Thin is "in" and stout is out" what animated cartoons tell viewers about body weight

Obesity Stigma: Causes, Consequences, and Potential Solutions

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review aims to examine (i) the aetiology of obesity; (ii) how and why a perception of personal responsibility for obesity so dominantly frames this condition and how this mindset leads to stigma; (iii) the consequences of obesity stigma for people living with obesity, and for the public support for interventions to prevent and manage this condition; and (iv) potential strategies to diminish our focus on personal responsibility for the development of obesity, to enable a reduction of obesity stigma, and to move towards effective interventions to prevent and manage obesity within the population.

RECENT FINDINGS

We summarise literature which shows that obesity stems from a complex interplay of genetic and environment factors most of which are outside an individual's control. Despite this, evidence of obesity stigmatisation remains abundant throughout areas of media, entertainment, social media and the internet, advertising, news outlets, and the political and public health landscape. This has damaging consequences including psychological, physical, and socioeconomic harm. Obesity stigma does not prevent obesity. A combined, concerted, and sustained effort from multiple stakeholders and key decision-makers within society is required to dispel myths around personal responsibility for body weight, and to foster more empathy for people living in larger bodies. This also sets the scene for more effective policies and interventions, targeting the social and environmental drivers of health, to ultimately improve population health.

Cartoon Characters in Children’s Series: Gender Disparities in Body Weight and Food Consumption

(1) Background: Media play a significant role in forming audience perceptions about physical external appearance and food consumption patterns. It has been reported that children’s cartoons project slimness, and concomitantly consumption of poor nutritional quality food. However, data on the role of gender in this respect are lacking; thus, this was the aim of the present study. (2) Methods: 100 episodes of the 10 most popular cartoon series were analyzed. Characters’ body weight status was classified into underweight, normal weight and overweight, and foods consumed as core (e.g., fruit, vegetables) and non-core (e.g., sweets, snacks). Messages about characters’ attractiveness were recorded and classified according to their body weight status and gender. (3) Results: Out of 37 protagonists, 12 were female figures (32%), while out of the 10 thin protagonists, 7 were females (70%) and only 3 males (30%). Thin heroines were the recipients of the majority of the messages connotative to physical attractiveness (36 out of 58 messages). However, consumption of core and non-core foods did not differ within genders (core: z = −1.526, p = 0.127, non-core: z = −0.417, p = 0.667). (4) Conclusions: Females seem to be underrepresented in cartoon series but receive the majority of the comments related to physical appearance, with most of them addressing the attractiveness of a thin figure.

Body Weight of Cartoon Characters in Children Series Is Associated to Food Consumption, Attractiveness, and Physical Activity Engagement

BACKGROUND

Research is lacking regarding the eating habits of cartoon characters in relation to their body weight. The present study explored the context of food consumption and the cartoon characters' traits, according to body weight. Studies show that slim cartoon characters are usually considered as attractive; however, little is known regarding the type of messages projected about their physical appearance.

METHOD

One hundred episodes of ten series with high TV audience rates were reviewed. Characters' body weight status was classified into underweight, normal weight, and overweight, and food consumed as processed and less processed. Characters' traits such as physical activity and attractiveness were classified as positive, negative, or neutral. Comments made by the characters themselves regarding their proper physical appearance or the appearance of partner characters were recorded and classified as positive or negative.

RESULTS

Results show that characters' body weight was related to both type and quantity of foods consumed, as 58% of the non-core and 48% of all foods were actually eaten by oversized characters. Positive characters' traits, as defined by attractiveness and physical activity engagement, referred consistently to slim characters, with nine out of ten shown as good-looking and physically active. In addition, the majority (51 out of 58) of the positive comments on physical appearance were recorded for slim and attractive characters, either expressed by fellow actors or the characters themselves.

CONCLUSION

Body weight of cartoon characters seems to follow stereotypic perceptions which value slimness and relate unhealthy food consumption with overweight.

Appearance-focused media use as a moderator of the relationship between fear of fat and weight bias: an exploratory study

PURPOSE

Previous research has found that fear of fat, or the fear of gaining weight, is fairly common within both normative and clinical populations. Similarly, weight bias, or biased attitudes directed at obese individuals, has been found across multiple segments of society. A common link shared between fear of fat and weight bias is the inherent emphasis on anti-fat feelings. Previous research has demonstrated an anti-fat bias within media content. Therefore, the purpose of the current research is to examine exposure to appearance-focused media as a moderator of the relationship between fear of fat and weight bias.

METHODS

One hundred and eighty-seven female participants (M_age = 21.05, M_BMI = 22.60) were administered a battery of assessments, including the Goldfarb Fear of Fat Scale and the Universal Measure of Bias of Fat Scale. Participants were also asked to report their frequency of exposure to appearance-focused media (TV and magazines).

RESULTS

Results of this study suggest that appearance-focused media partially moderated the relationship between fear of fat and weight bias.

CONCLUSIONS

This suggests the messages portrayed by the media may be strengthening the relationship between fear of gaining weight and discrimination directed at obese individuals. Understanding this relationship has important implications for reducing weight stigma.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

Is Weight Bias Evident in Peer Interactions Between Young and Older Children?

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate whether weight bias is apparent in young and older children's interactions during a paired reading activity.

METHODS

One hundred seventy-two children (57% girls) read a book in which the main character, "Alfie," was portrayed either as average weight or as having obesity. Younger children (mean = 6.1 years) were paired with a same-sex older child (mean = 9.5 years). Questions within and at the end of the story prompted discussion. Children's conversations were analyzed according to valence (emotional tone). Nonverbal behavior was noted via observation.

RESULTS

Pairs of children reading about the Alfie character with obesity made significantly more negative and fewer positive comments when offering story completions. Just one pair of boys spoke about him being "fat." There was no evidence that older children passed negative attitudes to younger children. Covertly expressed weight bias was more common. There was more frequent laughter while reading about the character with obesity, and two pairs made nonverbal reference to Alfie's appearance.

CONCLUSIONS

Covert weight bias was apparent in the interactions of some of these children, but overt weight bias was rare. There is a need to establish a better chronology of children's awareness of, and attitudes toward, obesity and how they are acquired.

Nothing alien about it: A comparison of weight bias in preschool-aged children's ratings of non-human cartoons and human figures

Media exposes children to weight biased messaging by presenting overweight characters negatively. Although bias against human figures and human characters has been examined, children's bias against non-human animated characters is unstudied. Children's (N=60; 4-6 years old) weight bias against human and non-human characters was measured. Children saw characters of different weights (thin, overweight), genders (girl, boy), and stimuli type (human-line drawing, human-photo, non-human cartoon), and rated them using positive and negative characteristics. ANOVAs and t-tests examined weight bias based on mean ratings of each character. Overweight figures were rated more negatively than non-overweight figures overall, regardless of gender or type of stimulus. Further, mean ratings of the non-human cartoon were significantly less positive than ratings of both the line drawings and photographs of human figures. However, there was no interaction of stimulus type and weight status, suggesting that bias is expressed equally against human and non-human overweight figures. Results indicated that children's negative weight bias extends to non-human cartoon figures. Implications for children's media are discussed.

Appearance-related themes in children's animated movies released between 2004 and 2016: A content analysis

Research suggests that children demonstrate an awareness of cultural messages regarding appearance; specifically, that thinness is desirable and fatness is objectionable. In 2004, Herbozo and colleagues published research examining the content of popular children's movies. This widely cited study has provided the foundation for various studies examining the impact of media on children. The purpose of the current study was to extend the findings of Herbozo et al.'s (2004) research to include more recent movies. Two independent coders viewed the 25 top-grossing U.S. animated feature films since 2004 and indicated the number of appearance-related themes present in each movie. Movies in the current study contained significantly more appearance-related themes focused on male muscularity and the role of personal control related to weight compared to earlier films. These findings are consistent with cultural trends and demonstrate the importance of continued examination of children's media influences.

Stigma Experienced by Children and Adolescents With Obesity

The stigmatization of people with obesity is widespread and causes harm. Weight stigma is often propagated and tolerated in society because of beliefs that stigma and shame will motivate people to lose weight. However, rather than motivating positive change, this stigma contributes to behaviors such as binge eating, social isolation, avoidance of health care services, decreased physical activity, and increased weight gain, which worsen obesity and create additional barriers to healthy behavior change. Furthermore, experiences of weight stigma also dramatically impair quality of life, especially for youth. Health care professionals continue to seek effective strategies and resources to address the obesity epidemic; however, they also frequently exhibit weight bias and stigmatizing behaviors. This policy statement seeks to raise awareness regarding the prevalence and negative effects of weight stigma on pediatric patients and their families and provides 6 clinical practice and 4 advocacy recommendations regarding the role of pediatricians in addressing weight stigma. In summary, these recommendations include improving the clinical setting by modeling best practices for nonbiased behaviors and language; using empathetic and empowering counseling techniques, such as motivational interviewing, and addressing weight stigma and bullying in the clinic visit; advocating for inclusion of training and education about weight stigma in medical schools, residency programs, and continuing medical education programs; and empowering families to be advocates to address weight stigma in the home environment and school setting.

Exposure to teasing on popular television shows and associations with adolescent body satisfaction

OBJECTIVE

This study uses a novel mixed methods design to examine the relationship between incidents of teasing in popular television shows and body satisfaction of adolescent viewers.

METHODS

Survey data were used to identify 25 favorite television shows in a large population-based sample of Minnesota adolescents (N=2793, age=14.4years). Data from content analysis of teasing incidents in popular shows were linked to adolescent survey data. Linear regression models examined associations between exposure to on-screen teasing in adolescents' own favorite shows and their body satisfaction. Effect modification by adolescent weight status was tested using interaction terms.

RESULTS

Teasing on TV was common, with 3.3 incidents per episode; over one-quarter of teasing was weight/shape-related. Exposure to weight/shape-related teasing (β=-0.43, p=0.008) and teasing with overweight targets (β=-0.03, p=0.02) was inversely associated with girls' body satisfaction; no associations were found for boys. Findings were similar regardless of the adolescent viewer's weight status.

CONCLUSIONS

Families, health care providers, media literacy programs and the entertainment industry are encouraged to consider the negative effects exposure to weight stigmatization can have on adolescent girls.

Should women be "All About That Bass?": Diverse body-ideal messages and women's body image

While most body image research emphasizes the thin ideal, a wider variety of body-ideal messages pervade U.S. popular culture today, including those promoting athleticism or curves. Two studies assessed women's reactions to messages conveying thin, athletic, and curvy ideals, compared to a control message that emphasized accepting all body types. Study 1 (N=192) surveyed women's responses to these messages and found they perceived body-acceptance and athletic messages most favorably, curvy messages more negatively, and thin messages most negatively. Further, greatest liking within each message category came from women who identified with that body type. Study 2 (N=189) experimentally manipulated exposure to these messages, then measured self-objectification and body satisfaction. Messages promoting a body-ideal caused more self-objectification than body-acceptance messages. Also, athletic messages caused more body dissatisfaction than thin messages. Together, these findings reveal the complexity of women's responses to diverse messages they receive about ideal bodies.

What Are We Drinking? Beverages Shown in Adolescents' Favorite Television Shows

BACKGROUND

Media use has been shown to contribute to poor dietary intake; however, little attention has been paid to programming content. The portrayal of health behaviors in television (TV) programming contributes to social norms among viewers, which have been shown to influence adolescent behavior.

OBJECTIVE

This study reports on a content analysis of beverages shown in a sample of TV shows popular with a large, diverse group of adolescents, with attention to the types of beverages and differences across shows and characters.

DESIGN

Favorite TV shows were assessed in an in-school survey in 2010. Three episodes of each of the top 25 shows were analyzed, using a detailed coding instrument.

KEY MEASURES

Beverage incidents (ie, beverage shown or described) were recorded. Beverage types included milk, sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), diet beverages, juice, water, alcoholic drinks, and coffee. Characters were coded with regard to gender, age group, race, and weight status. Shows were rated for a youth, general, or adult audience.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES

χ² tests were used to compare the prevalence of each type of beverage across show ratings (youth, general, adult), and to compare characteristics of those involved in each type of beverage incident.

RESULTS

Beverage incidents were common (mean=7.4 incidents/episode, range=0 to 25). Alcohol was the most commonly shown (38.8%); milk (5.8%) and juice (5.8%) were least common; 11.0% of incidents included SSBs. Significant differences in all types of beverage were found across characters' age groups. Almost half of young adults' (49.2%) or adults' (42.0%) beverage incidents included alcohol.

CONCLUSIONS

Beverages are often portrayed on TV shows viewed by adolescents, and common beverages (alcohol, SSBs) may have adverse consequences for health. The portrayal of these beverages likely contributes to social norms regarding their desirability; nutrition and health professionals should talk with youth about TV portrayals to prevent the adoption of unhealthy beverage behaviors.

Are all models susceptible to dysfunctional cognitions about eating and body image? The moderating role of personality styles

OBJECTIVE

We investigated dysfunctional cognitions about eating and body image in relation to personality styles in a group of professional models.

METHOD

Dysfunctional cognitions in professional models (n = 43) and a control group (n = 43) were assessed with the 'Eating Disorder Cognition Questionnaire' (EDCQ), eating attitudes with the 'Eating Attitudes Test' (EAT), and personality with the 'Personality Styles and Disorders Inventory' (PSDI-S).

RESULTS

Models had higher scores than controls on the EDCQ and EAT and on nine scales of the PSDI-S. Moderation analyses showed significant interactions between groups and personality styles in predicting EDCQ scales: The ambitious/narcissistic style was related to "negative body and self-esteem", the conscientious/compulsive style to "dietary restraint", and the spontaneous/borderline style to "loss of control in eating".

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that not all models are susceptible to dysfunctional cognitions about eating and body image. Models are at a higher risk of developing negative automatic thoughts and dysfunctional assumptions relating to body size, shape and weight, especially if they have high scores on the above personality styles.

A content analysis of weight stigmatization in popular television programming for adolescents

OBJECTIVE

This study provides updated information regarding the prevalence and characteristics of weight stigma in popular adolescent television programming, using a sample of favorite shows named by diverse adolescents.

METHOD

Participants in a large, population-based study of Minnesota adolescents (N = 2,793, mean age = 14.4) listed their top three favorite television shows. A coding instrument was developed to analyze randomly selected episodes from the most popular 10 programs. Weight-stigmatizing incidents were compared across television show characteristics and characters' gender and weight status.

RESULTS

Half (50%) of the 30 episodes analyzed contained at least one weight-stigmatizing incident. Both youth- and adult-targeted shows contained weight-stigmatizing comments, but the percent of these comments was much higher for youth-targeted (55.6%) than general audience-targeted shows (8.3%). Male characters were more likely than females to engage in (72.7% vs. 27.3%), and be the targets of, weight stigma (63.6% vs. 36.4%), and there was no difference in the amount of weight stigmatizing directed at average weight females compared to overweight females. Targets of these instances showed a negative response in only about one-third of cases, but audience laughter followed 40.9% of cases.

DISCUSSION

The portrayal of weight stigmatization on popular television shows-including targeting women of average weight-sends signals to adolescents about the wide acceptability of this behavior and the expected response, which may be harmful. Prevention of weight stigmatization should take a multi-faceted approach and include the media. Future research should explore the impact that weight-related stigma in television content has on viewers.

Parental support for policy actions to reduce weight stigma toward youth in schools and children's television programs: trends from 2011 to 2013

BACKGROUND

Despite the pervasiveness and negative physical and psychosocial implications of weight-based victimization (WBV) in youth, antibullying polices in schools rarely address this issue. Additionally, children's media perpetuates weight stigma, but regulation of stigmatizing media content is nonexistent.

METHODS

In 2011-2013, a diverse national sample of 2185 parents (n=716 in 2011, 755 in 2012, and 714 in 2013) was analyzed to evaluate parental support for four proposed policies across the 3 years. Actions addressed (1) strengthening policies to reduce weight stigma, (2) media portrayals of children with diverse body sizes, (3) media portrayals of such children engaged in healthy behaviors, and (4) antibullying policies in schools. Chi-square tests with Bonferroni's corrections and multiple logistic regression analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

Across time, support for policies to address weight stigma remained consistent or increased, primarily in 2012-2013. At least 86% of participants consistently favored implementing antibullying policies in schools. Parents became increasingly supportive of policies regulating television content to positively portray children of diverse body sizes and show such children engaged in health behaviors, as well as establishing weight-related antibullying policies. Specific predictors of support included gender, race, and political affiliation.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a consistent and high level of parental support for weight stigma-related policies, particularly for antibullying policies. Findings can inform development of policies to rectify health and social disparities faced by overweight and obese youth.

Obesity in social media: a mixed methods analysis

The escalating obesity rate in the USA has made obesity prevention a top public health priority. Recent interventions have tapped into the social media (SM) landscape. To leverage SM in obesity prevention, we must understand user-generated discourse surrounding the topic. This study was conducted to describe SM interactions about weight through a mixed methods analysis. Data were collected across 60 days through SM monitoring services, yielding 2.2 million posts. Data were cleaned and coded through Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques, yielding popular themes and the most retweeted content. Qualitative analyses of selected posts add insight into the nature of the public dialogue and motivations for participation. Twitter represented the most common channel. Twitter and Facebook were dominated by derogatory and misogynist sentiment, pointing to weight stigmatization, whereas blogs and forums contained more nuanced comments. Other themes included humor, education, and positive sentiment countering weight-based stereotypes. This study documented weight-related attitudes and perceptions. This knowledge will inform public health/obesity prevention practice.

Pass the popcorn: "obesogenic" behaviors and stigma in children's movies

OBJECTIVE

To determine the prevalence of obesity-related behaviors and attitudes in children's movies.

METHODS

A mixed-methods study of the top-grossing G- and PG-rated movies, 2006-2010 (4 per year) was performed. For each 10-min movie segment, the following were assessed: 1) prevalence of key nutrition and physical activity behaviors corresponding to the American Academy of Pediatrics obesity prevention recommendations for families; 2) prevalence of weight stigma; 3) assessment as healthy, unhealthy, or neutral; 3) free-text interpretations of stigma.

RESULTS

Agreement between coders was >85% (Cohen's kappa = 0.7), good for binary responses. Segments with food depicted: exaggerated portion size (26%); unhealthy snacks (51%); sugar-sweetened beverages (19%). Screen time was also prevalent (40% of movies showed television; 35% computer; 20% video games). Unhealthy segments outnumbered healthy segments 2:1. Most (70%) of the movies included weight-related stigmatizing content (e.g., "That fat butt! Flabby arms! And this ridiculous belly!").

CONCLUSIONS

These popular children's movies had significant "obesogenic" content, and most contained weight-based stigma. They present a mixed message to children, promoting unhealthy behaviors while stigmatizing the behaviors' possible effects. Further research is needed to determine the effects of such messages on children.

The stigmatizing effect of visual media portrayals of obese persons on public attitudes: does race or gender matter?

Overweight and obese persons are frequently stigmatized in news media. The present study is the first to systematically compare public reactions to positive and negative images of obese persons accompanying news reports on obesity (while manipulating gender and race of the target)and their effects on generalized attitudes and social distance toward obese persons. The authors conducted 3 randomized experimental studies using online surveys to assess public perceptions of positive versus stereotypical images of obese adults (who varied by gender and race) accompanying a neutral news report about obesity. The sample included 1,251 adults, who were recruited through a national survey panel during May of 2010. Participants who viewed negative, stereotypical images of obese targets increased social distance, antifat attitudes, and ratings of laziness and dislike toward obese persons, whereas positive, nonstereotypical images induced more positive attitudes. These findings remained consistent when accounting for sociodemographic variables. African American female obese targets portrayed in images evoked higher ratings of dislike and social distance compared with Caucasian targets, but ratings were similar for male and female targets. This study provides evidence that images of obese person accompanying written media influence public attitudes toward obese people, and may reinforce weight stigmatization if images contain stereotypical portrayals of obese persons. Implications for efforts to report about obesity in the news media are discussed.

Weight discrimination and bullying

Despite significant attention to the medical impacts of obesity, often ignored are the negative outcomes that obese children and adults experience as a result of stigma, bias, and discrimination. Obese individuals are frequently stigmatized because of their weight in many domains of daily life. Research spanning several decades has documented consistent weight bias and stigmatization in employment, health care, schools, the media, and interpersonal relationships. For overweight and obese youth, weight stigmatization translates into pervasive victimization, teasing, and bullying. Multiple adverse outcomes are associated with exposure to weight stigmatization, including depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, suicidal ideation, poor academic performance, lower physical activity, maladaptive eating behaviors, and avoidance of health care. This review summarizes the nature and extent of weight stigmatization against overweight and obese individuals, as well as the resulting consequences that these experiences create for social, psychological, and physical health for children and adults who are targeted.

Headless, hungry, and unhealthy: a video content analysis of obese persons portrayed in online news

The news media has substantial influence on public perceptions of social and health issues. This study conducted a video content analysis to examine portrayals of obese persons in online news reports about obesity. The authors downloaded online news videos about obesity (N = 371) from 5 major news websites and systematically coded visual portrayals of obese and nonobese adults and youth in these videos. The authors found that 65% of overweight/obese adults and 77% of overweight/obese youth were portrayed in a negative, stigmatizing manner across multiple obesity-related topics covered in online news videos. In particular, overweight/obese individuals were significantly more likely than were nonoverweight individuals to be portrayed as headless, with an unflattering emphasis on isolated body parts, from an unflattering rear view of their excess weight, eating unhealthy foods, engaging in sedentary behavior, and dressed in inappropriately fitting clothing. Nonoverweight individuals were significantly more likely to be portrayed positively. In conclusion, obese children and adults are frequently stigmatized in online news videos about obesity. These findings have important implications for public perceptions of obesity and obese persons and may reinforce negative societal weight bias.

ObesiTV: how television is influencing the obesity epidemic

Obesity is a major public health concern in the United States. Over the last several decades, the prevalence of obesity among both adults and children has grown at an alarming rate and is now reaching epidemic proportions. The increase in obesity has been associated with rises in a host of other chronic conditions including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and some cancers. While the causes of obesity are multifaceted, there is growing evidence that television viewing is a major contributor. Results of numerous studies indicate a direct association between time spent watching television and body weight. Possible explanations for this relationship include: 1) watching television acts as a sedentary replacement for physical activity; 2) food advertisements for nutrient-poor, high-calorie foods stimulate food intake; and 3) television viewing is associated with "mindless" eating. In addition to decreasing physical activity and increasing the consumption of highly palatable foods, television viewing can also promote weight gain in indirect ways, such as through the use of targeted product placements in television shows; by influencing social perceptions of body image; and airing programs that portray cooking, eating and losing weight as entertainment. This paper will provide an interdisciplinary review of the direct and indirect ways in which television influences the obesity epidemic, and conclude with ways in which the negative impact of television on obesity could be reduced.

Weight information labels on media models reduce body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls

PURPOSE

To examine how weight information labels on variously sized media models affect (pre)adolescent girls' body perceptions and how they compare themselves with media models.

METHODS

We used a three (body shape: extremely thin vs. thin vs. normal weight) × three (information label: 6-kg underweight vs. 3-kg underweight vs. normal weight) experimental design in three age-groups (9-10 years, 12-13 years, and 15-16 years; n = 184). The girls completed questionnaires after exposure to media models.

RESULTS

Weight information labels affected girls' body dissatisfaction, social comparison with media figures, and objectified body consciousness. Respondents exposed to an extremely thin body shape labeled to be of "normal weight" were most dissatisfied with their own bodies and showed highest levels of objectified body consciousness and comparison with media figures. An extremely thin body shape combined with a corresponding label (i.e., 6-kg underweight), however, induced less body dissatisfaction and less comparison with the media model. Age differences were also found to affect body perceptions: adolescent girls showed more negative body perceptions than preadolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

Weight information labels may counteract the generally media-induced thin-body ideal. That is, when the weight labels appropriately informed the respondents about the actual thinness of the media model's body shape, girls were less affected. Weight information labels also instigated a normalization effect when a "normal-weight" label was attached to underweight-sized media models. Presenting underweight as a normal body shape, clearly increased body dissatisfaction in girls. Results also suggest age between preadolescence and adolescence as a critical criterion in responding to media models' body shape.

Verbal Aggression in Animated Cartoons

Relying upon a content analysis of one specific type of medium to which young people are exposed beginning at an early age, on a regular basis, and for many years (i.e., animated cartoons), the present study examines what types of messages are provided about verbal aggression. This research examines the following issues: (1) How prevalent is verbal aggression in animated cartoons? (2) Has this prevalence changed over time? (3) What characteristics tend to be associated with being a perpetrator of verbal aggression? (4) What reasons are given for why cartoon characters engage in verbal aggression? (6) What "types" of characters are yelled at, threatened, insulted, and so forth? Results indicate that verbal aggression is fairly prevalent in cartoons (it is the second most common type of antisocial behavior shown, ranking second only to violence) and that this prevalence has increased greatly over time. Cartoons tend to normalize verbal aggression, both by virtue of its frequency of occurrence and by the lack of patterning of characteristics associated with perpetrating this behavior. Although many (nearly half) of the reasons implied for being verbally aggressive are negative in nature, a substantial proportion of the time, this behavior is undertaken for positive reasons or for no reason at all. Characters of all types are equally likely to be verbally aggressive for negative reasons, although only certain types of characters (e.g., female, intelligent, "good guys," physically attractive) are shown to engage in this behavior for positive reasons.

Obesity stigma in online news: a visual content analysis

This study conducted a content analysis to examine the types of images that accompany online news stories about obesity and to determine how obese people are portrayed in news photographs. Images were selected from news articles about obesity obtained from 5 major news Web sites, during a 2-week period in September of 2009. Images accompanying news stories about obesity (N = 549) were systematically coded. Of 441 individuals identified in news photographs, 65% were overweight/obese and 27% were nonoverweight. Overall, 72% of images that depicted an overweight or obese person were portrayed in a negative, stigmatizing manner. Overweight/obese individuals were significantly more likely to have their heads cut out of the photos, to be portrayed showing only their abdomens or lower bodies, and to be shown eating or drinking than were nonoverweight individuals. Overweight/obese individuals were significantly less likely to be shown fully clothed, wearing professional clothing, or exercising than were nonoverweight individuals. Obese individuals are frequently stigmatized in online news photographs; this phenomenon has important implications for public perceptions of obese persons and may reinforce pervasive prejudice and discrimination.

Obesity in the news: do photographic images of obese persons influence antifat attitudes?

News coverage of obesity has increased dramatically in recent years, and research shows that media content may contribute to negative public attitudes toward obese people. However, no work has assessed whether photographic portrayals of obese people that accompany news stories affect attitudes. In the present study, the authors used a randomized experimental design to test whether viewing photographic portrayals of an obese person in a stereotypical or unflattering way (versus a nonstereotypical or flattering portrayal) could increase negative attitudes about obesity, even when the content of an accompanying news story is neutral. The authors randomly assigned 188 adult participants to read a neutral news story about the prevalence of obesity that was paired with 1 of 4 photographic portrayals of an obese adult (or no photograph). The authors subsequently assessed attitudes toward obese people using the Fat Phobia Scale. Participants in all conditions expressed a moderate level of fat phobia (M = 3.83, SD = 0.58). Results indicated that participants who viewed the negative photographs expressed more negative attitudes toward obese people than did those who viewed the positive photographs. Implications of these findings for the media are discussed, with emphasis on increasing awareness of weight bias in health communication and journalistic news reporting.

The direct effect of thin ideal focused adult television on young girls' ideal body figure

The present study tested the direct effect of watching thin-ideal focused television aimed at (young) adults on body dissatisfaction in preadolescent girls (9-12 years old). A within-subject design was used in which the girls (N=60) were tested three times. They watched three movie clips in random order that were either focused explicitly (thin-ideal program) or indirectly (soap opera) on the thin ideal or were neutral in content. Afterwards, they filled out questionnaires concerning their body dissatisfaction. Only older preadolescent girls (11-12 years old) showed greater body dissatisfaction after watching the thin-ideal focused television clip than after watching the neutral television clip. After watching thin-ideal focused television, they desired a thinner body figure than after watching neutral television. The findings imply that watching (adult) thin-ideal television directly affects the ideal body figure in older preadolescent girls.

Weight bias in the media: a review of recent research

BACKGROUND

There is ample evidence that overweight and obese individuals are stigmatized in various forms of media. This weight bias is particularly disconcerting when it targets children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE

The current review surveys the most recent 15 years of research on weight bias and stigmatization in the media and discusses some theoretical models that might help explain the negative effects of such material.

METHOD

PsycINFO searches were conducted using weight bias- and stigmatization-related terms and phrases. Results were limited to journal articles published in English between 1994 and 2009.

RESULTS

Overall, the data indicate that a wide range of media - from television shows to books, newspapers, and the internet - portray overweight and obese individuals in a stigmatizing manner.

CONCLUSION

More research on this topic is needed to discern a direct connection between exposure to such material and psychological or physical harm to the viewer. Additionally, virtually all of the research has been conducted in the USA; research in other countries should be a top priority. Efforts to try to educate the media to the deleterious effects of media presentations of weight bias are indicated.

The need for bold action to prevent adolescent obesity

Record levels of obesity in children and adolescents are predictable in light of powerful conditions that promote high consumption of calorie-dense, nutrient-poor foods and discourage physical activity. Default conditions for youth are dangerous, and include multiple and relentless forms of marketing, poor foods promoted in schools, and a variety of other conditions that undermine personal resources, individual responsibility, and parental authority. This article discusses how optimal defaults can be created using five issues as examples: framing of the obesity issue, treating versus preventing obesity, nutrition in schools, marketing, and addressing weight bias and discrimination. By adopting a public health approach that addresses the conditions causing obesity, there is hope of reversing troubling trends in prevalence.

Underrepresentation and Symbolic Annihilation of Socially Disenfranchised Groups ("Out Groups") in Animated Cartoons

For many years, the mass media have been accused of providing negative and potentially-damaging messages to viewers. Some have complained that the media are replete with too much violence while others have lamented on media stereotyping of various groups. In this article, the authors examine the issues of underrepresentation and symbolic annihilation as they apply to one particular medium-namely, animated cartoons-to which people are exposed early in life, typically on a regular basis for many years. Our principal research questions are (a) To what extent do cartoons underrepresent and/or symbolically annihilate social groups that are not considered desirable in society-at-large? (b) Has underrepresentation and/or symbolic annihilation changed over time? and (c) When social "out groups" are shown, how are they depicted vis-a-vis "in groups"? To examine these questions, the authors examine portrayals based on gender, age, race, and sexual orientation. The data revealed that animated cartoons have a long history of underrepresenting and symbolically annihilating socially devalued "out groups" and that little has changed over the course of the past 65+ years. When "out group" members are included in cartoons, however, their portrayals tend not to be dramatically different-not better and not much worse-than those typical of their "in group" counterparts.

Body Dissatisfaction Measured with a Figure Preference Task and Self-Esteem in 8 Year Old Children—a Study within the ABIS-Project

Body dissatisfaction has been related to low self-esteem and depression in adolescents. With regard to the current world wide rise in childhood obesity and common stigmatization of adults and children with obesity, easy to use and cost effective measurements of body dissatisfaction would be helpful in epidemiological research. In the current study, detailed data on body measurements with regard to perceived and ideal body size and body dissatisfaction, as measured with the figure preference task, are presented for a population based sample of 3837 children. Perceived body size correlations to weight, body mass index [BMI], and waist circumference were between 0.41 and 0.54; and to height between 0.12 and 0.21. Odds ratios for lower self-esteem increased with increase in body dissatisfaction. Gender differences in body dissatisfaction were present but not found in relation to self-esteem. It is concluded that the figure preference task yields valuable information in epidemiological studies of children as young as 7.5 years of age. It is argued, that the figure preference task is an additional measurement which theoretically relates to psychological stress in childhood.

Portrayal of body weight on children's television sitcoms: a content analysis

Television programs portray characters with idealized body types that for most viewers are unattainable. These body types have become a common source of comparison for many young viewers who evaluate their own self-worth and bodies based on the models they see on television. This study examines body weight, both in terms of frequency and portrayals, focusing on how preadolescent and adolescent characters' bodies are presented on the sitcoms from three children's television networks. The results indicate that while children's situation comedies have relatively few overweight characters, this small percentage closely parallels national figures. Male and female characters do not differ in their distribution across weight categories. However, when character ethnicity is factored, significant shifts occur. Surprisingly, no differences were observed in the portrayal of physical and mental attributes among weight categories except in social popularity where overweight characters were not as embedded in social networks. Compared to other relevant studies, this research provides some evidence that the treatment and portrayal of overweight characters in children-targeted sitcoms is more positive, equitable, and less stereotypical than in other programming venues and that children are experiencing body type diversity in these fictional portrayals. Nonetheless, above average weight characters still suffer some social marginality and ethnic misrepresentation.

Childhood obesity stigma: association with television, videogame, and magazine exposure

Although the stigmatization of obesity among children is highly prevalent, its origins and relationship to mass media exposure are largely unknown. Ninety boys and 171 girls aged 10-13 years (mean BMI=19.84) were asked to rank, in order of liking, 12 figures of peers depicted both with and without various disabilities or obesity, and to rate their attitudes towards the obese child on visual analogue scales. Weekly time spent watching television, watching videogames, and reading magazines on weekdays and weekends was assessed. Total media use, magazine use, and videogame use were significantly correlated with more negative reactions to obese girls and boys. Regression analyses revealed that greater dislike of obese children relative to their non-overweight peers was uniquely predicted by magazine reading time. Thus, media exposure was associated with stigmatizing attitudes towards obese children. Mass media sources may lead children to devalue and stigmatize peers with above-average body weights.

Messages about physical attractiveness in animated cartoons

Relying upon a content analysis of one specific type of medium to which young people are exposed beginning at an early age, on a regular basis, and for many years (i.e., animated cartoons), the present study examines what types of messages are provided about being physically unattractive, physically attractive, and ordinary-looking. This research concerns itself with identifying the characteristics that tend to be associated with being good-looking or unattractive, and then discussing the implications of the findings. Results indicate that many variables were found to differ based on cartoon characters' physical attractiveness, including gender, age, intelligence, body weight, emotional states experienced, prosocial behaviors, antisocial behaviors, and overall goodness/badness. Whenever differences were found, the overriding tendency was for cartoons to provide positive messages about being attractive and negative messages about being unattractive.