1
|
Drug-Dosing Adjustment in Dogs and Cats with Chronic Kidney Disease. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12030262. [PMID: 35158584 PMCID: PMC8833495 DOI: 10.3390/ani12030262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease is a common kidney disorder in adult and aged dogs and cats; the management of associated complications and comorbidities generally requires a life-long medical treatment to ensure a good quality of life of affected patients. However, indications and the literature on drug dosing in dogs and cats with chronic kidney disease are often lacking. The aim of this review is to revise the current literature on drug dosing in canine and feline patients with renal impairment, with a special focus on the most commonly used medications to manage chronic kidney disease and possible comorbidities.
Collapse
|
2
|
Reinhart JM, Ekena J, Cioffi AC, Trepanier LA. A single-nucleotide polymorphism in the canine cytochrome b 5 reductase (CYB5R3) gene is associated with sulfonamide hypersensitivity and is overrepresented in Doberman Pinschers. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2018; 41:402-408. [PMID: 29336038 DOI: 10.1111/jvp.12478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Canine sulfonamide hypersensitivity (HS) has been associated with a variant in the cytochrome b5 reductase gene (CYB5R3 729A>G), which encodes a drug-detoxifying enzyme. Study objectives were to determine variant allele frequency in Doberman Pinschers (DOBE), a breed which may be predisposed to sulfonamide HS, and to characterize the effects of CYB5R3 729G on gene expression and function. CYB5R3 729A>G allele frequencies were compared between DOBE (n = 24) vs. non-Doberman (non-DOBE; n = 60) dogs. CYB5R3mRNA expression, protein expression, and reduction of sulfamethoxazole hydroxylamine were compared between banked canine liver samples of 729AA vs. GG genotype. The 729G allele was overrepresented in DOBE (1.00) vs. non-DOBE dogs (0.567, p < .0001). mRNA and protein expressions as well as cyt b5 reductase activity were similar between livers of AA and GG genotype. All Doberman Pinschers in this study were homozygous for CYB5R3 729G, which could contribute to this breed's apparent predisposition to sulfonamide HS. However, CYB5R3 729G does not alter sulfamethoxazole detoxification capacity, so a direct role could not be demonstrated. It is possible that this marker is linked to another contributing variant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J M Reinhart
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - J Ekena
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - A C Cioffi
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - L A Trepanier
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Johnson KC, Mackin A. Canine immune-mediated polyarthritis: part 1: pathophysiology. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2011; 48:12-7. [PMID: 22190602 DOI: 10.5326/jaaha-ms-5744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Immune-mediated polyarthritis (IMPA) is a common disease process in the dog.(1) The immune-mediated polyarthropathies are divided into two major categories: erosive (or deforming) and nonerosive (or nondeforming). Understanding the pathophysiology of the immune attack on affected joints is paramount in choosing the most effective therapy for managing canine IMPA. This review article is the first of a two-part series and focuses on the pathophysiology of IMPA. The second article in this series, to be published in the March/April 2012 issue, concentrates on the diagnosis and treatment of immune-mediated polyarthritis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kirstin C Johnson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
STACK A, SCHOTT II HC. Suspect novel adverse drug reactions to trimethoprim-sulphonamide combinations in horses: A case series. Equine Vet J 2010; 43:117-20. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00158.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
|
5
|
Castrejon JL, Lavergne SN, El-Sheikh A, Farrell J, Maggs JL, Sabbani S, O’Neill PM, Park BK, Naisbitt DJ. Metabolic and Chemical Origins of Cross-Reactive Immunological Reactions to Arylamine Benzenesulfonamides: T-Cell Responses to Hydroxylamine and Nitroso Derivatives. Chem Res Toxicol 2009; 23:184-92. [DOI: 10.1021/tx900329b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Luis Castrejon
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, United Kingdom, and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Sidonie N. Lavergne
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, United Kingdom, and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Ayman El-Sheikh
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, United Kingdom, and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| | - John Farrell
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, United Kingdom, and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| | - James L. Maggs
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, United Kingdom, and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Sunil Sabbani
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, United Kingdom, and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Paul M. O’Neill
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, United Kingdom, and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| | - B. Kevin Park
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, United Kingdom, and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Dean J. Naisbitt
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, United Kingdom, and Department of Chemistry, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Brenner K, Harkin K, Schermerhorn T. Iatrogenic, sulfonamide-induced hypothyroid crisis in a Labrador Retriever. Aust Vet J 2009; 87:503-5. [PMID: 19930169 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2009.00521.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This case report describes a sulfonamide-induced hypothyroid crisis in a 4-year-old Labrador Retriever bitch. Empirical therapy with high-dose trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for 10 days produced signs of weakness, ataxia and mental depression and the clinicopathological results supported hypothyroid-induced central nervous system depression. Short-term levothyroxine sodium therapy led to complete resolution of all clinical signs and follow-up thyroid hormone assays ruled out underlying thyroid pathology. This case report is the first to highlight this potentially life-threatening manifestation of sulfonamide-induced hypothyroidism. Sulfonamide combinations are widely used antimicrobials in veterinary medicine and early recognition of this syndrome is critical.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Brenner
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, 66506-5701, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
Pharmacogenetic differences in the handling of and response to drugs can markedly alter the risk of severe idiosyncratic adverse drug reactions, including neutropenia, agranulocytosis and aplastic anaemia. Inherited deficiencies of drug metabolizing enzymes can shunt the metabolism of drugs to metabolites which are directly toxic (e.g. 6-mercaptopurine metabolism to 6-thioguanine nucleotides) or towards electrophilic metabolites which can kill cells and/or lead to a host immune response (e.g. sulphonamide metabolism to hydroxylamine metabolites). Defects in detoxification pathways (e.g. glutathione conjugation) similarly can predispose patients to adverse outcomes. The advent of molecular screening tools to define individual (rather than population) risk may lead to the use of clinical laboratory tests to identify/predict idiosyncratic adverse drug reactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S P Spielberg
- Strategic Operations, Clinical and Regulatory Development, Merck Research Laboratories, Blue Bell, PA 19422, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Sanderson JP, Hollis FJ, Maggs JL, Clarke SE, Naisbitt DJ, Park BK. Nonenzymatic formation of a novel hydroxylated sulfamethoxazole derivative in human liver microsomes: implications for bioanalysis of sulfamethoxazole metabolites. Drug Metab Dispos 2008; 36:2424-8. [PMID: 18765684 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.108.021246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sulfamethoxazole is metabolized by microsomal CYP2C9 to a hydroxylamine that is thought to be responsible for the relatively high incidence of hypersensitivity reactions associated with the drug. Accurate quantification of the hydroxylamine requires the loss of metabolite through autoxidation to be blocked with ascorbate. In this study, a partly nonenzymatically generated arylhydroxylated derivative of sulfamethoxazole was identified by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry in incubations of human liver microsomes, and it was found to coelute with the isomeric hydroxylamine under the conditions of three published high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) assays. Partial inhibition of the aryl hydroxylation by 1-aminobenzotriazole suggested some involvement of cytochrome P450. However, the formation of this compound was ascorbate-dependent, and it was enhanced by the addition of Fe2+/EDTA and inhibited by desferrioxamine but not by mannitol. These findings are consistent with the phenol being generated via an Fe2+/ascorbate/O2-oxygenating system that does not involve hydroxyl radicals. It was also produced by H2O2/ascorbate. Because the compound shares close chromatographic similarities with the hydroxylamine metabolite, it is possible that previous studies may have inaccurately characterized or quantified sulfamethoxazole metabolism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph P Sanderson
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, the University of Liverpool, Sherrington Buildings, Ashton Street, Liverpool L693GE, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Fleischer S, Sharkey M, Mealey K, Ostrander EA, Martinez M. Pharmacogenetic and metabolic differences between dog breeds: their impact on canine medicine and the use of the dog as a preclinical animal model. AAPS J 2008; 10:110-9. [PMID: 18446511 PMCID: PMC2747081 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-008-9011-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2007] [Accepted: 01/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
There is limited information describing species related pharmacogenetic differences in animals. Despite the lack of genetic information in veterinary medicine, breed specific responses to endogenous and exogenous substances have been reported across many species. This finding underscores the importance of obtaining insight into the genotypic and phenotypic variation present across breeds. This article provides a summary of the literature pertaining to canine breed differences in physiology, drug response, drug pharmacokinetics, and metabolic idiosyncrasies. The existing knowledge of pedigrees and the known phenotypes and genotypes of dogs provides important information for determining mode of inheritance, penetration, and other major characteristics of heritable traits. Understanding these breed differences will improve canine population predictions (for canine drug products) and may be of value when extrapolating toxicology data from dogs to humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven Fleischer
- Center for Veterinary Medicine, The Food and Drug Administration, 7500 Standish Place, HFV-130, Rockville, Massachusetts 20855 USA
| | - Michele Sharkey
- Center for Veterinary Medicine, The Food and Drug Administration, 7500 Standish Place, HFV-130, Rockville, Massachusetts 20855 USA
| | - Katrina Mealey
- Center for Veterinary Medicine, The Food and Drug Administration, 7500 Standish Place, HFV-130, Rockville, Massachusetts 20855 USA
| | - Elaine A. Ostrander
- Center for Veterinary Medicine, The Food and Drug Administration, 7500 Standish Place, HFV-130, Rockville, Massachusetts 20855 USA
| | - Marilyn Martinez
- Center for Veterinary Medicine, The Food and Drug Administration, 7500 Standish Place, HFV-130, Rockville, Massachusetts 20855 USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Lavergne SN, Danhof RS, Volkman EM, Trepanier LA. Association of drug-serum protein adducts and anti-drug antibodies in dogs with sulphonamide hypersensitivity: A naturally occurring model of idiosyncratic drug toxicity. Clin Exp Allergy 2006; 36:907-15. [PMID: 16839406 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02506.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sulphonamide antimicrobials, such as sulphamethoxazole (SMX), provide effective infection prophylaxis in immunocompromised patients, but can lead to drug hypersensitivity (HS) reactions. These reactions also occur in dogs, with a similar time course and clinical presentation as seen in humans. OBJECTIVES Drug-serum adducts and anti-drug antibodies have been identified in sulphonamide HS humans. The aim of this study was to determine whether similar markers were present in dogs with sulphonamide HS. METHODS Thirty-four privately owned sulphonamide HS dogs, 10 sulphonamide-'tolerant' dogs, 18 sulphonamide-naïve dogs, and four dogs experimentally dosed with SMX and the oxidative metabolite SMX-nitroso, were tested for drug-serum adducts by immunoblotting, and anti-drug antibodies by ELISA. RESULTS Sulphonamide-serum adducts were found in 10/20 HS dogs tested (50%), but in no tolerant dogs. Anti-sulphonamide IgG antibodies were detected in 17/34 HS dogs (50%), but in only one tolerant dog; antibody absorbance values were significantly higher in HS dogs. There was a significant association between the presence of sulphonamide-serum adducts and anti-sulphonamide antibodies (P = 0.009). Anti-drug antibodies were also found in dogs experimentally dosed with SMX-nitroso followed by SMX, but not in a dog dosed with drug vehicle, followed by SMX. CONCLUSION Similar humoral markers are present in dogs and humans with sulphonamide HS, supporting the use of dogs as a naturally occurring model for this syndrome in humans. These data suggest the potential use of drug-serum adducts and anti-drug antibodies as markers for sulphonamide HS. Preliminary data indicate that anti-sulphonamide antibodies may be triggered by the SMX-nitroso metabolite, not by the parent drug, in dogs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S N Lavergne
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706-1102, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Clement B, Behrens D, Amschler J, Matschke K, Wolf S, Havemeyer A. Reduction of sulfamethoxazole and dapsone hydroxylamines by a microsomal enzyme system purified from pig liver and pig and human liver microsomes. Life Sci 2005; 77:205-19. [PMID: 15862605 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2004.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2004] [Accepted: 12/22/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Biotransformation involving nitrogen are of pharmacological and toxicological relevance. In principle, nitrogen containing functional groups can undergo all the known biotransformation processes such as oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis and formation of conjugates. For the N-reduction of benzamidoxime an oxygen-insensitive liver microsomal enzyme system that required cytochrome b5, NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase and a cytochrome P450 isoenzyme of the subfamily 2D has been described. In previous studies it was demonstrated that N-hydroxylated derivates of strongly basic functional groups are easily reduced by this enzyme system. The N-hydroxylation of sulfonamides such sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and dapsone (DDS) to sulfamethoxazole-hydroxylamine (SMX-HA) and dapsone-hydroxylamine (DDS-N-OH), respectively is the first step in the formation of reactive metabolites. Therefore it seemed reasonable to study the potential of cytochrome b5, NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase and CYP2D to detoxify these N-hydroxylated metabolites by N-reduction. Metabolites were analysed by HPLC analysis. SMX-HA and DDS-N-OH are reduced by cytochrome b5, NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase and CYP2D but also only by cytochrome b5 and NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase without addition of CYP2D. The reduction rate for SMX-HA by cytochrome b5, NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase and CYP2D was 0,65 +/- 0,1 nmol SMX/min/mg protein. The reduction rate by b5 and b5 reductase was 0,37 +/- 0,15 nmol SMX/min/mg protein. For DDS-N-OH the reduction rate by cytochrome b5, NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase and CYP2D was 1.79 +/- 0.85 nmol DDS/min/mg protein and by cytochrome b5 and NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 1.25 +/- 0.15 nmol DDS/min/mg protein. Cytochrome b5, NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase are therefore involved in the detoxification of these reactive hydroxylamines and CYP2D increased the N-reduction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Clement
- Pharmazeutisches Institut, Christian-Albrechts-Universität, Gutenbergstr. 76, D-24118 Kiel, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Vasilopulos RJ, Mackin A, Lavergne SN, Trepanier LA. Nephrotic syndrome associated with administration of sulfadimethoxine/ ormetoprim in a dobermann. J Small Anim Pract 2005; 46:232-6. [PMID: 15909446 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-5827.2005.tb00315.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This case report describes sulphonamide-induced nephrotic syndrome in a young dobermann dog. The clinical signs and laboratory abnormalities resolved shortly after discontinuation of the sulphonamide antibiotic and with generalised supportive care. Since nephrotic syndrome typically carries a guarded prognosis in veterinary medicine and is poorly responsive to therapy, a thorough drug history should be an important part of the investigation of any animal with a protein-losing nephropathy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R J Vasilopulos
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Mississippi State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Starkville, Mississippi, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Lavergne SN, Volkman EM, Maki JE, Yoder AR, Trepanier LA. Evaluation of the clinical, immunologic, and biochemical effects of nitroso sulfamethoxazole administration to dogs: a pilot study. Toxicology 2005; 208:63-72. [PMID: 15664433 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2004.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2004] [Revised: 11/04/2004] [Accepted: 11/04/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Sulfonamide antimicrobials such as sulfamethoxazole (SMX) have been associated in humans with hypersensitivity reactions, to include fever, skin eruptions, hepatotoxicity, and blood dyscrasias. These reactions also occur in dogs, the only non-human species known to develop a similar spectrum of sulfonamide hypersensitivity. Sulfonamide hypersensitivity is not well understood, but has been hypothesized to be due to the generation of the reactive oxidative metabolite, nitroso sulfamethoxazole (SMX-NO). SMX-NO, unlike the parent sulfonamide, is cytotoxic in vitro, haptenizes tissue proteins, and is immunogenic in rodents. The purpose of this pilot study was to determine whether SMX-NO, when administered to dogs, would lead to drug-tissue adducts, anti-drug antibodies, antioxidant depletion, or clinical evidence of drug hypersensitivity. Four dogs were randomized to one of four treatments: SMX-NO 1 mg/kg; SMX-NO 3 mg/kg; SMX-NO 10 mg/kg; or vehicle control. Dosing was by the intraperitoneal route, once daily for four consecutive days per week, for 2 weeks total, followed by a third week of observation. Following this, all dogs were challenged with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, 25 mg/kg for 12 h for 2 weeks. No dog developed clinical or biochemical evidence of drug hypersensitivity. Plasma cysteine and leukocyte reduced glutathione were not depleted during dosing; however, ascorbate was significantly depleted by week 2 following SMX-NO at 10 mg/kg. Anti-SMX antibodies (IgG or IgM by ELISA) were not detected in any dogs at any time points. SMX-hemoglobin adducts were detected in the spleen in SMX-NO dosed dogs; however, these adducts were not accompanied by an immunologic or systemic response. The results of this pilot study indicate that SMX-NO dosing in dogs, using a dosing protocol shown to be immunogenic in other species, produces modest ascorbate depletion and hemoglobin adduct formation, but is insufficient to produce an immunologic response or a clinical syndrome of sulfonamide hypersensitivity in this susceptible species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sidonie N Lavergne
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706-1102, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Rothschild CM, Sellon DC, Bryan GM, Gay JM, Hines MT. Effects of trimethoprim-sulfadiazine on tear production and the fluctuations of Schirmer tear test values in horses. Vet Ophthalmol 2004; 7:385-90. [PMID: 15511279 DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2004.04037.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to observe the effects of trimethoprim-sulfadiazine on equine tear production and to determine normal fluctuations in Schirmer tear test (STT) values in horses. A randomized, placebo-controlled, blinded clinical trial measuring STT values in 15 horses over an 8-week period was performed. The treatment group (eight horses) received 30 mg/kg trimethoprim-sulfadiazine orally once a day and the control group (seven horses) received placebo (flour) at the same time. All horses were housed outdoors throughout the study. Schirmer tear test values were measured at 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks, and 4 weeks after discontinuation of treatment. There were no significant differences in tear production between the treated and control groups. Fluctuations in STT were observed and may result from individual and environmental variations. Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine did not decrease tear production in the horses in this study. Horses normally experience periodic fluctuations in STT values.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chantal M Rothschild
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, PO Box 647060, Pullman, WA 99164-7060, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
Idiosyncratic toxicity to potentiated sulfonamides occurs in both humans and dogs, with considerable clinical similarities. The syndrome in dogs can consist of fever, arthropathy, blood dyscrasias (neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, or hemolytic anemia), hepatopathy consisting of cholestasis or necrosis, skin eruptions, uveitis, or keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Other manifestations seen less commonly include protein-losing nephropathy, meningitis, pancreatitis, pneumonitis, or facial nerve palsy. The pathogenesis of these reactions is not completely understood, but may be due to a T-cell-mediated response to proteins haptenated by oxidative sulfonamide metabolites. Our laboratory is working on tests to characterize dogs with possible idiosyncratic sulfonamide reactions, to include ELISA for anti-drug antibodies, immunoblotting for antibodies directed against liver proteins, flow cytometry for drug-dependent anti-platelet antibodies, and in vitro cytotoxicity assays. The management of idiosyncratic sulfonamide toxicity involves client education to identify clinical signs early and allow rapid drug discontinuation, supportive care to include possibly ascorbate and glutathione precursors, and avoidance of subsequent re-exposure. It is important to realize that only antimicrobial sulfonamides, such as sulfamethoxazole, sulfadiazine, and sulfadimethoxine, share this clinical syndrome. There is no evidence for cross-reactivity with drugs that have different underlying structures but share a sulfonamide moiety, such as acetazolamide, furosemide, glipizide, or hydrochlorthiazide.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L A Trepanier
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Rothschild CM, Hines MT, Breuhaus B, Gay J, Sellon DC. Effects of Trimethoprim-Sulfadiazine on Thyroid Function of Horses. J Vet Intern Med 2004. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2004.tb02563.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
|
17
|
Trepanier LA, Danhof R, Toll J, Watrous D. Clinical Findings in 40 Dogs with Hypersensitivity Associated with Administration of Potentiated Sulfonamides. J Vet Intern Med 2003; 17:647-52. [PMID: 14529130 DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2003.tb02495.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to summarize the clinical findings in 40 dogs with systemic hypersensitivity reactions associated with the administration of potentiated sulfonamides. Dogs ranged from 6 months to 14 years of age, with a mean of 5.7 +/- 3.2 years. Spayed female dogs were overrepresented (24 of 40, or 60% of the dogs), as were Samoyeds (3 of 40; 8%) and Miniature Schnauzers (5 of 40; 13%). Mean dosages of potentiated sulfonamides were 47.0 +/- 14.9 mg/kg/d (range, 23.4-81.4 mg/kg/d). The time from the 1st administration of the drug to the onset of the clinical signs of hypersensitivity ranged from 5 to 36 days, with a mean of 12.1 +/- 5.9 days. There was no relationship between either the dosage or type of sulfonamide given and the time to the onset of the clinical signs. Fever was the most common clinical sign observed (55% of the dogs); thrombocytopenia was 2nd (54%), and hepatopathy (28%) was 3rd. Neutropenia, keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS), hemolytic anemia. arthropathy, uveitis, skin and mucocutaneous lesions, proteinuria, facial palsy, suspected meningitis, hypothyroidism, pancreatitis, facial edema, and pneumonitis were also observed in some patients. Of 39 dogs with adequate follow-up, 30 (77%) recovered, whereas 8 (21%) either died or were euthanized, and 1 recovered clinically but had persistent increases in alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity. Dogs with hepatopathy generally had a poorer prognosis (46% recovery) than dogs without hepatopathy (89% recovery; P = .0035). Sixty-three percent of the dogs with thrombocytopenia recovered, compared to 90% of the dogs without thrombocytopenia (P = .042). Recovery was not associated with sex, age, breed, or type of sulfonamide administered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A Trepanier
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, WI 53706-1102, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Williamson NL, Frank LA, Hnilica KA. Effects of short-term trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole administration on thyroid function in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002; 221:802-6. [PMID: 12322917 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2002.221.802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine how rapidly trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole affects serum total thyroxine (T4) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations in euthyroid dogs and how quickly hormone concentrations return to reference values following discontinuation of administration. DESIGN Prospective study. ANIMALS 7 healthy euthyroid dogs. PROCEDURE Dogs were given trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (26.5 to 31.3 mg/kg [12 to 14.2 mg/lb], PO, q 12 h) for a maximum of 6 weeks. A CBC and Schirmer tear test were performed and serum total T4 and TSH concentrations were measured weekly. Administration of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole was discontinued if total T4 concentration was less than the lower reference limit and TSH concentration was greater than the upper reference limit or if persistent neutropenia developed. RESULTS Six dogs had total T4 concentrations less than the lower reference limit within 3 weeks; T4 concentration was decreased after 1 week in 3 of these 6 dogs. In these 6 dogs, TSH concentration was greater than the upper reference limit within 4 weeks. In 1 dog, T4 and TSH concentrations were not affected, despite administration of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for 6 weeks. Neutropenia developed in 4 dogs. In 1 dog, the neutropenia resolved while trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole was still being administered. In the other 3, neutrophil counts returned to reference values 1 week after drug administration was discontinued. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggest that administration of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole at a dosage of 26.5 to 31.3 mg/kg, PO, every 12 hours can substantially alter serum total T4 and TSH concentrations and neutrophil counts in dogs within as short a time as a few weeks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola L Williamson
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville 37901, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Trepanier LA, Miller JL. NADH-dependent reduction of sulphamethoxazole hydroxylamine in dog and human liver microsomes. Xenobiotica 2000; 30:1111-21. [PMID: 11307968 DOI: 10.1080/00498250010013908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
1. Reduction of hydroxylamine drug metabolites by NADH-dependent hydroxylamine reductase (NDHR) has been suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of idiosyncratic sulphonamide toxicity in humans. The dog represents a naturally occurring clinical model for sulphonamide toxicity in humans. he purpose of these studies, therefore, was to characterize the presence of hepatic NADH-dependent hydroxylamine reductase activity in the dog and to compare this activity with that found in humans. 2. NDHR activity was characterized by the presence of two enzymes in both dog and human liver microsomes, with comparable estimates of Km (Km1 = 75 microM, Km2 = 404 microM in dog; Km1 = 69 microM, Km2 = 503 microM in human). Estimates of maximal velocity were significantly, but not dramatically, higher for dog NDHR (Vmax1 = 2.09 nmole mg(-1) min(-1) Vmax2 = 4.58 nmole mg(-1) min(-1) compared with human NDHR (Vmax1 = 0.42 nmole mg(-1) min(-1), Vmax2 = 1.56 nmole mg(-1) min(-1)). NDHR in dog, as in humans, preferred NADH to NADPH, was more active at pH 6.3 than at 7.4 and was not inhibited by carbon monoxide, azide, anaerobic conditions, the CYP substrate inhibitors tolbutamide, dextromethorphan, or erythromycin, or antibodies directed against CYP2C, CYP2D or CYP3A. 3. It is concluded that two forms of NDHR are present in dog and humans with similar biochemical characteristics. Although NDHR activity has been attributed to a CYP2D isoform in pig, there is no evidence for involvement of CYP450 in the reduction of sulphamethoxazole hydroxylamine in either dogs or humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L A Trepanier
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 53706-1102, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Trepanier L. Delayed hypersensitivity reactions to sulphonamides: syndromes, pathogenesis and management. Vet Dermatol 1999; 10:241-248. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3164.1999.00173.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
21
|
Twedt DC, Diehl KJ, Lappin MR, Getzy DM. Association of hepatic necrosis with trimethoprim sulfonamide administration in 4 dogs. J Vet Intern Med 1997; 11:20-3. [PMID: 9132479 DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.1997.tb00068.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatic necrosis in association with trimethoprim-sulfonamide (TMS) combination therapy was diagnosed in 4 dogs based on history, clinical presentation, and examination of histopathologic specimens collected postmortem. Duration of TMS therapy prior to onset of clinical signs ranged from 4 to 30 days. The dose of TMS ranged from 18 mg/kg to 53 mg/kg bid. Despite supportive medical therapy, all dogs died or were euthanized due to hepatic failure. This report highlights the potential for hepatotoxicity during TMS therapy. Duration of therapy, type of TMS combination, and dose did not appear related to the development of toxicity. The low number of dogs affected suggests an idiosyncratic drug reaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D C Twedt
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Spielberg SP. N-acetyltransferases: pharmacogenetics and clinical consequences of polymorphic drug metabolism. JOURNAL OF PHARMACOKINETICS AND BIOPHARMACEUTICS 1996; 24:509-19. [PMID: 9131488 DOI: 10.1007/bf02353477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Since the discovery of polymorphic N-acetylation of drugs nearly 40 years ago, great progress has been made in understanding the molecular genetics of acetylation as well as the clinical consequences of being a rapid or slow acetylator. Inborn errors (several different alleles) at the NAT2 locus are responsible for the traditional acetylator polymorphism. Studies have revealed variant alleles at the NAT1 locus as well. The consequences of pharmacogenetic variation in these enzymes include (i) altered kinetics of specific drug substrates; (ii) drug-drug interactions resulting from altered kinetics; (iii) idiosyncratic adverse drug reactions. The latter have been extensively investigated for the arylamine-containing sulfonamide antimicrobial drugs. Individual differences in multiple metabolic pathways can increase the likelihood of covalent binding of reactive metabolites of the drugs to cell macromolecules with resultant cytotoxicity and immune response to neoantigens. This can result clinically in an idiosyncratic hypersensitivity reaction, manifested by fever, skin rash, and variable toxicity to organs including liver, bone marrow, kidney, lung, heart, and thyroid. Slow acetylation by NAT2 is a risk factor for such reactions to sulfonamides. Given the incidence of these severe adverse drug reactions (much less than 1/1000), slow acetylation cannot be the sole mechanism of predisposition in the population. Differences in rates of production of hydroxylamine metabolites of the drugs by cytochrome P450 (CYP2C9), myeloperoxidase, and thyroid, roxidase, along with an inherited abnormality in detoxification of the hydroxylamines are critically important in determining individual differences in adverse reaction risk. Both NATs, particularly NAT1, also can further metabolize hydroxylamine metabolites to N-acetoxy derivatives. Intensive investigation of patients with these rare adverse reactions using a variety of tools from in vitro cell toxicity assays through molecular genetic analysis will help elucidate mechanisms of predisposition and ultimately lead to diagnostic tools to characterize individual risk and prevent idiosyncratic drug toxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S P Spielberg
- Merck Research Laboratories, Blue Bell, Pennsylvania 19422, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Mitra AK, Thummel KE, Kalhorn TF, Kharasch ED, Unadkat JD, Slattery JT. Inhibition of sulfamethoxazole hydroxylamine formation by fluconazole in human liver microsomes and healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996; 59:332-40. [PMID: 8653996 DOI: 10.1016/s0009-9236(96)80011-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Sulfamethoxazole toxicity is putatively initiated by the formation of a hydroxylamine metabolite by cytochromes P450. If this reaction could be inhibited, toxicity may decrease. We have studied--in vitro and in vivo--fluconazole, ketoconazole, and cimetidine as potentially suitable clinical inhibitors of sulfamethoxazole hydroxylamine formation. Both fluconazole and ketoconazole in human liver microsomal incubations competitively inhibited sulfamethoxazole N-hydroxylation, with the inhibitory constant (Ki) values of 3.5 and 6 micromol/L, respectively. Cimetidine exhibited a mixed type of inhibition of sulfamethoxazole hydroxylamine formation in human liver microsomes, with IC 50 values (the concentration required to decrease hydroxylamine formation by 50%) of 80 and 800 micromol/L, the lower value being observed when cimetidine was preincubated with microsomes and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. In an in vivo study in six healthy volunteers the inhibition of the cytochrome P450-mediated generation of the toxic metabolite in the presence of fluconazole was shown by a 94% decrease in the area under the plasma concentration-time curve of sulfamethoxazole hydroxylamine. In contrast, the recovery of hydroxylamine in urine decreased by only 60%. Total clearance of sulfamethoxazole was decreased by 26% by fluconazole, most likely because of the inhibition of unidentified P450 elimination pathways. There was close agreement between the predicted (87%) and observed inhibition (94%) of sulfamethoxazole hydroxylamine formation in vivo. Similarly, there was close agreement between in vivo and in vitro Ki values--1.6 and 3.5 micron/L, respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A K Mitra
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, 98195-7610, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Noli C, Koeman JP, Willemse T. A retrospective evaluation of adverse reactions to trimethoprim-sulphonamide combinations in dogs and cats. Vet Q 1995; 17:123-8. [PMID: 8751272 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.1995.9694550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Adverse reactions to various trimethoprim-sulphonamide (T-S) combinations were studied retrospectively in dogs and cats referred to the Utrecht University Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals during the period 1985-1994. Dermatological and systemic reactions were observed in 19 dogs and 2 cats. Specific histological reaction patterns were seen in 3 dogs with toxic epidermal necrolysis, in 1 dog and 1 cat with erythema multiforme, and in 1 dog with pemphigus foliaceus. Diagnostic criteria used in humans proved to be reliable in dogs and cats as well. Adverse reactions were observed within 7-14 days after administration and were most often due to sulphadiazine (76%) and sulphatroxazole (14%). The incidence of adverse reactions to T-S was 0.25%.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Noli
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, The Netherlands
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Maddison JE. Adverse drug reactions: report of the Australian Veterinary Association Adverse Drug Reaction Subcommittee, 1993. Aust Vet J 1994; 71:53-7. [PMID: 8166616 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1994.tb06154.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Fifty-nine reports of suspected adverse drug reactions (ADRs) were received by the Adverse Drug Reaction Subcommittee of the Australian Veterinary Association from April 1992-March 1993 inclusive. The number of reports received/number of animals involved per species was: dogs (30/43); cats (11/14); horses (8/10); cattle (9/30); ferret (1/1). Of these, 37 (63%) were classified as definite ADRs and 12 (20%) as probable ADRs. In 10 (17%) reports an ADR could not be substantiated or there was insufficient information available to make a decision. Twenty-three reports involved apparent hypersensitivity reactions and 5 reports were associated with 'off-label' use. Of the definite and probable reports of suspect ADRs the most frequent types of drugs involved were antimicrobials (9 reports), anthelmintics (9 reports), vaccines (7 reports), insecticides (6 reports), vitamin preparations (6 reports), topical anti-inflammatory/antimicrobial/antifungal skin preparations (3 reports) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory preparations (3 reports). Single reports concerning definite or probable ADRs to an anticholinergic, an anaesthetic agent, a corticosteroid, an anabolic steroid and a chondroprotective drug were received.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J E Maddison
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Sydney, New South Wales
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Cribb AE, Nakamura H, Grant DM, Miller MA, Spielberg SP. Role of polymorphic and monomorphic human arylamine N-acetyltransferases in determining sulfamethoxazole metabolism. Biochem Pharmacol 1993; 45:1277-82. [PMID: 8466547 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(93)90280-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Sulfonamides are associated with a variety of adverse reactions, some of which have been linked with the classical acetylator phenotypes. Although the slow acetylator phenotype has been identified as a risk factor for hypersensitivity reactions to sulfamethoxazole (SMX), the disposition of this compound appears not to be affected by the acetylation polymorphism in vivo in humans. We therefore investigated the acetylation of SMX by monomorphic (NAT1) and polymorphic (NAT2) arylamine N-acetyltransferases in humans with the objective of determining their role in the metabolism of SMX. SMX was acetylated by both NAT1 and NAT2. Km values determined in hepatic cytosol for NAT1- and NAT2-mediated acetylation of SMX were 1.2 mM and approximately 5 mM, respectively, at an acetyl coenzyme A concentration of 100 microM. Mononuclear leukocytes, which contain only NAT1, had a Km value of 1.2 mM. Km values determined with recombinant NAT1 and NAT2 proteins expressed in Escherichia coli were 1.5 mM and approximately 15 mM, respectively. The higher affinity of NAT1 for SMX indicates that acetylation by this enzyme will predominate at therapeutic plasma concentrations, in agreement with the observed in vivo monomorphic acetylation of SMX. NAT1 may be the primary determinant of SMX systemic metabolic clearance. However, in the hepatocyte NAT2 variation may be an important competitive pathway which influences the extent of oxidative metabolism of SMX to its reactive hydroxylamine metabolite. Therefore, variation in both monomorphic and polymorphic N-acetyltransferases may play a role in determining susceptibility to sulfamethoxazole toxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A E Cribb
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Toronto, Canada
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Maddison JE. Adverse drug reactions: report of the Australian Veterinary Association Adverse Drug Reaction Subcommittee, 1992. Aust Vet J 1992; 69:288-91. [PMID: 1288477 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1992.tb09896.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Fifty-nine reports of suspected adverse drug reactions (ADRs) were received by the Adverse Drug Reaction Subcommittee of the Australian Veterinary Association from February 1991-March 1992 inclusive. The number of reports received/number of animals involved per species was: dogs (23/24); cats (20/30); horses (4/4); cattle (7/10); sheep (3/745); poultry (1/580); pigs (1/8). Of these, 38 (64%) were classified as definite ADRs and 9 (15%) as probable ADRs. In 10 (17%) reports an ADR could not be substantiated or there was insufficient information available to make a decision. Two reports involved veterinarians inadvertently overdosing animals. Eighteen reports involved apparent hypersensitivity reactions and 6 reports involved probable drug interactions. Four reports involved the use of drugs at appropriate doses but in inappropriate clinical situations, and 3 reports were associated with 'off-label' use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J E Maddison
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Sydney, New South Wales
| |
Collapse
|