates were significantly better in groups 3 and 5 than group 4 (P<0.05). When spinal trauma size ratios were compared, there was no significant difference between treatment groups. CONCLUSION Resveratrol treatment revealed better biochemical recovery in the acute stage of trauma than MP treatment. Although resveratrol and combined treatment revealed better neurobehavioral recovery than MP treatment; resveratrol, MP, and combined treatment modalities improved histopathological recovery at the same level in the final stage of the experiment. Future studies involving different doses of resveratrol and different doses combinations with MP could promise better results as each drug has a different anti-oxidative mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozkan Ates
- Department of Neurosurgery, Inonu University, School of Medicine, 44280 Malatya, Turkey.
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McMichael MA, Ruaux CG, Baltzer WI, Kerwin SC, Hosgood GL, Steiner JM, Williams DA. Concentrations of 15F2t isoprostane in urine of dogs with intervertebral disk disease. Am J Vet Res 2006; 67:1226-31. [PMID: 16817747 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.67.7.1226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To measure 15F(2t) isoprostane concentrations in the urine of dogs undergoing ovariohysterectomy (OHE) and dogs undergoing surgery because of intervertebral disk disease (IVDD) and to assess relationships between urinary concentrations of 15F(2t) isoprostanes and neurologic score in dogs with IVDD. ANIMALS 11 dogs undergoing OHE and 32 dogs with IVDD undergoing hemilaminectomy. PROCEDURES Paired urine samples were obtained at induction of anesthesia and approximately 1 hour after OHE (controls) and were collected from dogs with IVDD at induction of anesthesia (28 samples) and approximately 1 hour after hemilaminectomy (31 samples); 26 paired urine samples were obtained from dogs with IVDD. Urinary isoprostane concentrations were measured by use of a commercial ELISA, and results were adjusted on the basis of urinary creatinine concentrations. Differences in the mean isoprostane-to-creatinine ratio were analyzed. Neurologic score was determined in dogs with IVDD by use of the modified Frankel scoring system. RESULTS Urinary isoprostane-to-creatinine ratios were significantly higher in dogs with IVDD than in control dogs before and after surgery. There was no significant difference between values before and after surgery for either group. There was a significant correlation of neurologic score and urinary isoprostane-to-creatinine ratio because dogs that had higher neurologic scores (ie, less severely affected) generally had higher isoprostane-to-creatinine ratios. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Urinary isoprostane-to-creatinine ratios were higher in dogs with IVDD before and after surgery. Analysis of these data suggests that dogs with IVDD are in a state of oxidative stress and that preemptive treatment with antioxidants warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen A McMichael
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, 77843-4474, USA
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Yücel N, Cayli SR, Ateş O, Karadağ N, Firat S, Turköz Y. Evaluation of the neuroprotective effects of citicoline after experimental spinal cord injury: improved behavioral and neuroanatomical recovery. Neurochem Res 2006; 31:767-75. [PMID: 16794862 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-006-9075-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/17/2006] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) caused by trauma mainly occurs in two mechanisms as primary and secondary injury. Secondary injury following the primary impact includes various pathophysiological and biochemical events. Methylprednisolone is the only pharmacological agent having clinically proven beneficial effects on SCI. Citicoline has been shown to have clinical and experimental beneficial effects on brain ischemia. This study aims to investigate the neuroprotective effect of citicoline in an experimental SCI model in rats. Sixty adult Wistar albino rats were randomized into five groups. SCI was performed by the weight-drop model. Group 1 underwent laminectomy alone. The Group 2 underwent laminectomy followed by SCI and received no medication. Group3, Group 4 and Group 5 underwent laminectomy followed by SCI and received medication. Group 3 and Group 5 received citicoline and Group 4 and Group 5 received methylprednisolone. The rats were divided into two subgroups for biochemical analysis (sacrificed at 24 h after surgery) and neurobehavioral and histopathological evaluation (sacrificed at 6 weeks after surgery). Malondialdehyde levels, nitric oxide levels and trauma size ratios were lower and reduced glutathione levels were higher in Group 3, Group 4 and Group 5 as compared to Group 2. Posttraumatic neurological recovery after surgery was significantly better in Group 3, Group 4 and Group 5 compared to Group 2. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that citicoline is as effective as methylprednisolone. The efficacy of citicoline combined with methylprednisolone is not superior to either citicoline or methylprednisolone alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neslihan Yücel
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Inönü University, Faculty of Medicine, Malatya 44069, Turkey.
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Kotil K, Kuscuoglu U, Kirali M, Uzun H, Akçetin M, Bilge T. Investigation of the dose-dependent neuroprotective effects of agmatine in experimental spinal cord injury: a prospective randomized and placebo-control trial. J Neurosurg Spine 2006; 4:392-9. [PMID: 16703907 DOI: 10.3171/spi.2006.4.5.392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT No definitive treatment for spinal cord injuries (SCIs) exists, and more research is required. The use of agmatine [4-(aminobutyl)-guanidine-NH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-NH-C(-NH2)(=NH)], a guanidinium compound formed by decarboxylation of L-arginine by arginine decarboxylase, is a neurotransmitter-neuromodulator with both N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-antagonizing and nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-inhibiting activities. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the dose-dependent activity of agmatine, an inducible NOS (iNOS) inhibitor and selective NMDAR antagonist, on biochemical and functional recovery in an experimental rat SCI model. METHODS This study involved 40 Wistar albino male rats. The rats were subjected to sleep-awake cycles for 7 days before surgery. In each group, general anesthesia was induced by a 60-mg/kg ketamine injection. For the surgical SCI model, a Yaşargil aneurysm clip was placed in the spinal cord. The study was conducted in the following four main groups: Group I (control group) laminectomy only; Group II, trauma-only group and SCI; Group III, laminectomy, SCI and agmatine 50 mg/kg for 10 days; and Group IV, laminectomy, SCI, and agmatine 100 mg/kg for 10 days. On Day 1, no statistical difference was observed in any group (p < 0.005, analysis of variance [ANOVA] and the Fisher protected least significant difference [PLSD]). On Day 2, no statistical difference was noted among Groups II, III, and IV (p = 0.27, p = 0.42, and p = 0.76, respectively; ANOVA and Fisher PLSD). Beginning on Day 3, recovery in Groups III and IV differed significantly from that in Group II (p < 0.005, ANOVA and Fisher PLSD), and a statistically significant difference between Groups III and IV was observed, which also was present on Days 5, 7, and 10 (p = 0.003, p = 0.0024, and p = 0.0036, respectively; ANOVA and Fisher PLSD). Several observations were noteworthy: motor function scores were reduced significantly in the spinal cord-injured rats compared with the controls (p < 0.005); on Day 1, the agreement of motor function scores in rats in each SCI group indicated that the traumatic event had been replicated equally across all groups (p = 0.59, p = 0.59, and p = 0.28); a statistically significant difference in motor function scores developed on Day 3 between the rats subjected to trauma alone (Group II) and those treated with agmatine (Groups III and IV) (p < 0.005); and no statistically significant intergroup difference in motor function existed at any postinjury interval between the 50- and 100-mg/kg/day agmatine-treated rats (p > 0.005). CONCLUSIONS Agmatine administration following SCI was shown to reduce NO levels significantly. No statistically significant intergroup difference in the reduction of NO levels was found between rats treated with 50- and 100-mg/kg/day doses of agmatine. Administration of a 100-mg/kg/day dose of agmatine reduced the NO levels to those measured in controls. The authors conclude that with additional studies into the role of agmatine, this drug may be helpful in the treatment of patients with SCIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kadir Kotil
- Department of Neurosurgery, Haseki Educational and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Cayli SR, Ates O, Karadag N, Altinoz E, Yucel N, Yologlu S, Kocak A, Cakir CO. Neuroprotective effect of etomidate on functional recovery in experimental spinal cord injury. Int J Dev Neurosci 2006; 24:233-9. [PMID: 16701976 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2006.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2006] [Revised: 04/05/2006] [Accepted: 04/05/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Primary impact to the spinal cord causes rapid oxidative stress after injury. To protect neural tissue, it is important to prevent secondary pathophysiological mechanisms. Etomidate, a strong antiexcitotoxic agent, stimulates the gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors. The purpose of this study was to investigate neurobehavioral and histological recovery and to evaluate the biochemical responses to treatment of experimental spinal cord injury (SCI) in rats with etomidate or methylprednisolone (MP) or both etomidate and MP. MATERIAL AND METHODS Seventy-two rats were randomly allocated into six groups: a control group (laminectomy alone), a trauma group (laminectomy+trauma), a methylprednisolone group (30 mg/kg MP), an etomidate group (2 mg/kg), a methylprednisolone and etomidate combined treatment group (30 mg/kg MP and 2 mg/kg etomidate) and a vehicle group. Six rats from each group were killed at the 24th hour after the injury. Malondialdehyde, glutathione, nitric oxide and xanthine oxidase levels were measured. Neurological functions of the remaining rats were recorded weekly. Six weeks after injury, all of those rats were killed for histopathological assessment. RESULTS Etomidate treatment revealed similar neurobehavioral and histopathological recovery to MP treatment 6 weeks after injury. Combined treatment did not provide additional neuroprotection. CONCLUSION Etomidate treatment immediately after spinal cord injury has similar neuroprotection to MP. In spite of different neuroprotection mechanisms, combined treatment with MP and etomidate does not provide extra protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suleyman R Cayli
- Inonu University, School of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Turgut Ozal Medical Center, 44069 Malatya, Turkey
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Lu KT, Wang YW, Yang JT, Yang YL, Chen HI. Effect of Interleukin-1 on Traumatic Brain Injury–Induced Damage to Hippocampal Neurons. J Neurotrauma 2005; 22:885-95. [PMID: 16083355 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2005.22.885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-1 (IL-1) has many roles in the brain in addition to mediating inflammatory processes in the glia, and has also been implicated in neurodegenerative disease. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most prevalent causes of morbidity and mortality in young persons. We conducted a study to assess the effect of IL-1 on the TBI-induced death of hippocampal neurons. After TBI was induced in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats under anesthesia, we evaluated neuronal damage score through microscopic examination and Pulsinelli's grading system. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blotting were used to measure the levels of IL-1alpha and IL- 1beta in brain tissue at different points after the induction of TBI. Over a 4-day period, the specific sites of release of IL-1alpha and IL-1beta in the brain were elucidated by immunocytochemistry with double- labeling. TBI to the hippocampus was followed by disruption of the blood-brain barrier and severe neuronal loss. Levels of IL-1alpha RNA and protein were significantly elevated at 3 h after TBI, peaked at 12 h, and remained elevated for 168 h. IL-1beta RNA and protein expression were also elevated at 3 h after TBI, but remained so only for 48 h. Our findings indicate that the observed TBI-induced increases in IL-1alpha and IL-1beta occur largely through release of these cytokines from neurons and astrocytes, respectively. Intraventricular administration of antibodies to IL-1alpha and IL-1beta before TBI significantly attenuated the TBI-induced loss of hippocampal neurons. These results show that IL-1alpha and IL-1beta play important roles in the TBI-induced loss of hippocampal neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwok-Tung Lu
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Kayali H, Ozdag MF, Kahraman S, Aydin A, Gonul E, Sayal A, Odabasi Z, Timurkaynak E. The antioxidant effect of beta-Glucan on oxidative stress status in experimental spinal cord injury in rats. Neurosurg Rev 2005; 28:298-302. [PMID: 15864722 DOI: 10.1007/s10143-005-0389-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2004] [Revised: 10/26/2004] [Accepted: 02/19/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This study was performed to investigate the antioxidant effect of beta-Glucan in experimental spinal cord injury (SCI). Injury was produced using weight-drop technique in rats. beta-Glucan was given by intraperitoneal injection following trauma. The rats were sacrificed at the sixth day of injury. Oxidative stress status was assessed by measuring the spinal cord tissue content of Malonyldialdehyde (MDA), Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and Gluthatione Peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities. No effect of beta-Glucan on SOD and MDA activities was found but, GSH-Px levels were found to decrease to the baseline (preinjury) levels when it was compared to untreated group (U=0.000; p=0.002). According to our results, beta-Glucan works like a scavenger and has an antioxidant effect on lipid peroxidation in spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hakan Kayali
- Department of Neurosurgery, Gulhane Military Medical Academy, 06018 Etlik, Ankara, Turkey.
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Sribnick EA, Wingrave JM, Matzelle DD, Wilford GG, Ray SK, Banik NL. Estrogen attenuated markers of inflammation and decreased lesion volume in acute spinal cord injury in rats. J Neurosci Res 2005; 82:283-93. [PMID: 16130149 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurologic injury with functional deficits for which the only currently recommended pharmacotherapy is high-dose methylprednisolone, which has limited efficacy. Estrogen is a multi-active steroid that has shown antiinflammatory and antioxidant effects, and estrogen may modulate intracellular Ca(2+) and attenuate apoptosis. For this study, male rats were divided into three groups. Sham group animals received a laminectomy at T12. Injured rats received both laminectomy and 40 g x cm force SCI. Estrogen-group rats received 4 mg/kg 17beta-estradiol (estrogen) at 15 min and 24 hr post-injury, and vehicle-group rats received equal volumes of dimethyl sulfoxide (vehicle). Animals were sacrificed at 48 hr post-injury, and 1-cm-long segments of the lesion, rostral penumbra, and caudal penumbra were excised. Inflammation was assessed by examining tissue edema, infiltration of macrophages/microglia, and levels of cytosolic and nuclear NFkappaB and inhibitor of kappa B (IkappaBalpha). Myelin integrity was examined using Luxol fast blue staining. When compared to sham, vehicle-treated animals revealed increased tissue edema, increased infiltration of inflammatory cells, decreased cytosolic levels of NFkappaB and IkappaBalpha, increased levels of nuclear NFkappaB, and increased myelin loss. Treatment of SCI rats with estrogen reduced edema and decreased inflammation and myelin loss in the lesion and penumbral areas, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic agent. Further work needs to be done, however, to elucidate the neuroprotective mechanism of estrogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Anthony Sribnick
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA
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Yosunkaya A, Ak A, Barişkaner H, Ustün ME, Tuncer S, Gürbilek M. Effect of Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid on Lipid Peroxidation and Tissue Lactate Level in Experimental Head Trauma. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 56:585-90. [PMID: 15128130 DOI: 10.1097/01.ta.0000058119.60074.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study was designed to determine the effects of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) on tissue lactate and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in rabbit brain after experimental head trauma. METHODS Thirty New Zealand rabbits were divided equally into three groups: group S was the sham-operated group, group C, and group GHB received head trauma, where group C was the untreated and group GHB was the treated group. Head trauma was delivered by performing a craniectomy over the right hemisphere and dropping a weight of 10 g from a height of 80 cm. GHB was administered 400 mg/kg intravenously for 10 minutes after the head trauma to group GHB. The nontraumatized side was named "1" and the traumatized side was named "2." One hour after trauma, brain cortices were resected from both sides and the concentrations of lactate and MDA were determined. RESULTS There were significant differences between lactate and MDA levels of group S and all other groups (C1, C2, GHB1, and GHB2) except between lactate levels of group S and group GHB1, the nontraumatized and traumatized sides of groups C and group GHB, group C2 versus group GHB2, and group C1 versus group GHB1 (p < 0.05). Rectal temperature after the administration of GHB in group GHB was found lower than in groups S and C (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION These results demonstrate that head trauma leads to an increase in brain tissue lactate and MDA levels, and GHB effectively suppresses the increase of lactate and MDA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alper Yosunkaya
- Department of Anesthesiology, Faculty of Meram Medicine, University of Selçuk, Konya, Turkey.
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Erol U, Gurdal M, Erol A, Aslan R, Konukoğlu D, Onmus H. Is midazolam effective as an antioxidant in preventing reperfusion injury in rat kidney? Int Urol Nephrol 2003; 34:121-7. [PMID: 12549654 DOI: 10.1023/a:1021338806558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This experimental study was designed to investigate whether midazolam has antioxidant effects in reperfused rat kidneys following ischemia. Twenty Wistar Albino rats were included in the study. Rats were anesthetized with the mixture of ketamine 90 mg/kg and xylazine 10 mg/kg administered intraperitoneally. Following anesthesia, the rats were divided into two groups. The first group was considered as the control group, whereas the second group received additional midazolam 3.5 mg/kg intraperitoneally. The left kidney was approached via a transabdominal incision and the left renal artery was dissected. Left renal ischemia was created by clamping the left renal artery for 45 minutes. Following the ischemia period, the kidney was reperfused for one hour. Both kidneys were then removed. Half of the left kidneys were immediately immersed in liquid nitrogen for transportation and then frozen at -70 C until measurements of tissue malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels. The remaining halves of the left kidneys and right kidneys were fixed in 10% formalin. The changes which developed during the ischemia-reperfusion period in the left kidney were investigated by histopathological examination and compared with those of the normal contralateral kidney. When compared with the control group, tissue MDA and GSH levels were similar in the midazolam group (p > 0.05). Tubular damage with tubulitis and focal interstitial inflammatory infiltration were observed in histopathological examinations of reperfused left kidneys of the control group. There was PMNL infiltration only in perirenal fat tissue of the midazolam group. Right kidneys were histopathologically normal in both groups. We concluded that within this dosage midazolam does not have any antioxidant effect in reperfused rat kidneys following ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ugur Erol
- Department of Anesthesiology and Reanimation, University of Marmara, School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
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Erten SF, Kocak A, Ozdemir I, Aydemir S, Colak A, Reeder BS. Protective effect of melatonin on experimental spinal cord ischemia. Spinal Cord 2003; 41:533-8. [PMID: 14504608 DOI: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Experimental animal model to assess ischemic spinal cord injury following occlusion of the thoraco-abdominal aorta. OBJECTIVES To measure whether melatonin administered to rabbits before and after occlusion exerts an effect on the repair of ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury. SETTING Medical Biology Laboratory, Inonu University, Malatya, Turkey. METHODS Rabbits were divided into three IR treatment groups and one sham-operated (ShOp) control group. The three treatment groups had their infrarenal aorta temporarily occluded for 25 min, while the ShOp group had laparotomy without aortic occlusion. Melatonin was administered either 10 min before aortic occlusion or 10 min after the clamp was removed. Physiologic saline was administered to the control animals. After treatment, the animals were euthanized and lumbosacral spinal cord tissue was removed for the determination of relevant enzyme activities. RESULTS Malondialdehyde levels, indicating the extent of lipid peroxidation, were found to be significantly increased in the nonmelatonin treated (IR) group when compared to the ShOp group. Melatonin, whether given to pre- or post occlusion groups, suppressed malondialdehyde levels below that of the ShOp group. Catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) enzyme activities were increased in the IR group compared to the ShOp group. Melatonin given preocclusion resulted in a significant decrease in both CAT and GSH-Px enzyme levels. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme activity was decreased in the ischemia-reperfusion treatment group. However, the melatonin treatment increased SOD enzyme activity to levels approximating that of the ShOp group. CONCLUSION To our knowledge, this is the first study that shows the effects of melatonin administered both pre- and postischemia on induced oxidative damage to injured spinal cords. Our data also expands on reports that melatonin administration may significantly reduce the incidence of spinal cord injury following temporary aortic occlusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- S F Erten
- Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, Inonu University, Malatya, Turkey
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Serum and tissue concentrations of tumor markers or some metabolites are considered to be helpful in diagnosis and follow-up of the central nervous system (CNS) disease. However, markers currently available are not sufficiently sensitive and specific to be used as actual diagnostic tools. Differentiation between the malignant and benign lesions of the CNS is very important, both for determining the optimum therapeutic approach and to predict morbidity and mortality of the disease. Accurate diagnosis of a malignant disease is mostly performed through a surgical resection and histopathologic evaluation. Free oxygen radicals (FOR) are thought to take part in oncogenesis and cellular differentiation. We explored whether FORs can be used as diagnostic tumor markers. METHODS We investigated the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the serum and tumor tissue of patients with glial tumor. We have studied 30 patients with malign glial tumor (grades III and IV astrocytoma), 30 patients with low grade glial tumor, 28 healthy individuals, and 10 patients with nontumorous lesions (lobectomy for epilepsy). RESULTS Patients with CNS tumors showed higher serum MDA concentration compared to control groups (epilepsy patients and healthy subjects). These patients had a higher tumor tissue MDA concentration compared to lobectomy tissue from epilepsy patients. Serum and tissue MDA concentrations were also higher in the malignant glial tumor group compared to the low grade glial tumor group. CONCLUSIONS Although not specific, tissue and serum concentrations of FORs can be used as a marker to detect the presence and grade of CNS tumors. Further studies are needed to determine the optimum cutoff value for use of serum and tissue MDA concentrations in brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bayram Cirak
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Mu X, Azbill RD, Springer JE. NBQX treatment improves mitochondrial function and reduces oxidative events after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2002; 19:917-27. [PMID: 12225652 DOI: 10.1089/089771502320317078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of inhibiting ionotropic glutamate receptor subtypes on measures of oxidative stress events at acute times following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Rats received a moderate contusion injury and 15 min later were treated with one of two doses of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6-nitro-2,3-dioxo-benzol[f]quinoxaline-7-sulfonamide disodium (NBQX), MK-801, or the appropriate vehicle. At 4 h following injury, spinal cords were removed and a crude synaptosomal preparation obtained to examine mitochondrial function using the MTT assay, as well as measures of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, and glutamate and glucose uptake. We report here that intraspinal treatment with either 15 or 30 nmol of NBQX improves mitochondrial function and reduces the levels of ROS and lipid peroxidation products. In contrast, MK-801, given intravenously at doses of 1.0 or 5.0 mg/kg, was without effect on these same measures. Neither drug treatment had an effect on glutamate or glucose uptake, both of which are reduced at acute times following SCI. Previous studies have documented that drugs acting on non-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors exhibit greater efficacy compared to NMDA receptor antagonists on recovery of function and tissue sparing following traumatic spinal cord injury. The results of this study provide a potential mechanism by which blockade of the non-NMDA ionotropic receptors exhibit positive effects following traumatic SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Mu
- Department of Anatomy, Center for Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington, Kentucky 40536-0084, USA
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Lucas JH, Wheeler DG, Guan Z, Suntres Z, Stokes BT. Effect of glutathione augmentation on lipid peroxidation after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2002; 19:763-75. [PMID: 12165136 DOI: 10.1089/08977150260139138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipid peroxidation (LPO) is considered a major factor in damage spread after spinal cord injury (SCI). Therapies that limit LPO after SCI have demonstrated some utility in clinical trials, but more effective treatments are needed. In the present study the effects of augmenting SC levels of the endogenous antioxidant glutathione (GSH) on LPO after SCI were studied in a rat contusion injury model. A significant decrease in GSH occurred 1h after SCI which was paralleled by increases of 123% in malondialdehyde (MDA) and >500% in the 4-hydroxyalkenals (4-HA's), two LPO products. SC irrigation with gamma-glutamylcysteine (GC) preserved GSH and reduced 4-HA's below naive levels but had no effect on MDA. By 24 h after SCI, MDA returned to naive levels but 4-HA's were still elevated. Once again, GC treatment reduced 4-HA's. 4-HA's are much more reactive than MDA and are considered among the most toxic LPO products. These results suggest that (1) conditions after SCI may favor particular branches of the LPO pathway leading to differential LPO product levels, (2) MDA measurement is not by itself an adequate test for the presence or magnitude of LPO after SCI, (3) binding of GSH to 4-HA's may be an important mechanism by which the GSH system confers protection against LPO after SCI, and (4) SC GSH can be augmented after trauma by local irrigation with GC. These results also suggest that GSH augmentation may be an effective strategy for curtailment of LPO-mediated damage in acute phase SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jen Hill Lucas
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.
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Aksenova M, Butterfield DA, Zhang SX, Underwood M, Geddes JW. Increased protein oxidation and decreased creatine kinase BB expression and activity after spinal cord contusion injury. J Neurotrauma 2002; 19:491-502. [PMID: 11990354 DOI: 10.1089/08977150252932433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic injury to the spinal cord triggers several secondary effects, including oxidative stress and compromised energy metabolism, which play a major role in biochemical and pathological changes in spinal cord tissue. Free radical generation and lipid peroxidation have been shown to be early events subsequent to spinal cord injury. In the present study, we demonstrated that protein oxidation increases in rat spinal cord tissue after experimental injury. As early as h after injury, the level of protein carbonyls at the injury epicenter was significantly higher than in control (169%, p < 0.05) and increased gradually over the next 4 weeks to 1260% of control level. Both caudal and rostral parts of the injured spinal cord demonstrated a mild increase of protein carbonyls by 4 weeks postinjury (135-138%, p < 0.05). Immunocytochemical analysis of protein carbonyls in the spinal cord cross-sections showed increased protein carbonyl immunoreactivity in the epicenter section compared to rostral and caudal sections of the same animal or control laminectomy animals. Increased protein carbonyl formation in damaged spinal cord tissue was associated with changes in activity and expression of an oxidative sensitive enzyme, creatine kinase BB, which plays an important role in the maintenance of ATP level in the CNS tissue. Damage to CK function in the CNS may severely aggravate the impairment of energy metabolism. The results of our study indicate that events associated with oxidative damage are triggered immediately after spinal cord trauma but continue to occur over the subsequent 4 weeks. These results suggest that antioxidant therapeutic strategies may be beneficial to lessen the consequences of the injury and potentially improve the restoration of neurological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Aksenova
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506-0055, USA
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Abstract
BACKGROUND CONTEXT Recent advances in neuroscience have opened the door for hope toward prevention and cure of the devastating effects of spinal cord injury (SCI). PURPOSE To highlight the current understanding of traumatic SCI mechanisms, provide information regarding state-of-the-art care for the acute spinal cord-injured patient, and explore future treatments aimed at neural preservation and reconstruction. STUDY DESIGN/SETTING A selective overview of the literature pertaining to the neuropathophysiology of traumatic SCI is provided with an emphasis on pharmacotherapies and posttraumatic experimental strategies aimed at improved neuropreservation and late neuroregenerative repair. METHODS One hundred fifty-four peer-reviewed basic science and clinical articles pertaining to SCI were reviewed. Articles cited were chosen based on the relative merits and contribution to the current understanding of SCI neuropathophysiology, neuroregeneration, and clinical SCI treatment patterns. RESULTS A better understanding of the pathophysiology and early treatment for the spinal cord-injured patient has led to a continued decrease in mortality, decreased acute hospitalization and complication rates, and more rapid rehabilitation and re-entry into society. Progressive neural injury results from a combination of secondary injury mechanisms, including ischemia, biochemical alterations, apoptosis, excitotoxicity, calpain proteases, neurotransmitter accumulation, lipid peroxidation/free radical injury, and inflammatory responses. Experimental studies suggest that the final posttraumatic neurologic deficit is not only a result of the initial impaction forces but rather a combination of these forces and secondary time-dependent events that follow shortly after the initial impact. CONCLUSIONS Experimental studies continue to provide a better understanding of the complex interaction of pathophysiologic events after traumatic SCI. Future approaches will involve strategies aimed at blocking the multiple mechanisms of progressive central nervous system injury and promoting neuroregeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory D Carlson
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Reeve-Irvine Research Center, University California, Irvine, Long Beach Veterans Administration, 5901 East 7th Street, Long Beach, CA 90822, USA.
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Liao B, Newmark H, Zhou R. Neuroprotective effects of ginseng total saponin and ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 on spinal cord neurons in vitro. Exp Neurol 2002; 173:224-34. [PMID: 11822886 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.2001.7841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury is a major cause of disability and results in many serious physical, psychological, and social difficulties. Numerous studies have shown that traumatic spinal cord injuries (SCI) lead to neuronal loss and axonal degeneration in and around the injury site that cause partial disability or complete paralysis. An important strategy in the treatment of SCI is to promote neuron survival and axon outgrowth, making possible the recovery of neural connections. Using an in vitro survival assay, we have identified ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1, extracted from ginseng root (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer), as efficient neuroprotective agents for spinal cord neurons. These compounds protect spinal neurons from excitotoxicity induced by glutamate and kainic acid, as well as oxidative stress induced by H(2)O(2). The neuroprotective effects are dose-dependent. The optimal doses are 20-40 microM for ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1. The effects are specific for Rb1 and Rg1, since a third ginsenoside, Re, did not exhibit any activity. Ginseng has been used for thousands of years in the treatment of neurological disorders and other diseases in Asia. Ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 represent potentially effective therapeutic agents for spinal cord injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baisong Liao
- Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Biology, College of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, USA
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Ak A, Ustün ME, Oğün CO, Duman A, Bor MA. Effects of nimodipine on tissue lactate and malondialdehyde levels in experimental head trauma. Anaesth Intensive Care 2001; 29:484-8. [PMID: 11669428 DOI: 10.1177/0310057x0102900506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We studied the effects of nimodipine on brain tissue lactate and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels one hour after experimental head trauma in 25 New Zealand rabbits. Group 1 (n=5) was the sham operated group. Group 2 (n=10) received head trauma without treatment and in group 3 (n=10) nimodipine was administered for 30 minutes intravenously (2 microg/kg/min) immediately after head trauma. In groups 2 and 3, tissue samples from the non-traumatized side was named as "a" and traumatized side as "b". The lactate and malondialdehyde contents were significantly higher in groups 2a, 2b, 3a and 3b when compared with to group 1 (P<0.05). The differences between non-treated groups (2a, 2b) and nimodipine treated groups (3a, 3b) were not significant (P>0.05). The differences between the traumatized sides (2b, 3b) and non-traumatized sides (2a, 3a) were significant (P<0.05). These results demonstrated that nimodipine is ineffective in suppressing the increase of tissue lactate and malondialdehyde levels in the early period of experimental head trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ak
- Department of Emergency, Medical Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
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Free Radicals and Acute Brain Injury: Mechanisms of Oxidative Stress and Therapeutic Potentials. Brain Inj 2001. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-1721-4_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
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Abstract
Free radicals are highly reactive molecules implicated in the pathology of traumatic brain injury and cerebral ischemia, through a mechanism known as oxidative stress. After brain injury, reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species may be generated through several different cellular pathways, including calcium activation of phospholipases, nitric oxide synthase, xanthine oxidase, the Fenton and Haber-Weiss reactions, by inflammatory cells. If cellular defense systems are weakened, increased production of free radicals will lead to oxidation of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which may alter cellular function in a critical way. The study of each of these pathways may be complex and laborious since free radicals are extremely short-lived. Recently, genetic manipulation of wild-type animals has yielded species that over- or under-express genes such as, copper-zinc superoxide dismutase, manganese superoxide dismutase, nitric oxide synthase, and the Bcl-2 protein. The introduction of the species has improved the understanding of oxidative stress. We conclude here that substantial experimental data links oxidative stress with other pathogenic mechanisms such as excitotoxicity, calcium overload, mitochondrial cytochrome c release, caspase activation, and apoptosis in central nervous system (CNS) trauma and ischemia, and that utilization of genetically manipulated animals offers a unique possibility to elucidate the role of free radicals in CNS injury in a molecular fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lewén
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California 94305, USA
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Mu X, Azbill RD, Springer JE. Riluzole and methylprednisolone combined treatment improves functional recovery in traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2000; 17:773-80. [PMID: 11011817 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2000.17.773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The potential use of riluzole (a glutamate release inhibitor) alone or in combination with methyl-prednisolone (MP) in treating acute spinal cored injury (SCI) was examined. Rats received a contusion injury to the spinal cord using the NYU impactor and were treated with vehicle, riluzole (8 mg/kg), MP(30 mg/kg), or riluzole + MP at 2 and 4 h following injury. Animals continued to receive riluzole treatment (8 mg/kg) for a period of 1 week. The animals were then tested weekly for functional recovery using the BBB open field locomotor score. At the end of testing (6 weeks after injury), each spinal cord was examined for the amount of remaining tissue at the injury site and a myelination index was used to quantify remaining axons in the ventromedial white matter. In this study, only the combination treatment was found to significantly improve behavioral recovery as assessed using the BBB open field locomotor scale. In addition, the combination treatment promoted tissue sparing at the lesion epicenter, but had no clear effect on the index of myelination. The results of this study clearly demonstrate the potential beneficial effects of a combination approach in the treatment of traumatic SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Mu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington 40536-0084,USA
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Taskiran D, Tanyalcin T, Sozmen EY, Peker GO, Gulmen V, Cagli S, Kanit L, Tekeli G, Barcin E, Zileli M, Kutay FZ. The effects of melatonin on the antioxidant systems in experimental spinal injury. Int J Neurosci 2000; 104:63-73. [PMID: 11011974 DOI: 10.3109/00207450009035009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Melatonin has been recently shown by various in-vivo and in-vitro studies to exert potent neutralising effects on hydroxyl radicals, stimulate glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity, and protect catalase (CAT) from the destructive activity of hydroxyl radicals in neural tissue. We aimed to investigate the possible effects of pharmacological dose of melatonin on some of the antioxidant defence systems in an in-vivo study of experimental spinal injury. Seven groups of adult male Sprague Dawley rats were used in the following scheme: Group I: Naive (n = 6), Group II: Lesion (n = 8), Group III: Melatonin (n = 5), Group IV: Melatonin + Lesion (n = 8), Group V: Placebo + Lesion (n = 5), Group VI: Sham operation (n = 5), and Group VII: Placebo (n = 5). Experimental spinal injury was induced at level T7-T8 by 5 sec compression of the total cord with an aneurysm clip on anaesthetised and laminectomized animals. The total 10 mg/kg dose of melatonin (Sigma) dissolved in alcohol-water was administered i.p. four times in 2.5 mg/kg doses, at 20 min pre-, at the time of and at 1 h and 2h post-compression. At 24 +/- 2h post-injury, the rats were euthanized and the lesioned segments of cord were dissected and homogenised with special care taken to distribute equal amount of injured tissue in each sample for analysis of reduced glutathione (GSH), oxidised glutathione (GSSG), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and CAT activity. Compression injury decreased GSH/GSSG ratio significantly (p < .0001). Melatonin, by itself, significantly decreased GSSG content (p < .05) and increased CAT activity (p < .05) in the naïve rats. Melatonin treatment decreased GSSG activity, thus elevating GSH/GSSG ratio, and also increased SOD and CAT activity without reaching statistical significance in the lesioned animals. In conclusion, pharmacological dose of systemically applied melatonin seemed to support some features of the antioxidant defence systems in our hands.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Taskiran
- Department of Physiology, Ege University Center for Brain Research and School of Medicine, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
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Mu X, Azbill RD, Springer JE. Riluzole improves measures of oxidative stress following traumatic spinal cord injury. Brain Res 2000; 870:66-72. [PMID: 10869502 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(00)02402-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Rats received a contusion injury to the spinal cord followed by treatment with riluzole (a glutamate release inhibitor, 8 mg/kg), methylprednisolone (MP 30 mg/kg) or both. At 4 h following injury, spinal cords were removed and synaptosomes prepared and examined using five measures of oxidative stress. Riluzole treatment was found to improve mitochondrial function, and enhance glutamate and glucose uptake. As expected, MP treatment was found to reduce lipid peroxidation, but also improved glutamate and glucose uptake. Interestingly, the combination treatment was found to be effective in improving all five measures of oxidative stress. The results of this study clearly demonstrate the potential beneficial effects of a combination approach in the treatment of oxidative stress events in traumatic spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Mu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Center for Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research, University of Kentucky Medical Center, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0084, USA
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Kaptanoglu E, Tuncel M, Palaoglu S, Konan A, Demirpençe E, Kilinç K. Comparison of the effects of melatonin and methylprednisolone in experimental spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 2000; 93:77-84. [PMID: 10879762 DOI: 10.3171/spi.2000.93.1.0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT Melatonin is a very effective antioxidant agent. This study was performed to investigate the effects of melatonin in experimental spinal cord injury (SCI). The authors also compared its effects with those of methylprednisolone, which also protects the spinal cord from secondary injury because of its antioxidant effect on membrane lipids. METHODS Adult male albino rats were used for the study, and paraplegia was produced using a previously described weight-drop technique. Melatonin and methylprednisolone were given intraperitoneally by bolus injections of 100 mg/kg and 30 mg/kg, respectively, immediately after induction of trauma. The animals were killed, and 1-cm samples of injured spinal cord were obtained at 1, 24, and 48 hours postinjury. Lipid peroxidation was estimated by thiobarbituric acid test. Electron microscopic studies were performed to determine the effects of melatonin on neurons, axons, and subcellular organelles after experimental SCI. A grading system was used for quantitative evaluation. Following SCI, there was significant increase in lipid peroxidation. In melatonin- and methylprednisolone-treated groups, lipid peroxidation was found to decrease to the baseline (preinjury) levels. There was a significant difference between trauma-alone and treatment groups, but no statistical difference was found between the melatonin- and methylprednisolone-treated groups. Electron microscopic findings showed that SCI produced by the weight-drop technique resulted in profound tissue damage. CONCLUSIONS Both melatonin and methylprednisolone have been shown to protect neuron, axon, myelin, and intracellular organelles including mitochondrion and nucleus. However, this study provides quantitative evidence that this protection of neurons and subcellular organelles of spinal cord after secondary injury is much more obvious in melatonin-treated rats than those treated with methylprednisolone. In view of these data, melatonin has been shown to be very effective in protecting the injured spinal cord from secondary injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Kaptanoglu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ankara Numune Hospital, Turkey
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Görgülü A, Kiriş T, Unal F, Turkoğlu U, Küçük M, Cobanoğlu S. Superoxide dismutase activity and the effects of NBQX and CPP on lipid peroxidation in experimental spinal cord injury. RESEARCH IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DIE GESAMTE EXPERIMENTELLE MEDIZIN EINSCHLIESSLICH EXPERIMENTELLER CHIRURGIE 2000; 199:285-93. [PMID: 10815757 DOI: 10.1007/s004330050126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The endogenous activity of the neuroprotective enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) and the amount of lipid peroxidation in the early phase of experimental spinal cord injury, together with the effects of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist CPP and non-NMDA antagonist NBQX on lipid peroxidation were evaluated. The clip compression model was used for the production of a standardized spinal cord trauma. SOD activity and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels--as an indicator of lipid peroxidation--were determined in the injured segment of the spinal cord 30 and 60 min after injury. SOD activity did not change in this period, whereas MDA levels at 30 and 60 min after trauma were significantly elevated. Intrathecal administration of CPP or NBQX 15 min after injury produced statistically significant reductions in MDA elevation 60 min after injury. NBQX was found to be more effective than CPP. These results demonstrated that intrathecal local application of excitatory amino acid receptor antagonists can protect the spinal cord from secondary damage caused by the generation of lipid peroxides in experimental spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Görgülü
- Department of Neurosurgery, Trakya Universitesi Tip Fakultesi Noroşirüji Anabilim Dali, Edirne, Turkey
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Fujimoto T, Nakamura T, Ikeda T, Taoka Y, Takagi K. Effects of EPC-K1 on lipid peroxidation in experimental spinal cord injury. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2000; 25:24-9. [PMID: 10647156 DOI: 10.1097/00007632-200001010-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN A study in which levels of lipid peroxidation were measured, the thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances were estimated in an experimental rat model, and the recovery was assessed. OBJECTIVE To ascertain the occurrence of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances in the damaged spinal cord, and to investigate the effectiveness of a hydroxyl radical scavenger EPC-K1, a phosphate diester linkage of vitamins E and C, in attenuating the severity of spinal cord injury. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA Lipid peroxidation has been reported to play an important role in spinal cord injury. There is no report on the use of EPC-K1 to attenuate the severity of spinal cord injury in either animal or human studies. METHODS Spinal cord injury was induced by placing a 25-g weight on T12, and the animals were divided into six groups. Group 1 (sham) received only laminectomy. Group 2 (control) received spinal cord injury. Group 3 received EPC-K1 5 minutes before injury. Group 4 received it 5 minutes after injury. Group 5 received it 3 hours after injury. Group 6 received it five times, respectively: at 5 minutes, then 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours after injury. The levels of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances were measured in the spinal cord, and the recovery was assessed. RESULTS The thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances content increased after injury, with two peaks, at 1 and 4 hours. Concentration at the 4-hour peak was lower in nitrogen mustard-induced leukocytopenia rats than in the control rats. The EPC-K1 injection reduced thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances content at 1 and 4 hours after injury in Group 3 (respectively, 34.3% and 42.7% vs. control) and only that at 4 hours in Group 6 (24.9% vs. control). Motor function recovery and histologic findings were better in these two groups than in Group 2. CONCLUSION Repeated injection of EPC-K1 attenuated the severity of spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Fujimoto
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Kumamoto University School of Medicine, Japan.
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