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Effects of Cannabinoid Agonists and Antagonists on Sleep in Laboratory Animals. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1297:97-109. [PMID: 33537939 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-61663-2_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The cannabinoids are a family of chemical compounds that can be either synthesized or naturally derived. These compounds have been shown to modulate a wide variety of biological processes. In this chapter, the studies detailing the effects of cannabinoids on sleep in laboratory animals are reviewed. Both exogenous and endogenous cannabinoids generally appear to decrease wakefulness and alter rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep in animal models. In addition, cannabinoids potentiate the effects of sedative-hypnotic drugs. However, the individual contributions of each cannabinoid on sleep processes is more nuanced and may depend on the site of action in the central nervous system. Many studies investigating the mechanism of cannabinoid effects on sleep suggest that the effects of cannabinoids on sleep are mediated via cannabinoid receptors; however, some evidence suggests that some sleep effects may be elicited via non-cannabinoid receptor-dependent mechanisms. More research is necessary to fully elucidate the role of each compound in modulating sleep processes.
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Kesner AJ, Lovinger DM. Cannabinoids, Endocannabinoids and Sleep. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:125. [PMID: 32774241 PMCID: PMC7388834 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.00125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep is a vital function of the nervous system that contributes to brain and bodily homeostasis, energy levels, cognitive ability, and other key functions of a variety of organisms. Dysfunctional sleep induces neural problems and is a key part of almost all human psychiatric disorders including substance abuse disorders. The hypnotic effects of cannabis have long been known and there is increasing use of phytocannabinoids and other formulations as sleep aids. Thus, it is crucial to gain a better understanding of the neurobiological basis of cannabis drug effects on sleep, as well as the role of the endogenous cannabinoid system in sleep physiology. In this review article, we summarize the current state of knowledge concerning sleep-related endogenous cannabinoid function derived from research on humans and rodent models. We also review information on acute and chronic cannabinoid drug effects on sleep in these organisms, and molecular mechanisms that may contribute to these effects. We point out the potential benefits of acute cannabinoids for sleep improvement, but also the potential sleep-disruptive effects of withdrawal following chronic cannabinoid drug use. Prescriptions for future research in this burgeoning field are also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Kesner
- Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), National Institute of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, United States
- Center on Compulsive Behaviors, Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - David M Lovinger
- Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), National Institute of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, United States
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Pagotto U, Marsicano G, Cota D, Lutz B, Pasquali R. The emerging role of the endocannabinoid system in endocrine regulation and energy balance. Endocr Rev 2006; 27:73-100. [PMID: 16306385 DOI: 10.1210/er.2005-0009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 578] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
During the last few years, the endocannabinoid system has emerged as a highly relevant topic in the scientific community. Many different regulatory actions have been attributed to endocannabinoids, and their involvement in several pathophysiological conditions is under intense scrutiny. Cannabinoid receptors, named CB1 receptor and CB2 receptor, first discovered as the molecular targets of the psychotropic component of the plant Cannabis sativa, participate in the physiological modulation of many central and peripheral functions. CB2 receptor is mainly expressed in immune cells, whereas CB1 receptor is the most abundant G protein-coupled receptor expressed in the brain. CB1 receptor is expressed in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, and its activation is known to modulate all the endocrine hypothalamic-peripheral endocrine axes. An increasing amount of data highlights the role of the system in the stress response by influencing the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and in the control of reproduction by modifying gonadotropin release, fertility, and sexual behavior. The ability of the endocannabinoid system to control appetite, food intake, and energy balance has recently received great attention, particularly in the light of the different modes of action underlying these functions. The endocannabinoid system modulates rewarding properties of food by acting at specific mesolimbic areas in the brain. In the hypothalamus, CB1 receptor and endocannabinoids are integrated components of the networks controlling appetite and food intake. Interestingly, the endocannabinoid system was recently shown to control metabolic functions by acting on peripheral tissues, such as adipocytes, hepatocytes, the gastrointestinal tract, and, possibly, skeletal muscle. The relevance of the system is further strenghtened by the notion that drugs interfering with the activity of the endocannabinoid system are considered as promising candidates for the treatment of various diseases, including obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uberto Pagotto
- Endocrinology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine and Gastroenterology, Sant' Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, Bologna, Italy, and Department of Physiological Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Germany.
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Watanabe K, Narimatsu S, Yamamoto I, Yoshimura H. Cross-tolerance development to the prolongation of pentobarbitone-induced sleep by delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-hydroxy-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol in mice. J Pharm Pharmacol 1987; 39:945-7. [PMID: 2892923 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1987.tb03136.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Repeated administration (5 mg kg-1 day-1 i.v.) of delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol and its active metabolite, 11-hydroxy-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol caused tolerance to develop to their prolonging effect on pentobarbitone-induced sleep in mice. Reciprocal cross-tolerance also developed after seven daily doses of these cannabinoids. The magnitude of the tolerance developed by the metabolite was greater than that by delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol. The results suggest that 11-hydroxy-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol plays an important role both in the sleep-prolonging effect of delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol and its tolerance development.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Watanabe
- School of Pharmacy, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, Japan
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Watanabe K, Narimatsu S, Yamamoto I, Yoshimura H. Difference in tolerance development of hypothermia and pentobarbital-induced sleep prolongating effect of 11-hydroxy-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-oxo-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 1982; 77:53-6. [PMID: 6277654 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(82)90535-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Daily administration (5 mg/kg i.v.) of 11-hydroxy-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol or 11-oxo-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol as well as delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol quickly induced tolerance to their hypothermic effects in mice. Tolerance also developed to their pentobarbital-induced sleep prolongating effects. However, the degrees of tolerance development differed from one another. The sleeping times after the 8th injection of these cannabinoids were still significantly longer than those of the controls when no hypothermia was induced.
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Clark WG, Clark YL. Changes in body temperature after administration of antipyretics, LSD, delta 9-THC, CNS depressants and stimulants, hormones, inorganic ions, gases, 2,4-DNP and miscellaneous agents. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1981; 5:1-136. [PMID: 6112723 DOI: 10.1016/0149-7634(81)90039-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
This survey concludes a series of complications of data from the literature, primarily published since 1965, on thermoregulatory effects of antipyretics in afebrile as well as in febrile subjects, LSD and other hallucinogens, cannabinoids, general CNS depressants, CNS stimulants including xanthines, hormones, inorganic ions, gases and fumes, 2,4-dinitrophenol and miscellaneous agents including capsaicin, cardiac glycosides, chemotherapeutic agents, cinchona alkaloids, cyclic nucleotides, cycloheximide, 2-deoxy-D-glucose, dimethylsulfoxide, insecticides, local anesthetics, poly I:poly C, spermidine and spermine, sugars, toxins and transport inhibitors. The information listed includes the species used, route of administration and dose of drug, the environmental temperature at which the experiments were performed, the number of tests, the direction and magnitude of body temperature change and remarks on the presence of special conditions such as age or lesions, or on the influence of other drugs, such as antagonists, on the response to the primary agents.
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Kettenes-van den Bosch JJ, Salemink CA, van Noordwijk J, Khan I. Biological activity of the tetrahydrocannabinols. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 1980; 2:197-231. [PMID: 6251315 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-8741(80)81002-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
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Drewnowski A, Grinker JA. Food and water intake, meal patterns and activity of obese and lean Zucker rats following chronic and acute treatment with delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1978; 9:619-30. [PMID: 733851 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(78)90213-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A series of experiments investigated the effects of delta9-THC on food and water intakes and wheel-running activity of Zucker rats. Following chronic drug treatment (15 days), food and water intakes of all rats were suppressed, but intakes and body weights of the obese rats recovered more slowly than those of lean rats. Acute effects of the drug (24 hr) were examined using techniques of meal pattern analysis and were discussed in relation to known patterns of anorectic drug action. The drug-induced anorexia was both delayed and of short duration, with no rebound eating observed for either solid or liquid diets. Both feeding rate and meal size were reduced, but meal frequency was transiently increased. The time of onset of the first meal remained unchanged. The time course of the suppression of feeding was paralleled by a suppression in running-wheel activity. These findings suggest that the drug-induced reduction in food and water intake may be the result of a decreased level of arousal.
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Drewnowski A, Grinker JA. Temporal effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on feeding patterns and activity of obese and lean Zucker rats. BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY 1978; 23:112-7. [PMID: 678254 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-6773(78)91260-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Abstract
The effects of hallucinogenic and nonhallucinogenic drugs were studied on two behavioral tests: (1) discriminated Sidman avoidance, using modified Bovet-Gatti profiles, which have been proposed as specific in detecting hallucinogenic activity and (2) a drug discrimination experiment. By the first method, the "hallucinogenic profile" was obtained with both hallucinogenic and nonhallucinogenic drugs and, at least as used here, was not a suitable screening method. In the drug discrimination experiment, data from the present study along with other available evidence suggest the potential value of this method for drug screening procedures.
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Hattendorf C, Hattendorf M, Coper H, Fernandes M. Interaction between delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol and d-amphetamine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1977; 54:177-82. [PMID: 412212 DOI: 10.1007/bf00426776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
d-Amphetamine increases the motor activity at a dose range of 0.5-4 mg/kg. delta(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) diminishes this effect dose-dependently. Also, the hyperthermia caused by 5 mg/kg d-amphetamine is antagonized by THC, whereas the d-amphetamine induced stereotype movements (above 4 mg/kg) are prolonged by the cannabinoid. THC and d-amphetamine both reduce the food and water intake and the normal development body weight of rats. In combination the two substances have an additive effect. Rats treated with 5 mg/kg d-amphetamine show a significant enhancement of the dopamine (DA) concentration (26%) in the brain stem 2 h p.i. Pretreatment with 10 mg/kg THC, which also causes an increase of DA by 15%, raises the DA content by 50%. Norepinephrine (NE) in the brain stem and hypothalamus is reduced by d-amphetamine but THC has no effect on the concentration of this monoamine. After subchronical treatment with THC tolerance is demonstrable to all THC effects tested. But there is no cross tolerance between delta(9)-THC and d-amphetamine since the pharmacological as well as the biochemical effects of d-amphetamine occur despite the subchronical treatment with THC.
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Pryor GT, Larsen FF, Carr JD, Braude MC. Interactions of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol with phenobarbital, ethanol and chlordiazepoxide. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1977; 7:331-45. [PMID: 928491 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(77)90229-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Abstract
1 Intraperitoneal and intragastric (i.g.) administration of prostaglandin precursors arachidonic (2 mg, 15 mg/kg, i.p; 30 mg/kg i.g.), linolenic (100 mg/kg i.p.; 200 mg/kg, i.g.) and linoleic (15, 100 mg/kg, i.p.; 100 mg/kg, i.g.) acids to 22 h food-deprived rats inhibits food intake. 2 This anorexia is similar to that induced by prostaglandin F2alpha (1 mg/kg, i.p.). 3 At anorectic doses these fatty acids do not cause pyrexia, in fact arachidonic acid causes hypothermia. 4 Prior treatment with indomethacin (15 mg/kg) and paracetamol (50 mg/kg) specifically reverses the anorexia and the behavioural satiety induced by the three fatty acids, while not affecting prostaglandin F2alpha-induced suppression of food intake. 5 Results of the present experiments suggest that both physiological and pharmacological modification of appetite could be brought about through an effect on prostaglandin generating systems.
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Rommelspacher H, Kauffmann H, Cohnitz CH, Coper H. Pharmacological properties of tetrahydronorharmane (tryptoline). NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 1977; 298:83-91. [PMID: 560635 DOI: 10.1007/bf00508615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Siemens AJ. Effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the disposition of d-amphetamine in the rat. Life Sci 1977; 20:1891-904. [PMID: 875626 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(77)90226-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Mitra G, Poddar MK, Ghosh JJ. In vivo and in vitro effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on rats liver microsomal drug-metabolizing enzymes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1976; 35:523-30. [PMID: 1265765 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(76)90075-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Rosendrantz H, Sprague RA, Fleischman RW, Braude C. Oral delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol toxicity in rats treated for periods up to six months. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1975; 32:399-417. [PMID: 1171539 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(75)90231-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Gluck JP, Ferraro DP. Effects of delta9-THC on food and water intake of deprivation experienced rats. BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY 1974; 11:395-401. [PMID: 4413126 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-6773(74)90684-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Coldwell BB, Bailey K, Paul CJ, Anderson G. Interaction of cannabinoids with pentobarbital in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1974; 29:59-69. [PMID: 4283681 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(74)90162-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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