Effects of insulin and exercise training on FGF21, its receptors and target genes in obesity and type 2 diabetes

Effects of swimming in cold water on lipolysis indicators via fibroblast growth factor-21 in male Wistar rats

This study aimed to investigate the effects of swimming in cold water on the release of FGF21 from various tissues and its impact on fat metabolism. Twenty Wistar rats were randomly divided into three groups: untrained (C), trained in thermo-neutral water (TN, 30 °C) and trained in cold water (TC, 15 °C). The training groups swam intervals (2-3 min) until exhaustion, 1 min rest, three days a week for six weeks, with 3-6% bodyweight load. The mRNA expression of variables was determined in white fat tissue (WAT), and FGF21 protein was also measured in the liver, brown fat tissue (BAT), serum, and muscle. The experimental protocols resulted in lower body weight gain, associated with reduced WAT volume; the most remarkable improvement was observed in the TC group. Swimming significantly increased FGF21 protein levels in WAT, BAT, and muscle tissues compared to the C group; substantial increases were in the TC group. Changes in FGF21 were highly correlated with the activation of genes involved in fat metabolisms, such as CPT1, CD36, and HSL, and with glycerol in WAT. The findings indicate a positive correlation between swimming in cold water and the activation of genes involved in fat metabolism, possibly through FGF21 production, which was highly correlated with fat-burning genes.

Glucagon augments the secretion of FGF21 and GDF15 in MASLD by indirect mechanisms

INTRODUCTION

Glucagon receptor agonism is currently explored for the treatment of obesity and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). The metabolic effects of glucagon receptor agonism may in part be mediated by increases in circulating levels of Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 (FGF21) and Growth Differentiation Factor 15 (GDF15). The effect of glucagon agonism on FGF21 and GDF15 levels remains uncertain, especially in the context of elevated insulin levels commonly observed in metabolic diseases.

METHODS

We investigated the effect of a single bolus of glucagon and a continuous infusion of glucagon on plasma concentrations of FGF21 and GDF15 in conditions of endogenous low or high insulin levels. The studies included individuals with overweight with and without MASLD, healthy controls (CON) and individuals with type 1 diabetes (T1D). The direct effect of glucagon on FGF21 and GDF15 was evaluated using our in-house developed isolated perfused mouse liver model.

RESULTS

FGF21 and GDF15 correlated with plasma levels of insulin, but not glucagon, and their secretion was highly increased in MASLD compared with CON and T1D. Furthermore, FGF21 levels in individuals with overweight with or without MASLD did not increase after glucagon stimulation when insulin levels were kept constant. FGF21 and GDF15 levels were unaffected by direct stimulation with glucagon in the isolated perfused mouse liver.

CONCLUSION

The glucagon-induced secretion of FGF21 and GDF15 is augmented in MASLD and may depend on insulin. Thus, glucagon receptor agonism may augment its metabolic benefits in patients with MASLD through enhanced secretion of FGF21 and GDF15.

Critical role of FGF21 in diabetic kidney disease: from energy metabolism to innate immunity

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) stands as the predominant cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD) on a global scale, with its incidence witnessing a consistent annual rise, thereby imposing a substantial burden on public health. The pathogenesis of DKD is primarily rooted in metabolic disorders and inflammation. Recent years have seen a surge in studies highlighting the regulatory impact of energy metabolism on innate immunity, forging a significant area of research interest. Within this context, fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), recognized as an energy metabolism regulator, assumes a pivotal role. Beyond its role in maintaining glucose and lipid metabolism homeostasis, FGF21 exerts regulatory influence on innate immunity, concurrently inhibiting inflammation and fibrosis. Serving as a nexus between energy metabolism and innate immunity, FGF21 has evolved into a therapeutic target for diabetes, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, and cardiovascular diseases. While the relationship between FGF21 and DKD has garnered increased attention in recent studies, a comprehensive exploration of this association has yet to be systematically addressed. This paper seeks to fill this gap by summarizing the mechanisms through which FGF21 operates in DKD, encompassing facets of energy metabolism and innate immunity. Additionally, we aim to assess the diagnostic and prognostic value of FGF21 in DKD and explore its potential role as a treatment modality for the condition.

The Next Generation Fecal Microbiota Transplantation: To Transplant Bacteria or Virome

Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has emerged as a promising therapeutic approach for dysbiosis-related diseases. However, the clinical practice of crude fecal transplants presents limitations in terms of acceptability and reproductivity. Consequently, two alternative solutions to FMT are developed: transplanting bacteria communities or virome. Advanced methods for transplanting bacteria mainly include washed microbiota transplantation and bacteria spores treatment. Transplanting the virome is also explored, with the development of fecal virome transplantation, which involves filtering the virome from feces. These approaches provide more palatable options for patients and healthcare providers while minimizing research heterogeneity. In general, the evolution of the next generation of FMT in global trends is fecal microbiota components transplantation which mainly focuses on transplanting bacteria or virome.

The Role of Organokines in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes and Their Functions as Molecular Transducers of Nutrition and Exercise

Maintaining systemic homeostasis requires the coordination of different organs and tissues in the body. Our bodies rely on complex inter-organ communications to adapt to perturbations or changes in metabolic homeostasis. Consequently, the liver, muscle, and adipose tissues produce and secrete specific organokines such as hepatokines, myokines, and adipokines in response to nutritional and environmental stimuli. Emerging evidence suggests that dysregulation of the interplay of organokines between organs is associated with the pathophysiology of obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Strategies aimed at remodeling organokines may be effective therapeutic interventions. Diet modification and exercise have been established as the first-line therapeutic intervention to prevent or treat metabolic diseases. This review summarizes the current knowledge on organokines secreted by the liver, muscle, and adipose tissues in obesity and T2D. Additionally, we highlighted the effects of diet/nutrition and exercise on the remodeling of organokines in obesity and T2D. Specifically, we investigated the ameliorative effects of caloric restriction, selective nutrients including ω3 PUFAs, selenium, vitamins, and metabolites of vitamins, and acute/chronic exercise on the dysregulation of organokines in obesity and T2D. Finally, this study dissected the underlying molecular mechanisms by which nutrition and exercise regulate the expression and secretion of organokines in specific tissues.

Anthropometric, muscle and serum myokine levels effects of physical exercise with an online platform in female patients with obesity

INTRODUCTION

Under physical exercise conditions, muscles can synthetise and release myokines and these molecules can exert paracrine and endocrine actions. Females with obesity have a sedentary lifestyle with alterations in myokine levels.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of our study was to evaluate the effect of physical exercise on myokine levels, anthropometric parameters, clinical data, impedance parameters, and muscle ultrasound data in sedentary females with obesity.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Anthropometric data, muscle mass by ultrasound at the quadriceps level, myokine determination, and blood pressure were collected at baseline and after 12 weeks in 25 females with obesity. For 12 weeks, the physical exercise programme was prescribed through an online platform.

RESULTS

After the physical exercise programme, there was a significant improvement in body mass index (-1.49±0.1kg/m2; p=0.02), weight (-3.9±0.7kg; p=0.01), waist circumference (-7.2±0.2cm; p=0.01), skeletal muscle mass (5.4±1.2kg; p=0.01), appendicular skeletal muscle mass index (0.5±0.1kg; p=0.02) and appendicular skeletal muscle mass (1.4±0.1kg; p=0.03), and a decrease in fat mass (-4.1±0.2kg; p=0.01) and blood pressure. The ultrasound parameters of the anterior rectus quadriceps muscle improved significantly. The following biochemical parameters decreased; insulin levels (-66.3±10.2pg/ml; p=0.04), HOMA-IR (-0.4±0.1 units; p=0.03), apelin (-3.5±0.2IU/l; p=0.04), FABP3 (-143.6±38.1pg/ml; p=0.03), IL6 (-4.1±0.02pg/ml; p=0.02), myostatin (-81.6±18.1pg/ml; p=0.04), and FGF21 (-9.5±1.1pg/ml; p=0.03).

CONCLUSION

The prescription of physical exercise with an online platform for females with obesity decreases weight, body fat mass and increases muscle mass, producing a decrease in insulin resistance and some myokine levels.

Swimming in cold water upregulates genes involved in thermogenesis and the browning of white adipose tissues

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there is an interacting effect of six weeks of swimming in cold water on the gene expression of browning markers in adipose tissue in rodents. Twenty male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups: Control (C, 25 °C), Cold Exposure (CE, 4 °C), Swimming in tepid Water (STW, 30 °C), and Swimming in Cold Water (SCW, 15 °C). The swimming included 2-3 min intervals, 1 min rest, until exhaustion, three days a week for six weeks, with 3 to 6% of bodyweight overload. Rats from CE were exposed to cold for 2 h per day, five days per week. After the experimental protocol, interscapular brown (BAT) and inguinal subcutaneous white (WAT) fat tissues were excised, weighed, and processed for beiging and mitochondrial biogenesis markers gene expression. The experimental protocols resulted in an apparent increase in the number of brown adipocytes (per mm²) in the adipose deposits compared to the C group; substantial changes were observed in the SCW group. Compared to other groups, cold exposure alone increased significantly serum norepinephrine, and also β₂-adrenergic receptor expression was upregulated in the adipocytes compared to the C group. The STW group increased the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1α), β₂-adrenergic receptor, and CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins-α(c/EBP-α) in WAT in comparison with the C group(p < 0.05). In both adipocytes, the SCW intervention significantly upregulated the expression of PGC-1α, PPAR-γ, and c/EBP-α genes in comparison with the C and CE groups. In addition, the expression of TFAM and UCP1 was upregulated substantially in the SCW group compared to other groups. Our data demonstrate that swim training and cold exposure present additive effects in the expression of genes involved in the beiging process and mitochondrial biogenesis markers in BAT and WAT. In addition, it seems that the upregulation of these genes is related to the activation of β₂-adrenergic receptors.

Pancreatic alpha cell glucagon-liver FGF21 axis regulates beta cell regeneration in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Glucagon receptor (GCGR) antagonism ameliorates hyperglycaemia and promotes beta cell regeneration in mouse models of type 2 diabetes. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the mechanism of beta cell regeneration induced by GCGR antagonism in mice.

METHODS

The db/db mice and high-fat diet (HFD)+streptozotocin (STZ)-induced mice with type 2 diabetes were treated with antagonistic GCGR monoclonal antibody (mAb), and the metabolic variables and islet cell quantification were evaluated. Plasma cytokine array and liver RNA sequencing data were used to screen possible mediators, including fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21). ELISA, quantitative RT-PCR and western blot were applied to verify FGF21 change. Blockage of FGF21 signalling by FGF21-neutralising antibody (nAb) was used to clarify whether FGF21 was involved in the effects of GCGR mAb on the expression of beta cell identity-related genes under plasma-conditional culture and hepatocyte co-culture conditions. FGF21 nAb-treated db/db mice, systemic Fgf21-knockout (Fgf21^-/-) diabetic mice and hepatocyte-specific Fgf21-knockout (Fgf21^Hep-/-) diabetic mice were used to reveal the involvement of FGF21 in beta cell regeneration. A BrdU tracing study was used to analyse beta cell proliferation in diabetic mice treated with GCGR mAb.

RESULTS

GCGR mAb treatment improved blood glucose control, and increased islet number (db/db 1.6±0.1 vs 0.8±0.1 per mm², p<0.001; HFD+STZ 1.2±0.1 vs 0.5±0.1 per mm², p<0.01) and area (db/db 2.5±0.2 vs 1.2±0.2%, p<0.001; HFD+STZ 1.0±0.1 vs 0.3±0.1%, p<0.01) in diabetic mice. The plasma cytokine array and liver RNA sequencing data showed that FGF21 levels in plasma and liver were upregulated by GCGR antagonism. The GCGR mAb induced upregulation of plasma FGF21 levels (db/db 661.5±40.0 vs 466.2±55.7 pg/ml, p<0.05; HFD+STZ 877.0±106.8 vs 445.5±54.0 pg/ml, p<0.05) and the liver levels of Fgf21 mRNA (db/db 3.2±0.5 vs 1.8±0.1, p<0.05; HFD+STZ 2.0±0.3 vs 1.0±0.2, p<0.05) and protein (db/db 2.0±0.2 vs 1.4±0.1, p<0.05; HFD+STZ 1.6±0.1 vs 1.0±0.1, p<0.01). Exposure to plasma or hepatocytes from the GCGR mAb-treated mice upregulated the mRNA levels of characteristic genes associated with beta cell identity in cultured mouse islets and a beta cell line, and blockage of FGF21 activity by an FGF21 nAb diminished this upregulation. Notably, the effects of increased beta cell number induced by GCGR mAb were attenuated in FGF21 nAb-treated db/db mice, Fgf21^-/- diabetic mice and Fgf21^Hep-/- diabetic mice. Moreover, GCGR mAb treatment enhanced beta cell proliferation in the two groups of diabetic mice, and this effect was weakened in Fgf21^-/- and Fgf21^Hep-/- mice.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Our findings demonstrate that liver-derived FGF21 is involved in the GCGR antagonism-induced beta cell regeneration in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes.

Exercise training reduces circulating cytokines in male patients with coronary artery disease and type 2 diabetes: A pilot study

Low-grade inflammation is central to coronary artery disease (CAD) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) and is reduced by exercise training. The objective of this study was to compare the anti-inflammatory potential of moderate-to-vigorous intensity continuous training (MICT) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in patients with CAD with or without T2D. The design and setting of this study is based on a secondary analysis of registered randomized clinical trial NCT02765568. Male patients with CAD were randomly assigned to either MICT or HIIT, with subgroups divided according to T2D status (non-T2D-HIIT n = 14 and non-T2D-MICT n = 13; T2D-HIIT n = 6 and T2D-MICT n = 5). The intervention was a 12-week cardiovascular rehabilitation program consisting of either MICT or HIIT (twice weekly sessions) and circulating cytokines measured pre- and post-training as inflammatory markers. The co-occurrence of CAD and T2D was associated with increased plasma IL-8 (p = 0.0331). There was an interaction between T2D and the effect of the training interventions on plasma FGF21 (p = 0.0368) and IL-6 (p = 0.0385), which were further reduced in the T2D groups. An interaction between T2D, training modalities, and the effect of time (p = 0.0415) was detected for SPARC, with HIIT increasing circulating concentrations in the control group, while lowering them in the T2D group, and the inverse occurring with MICT. The interventions also reduced plasma FGF21 (p = 0.0030), IL-6 (p = 0.0101), IL-8 (p = 0.0087), IL-10 (p < 0.0001), and IL-18 (p = 0.0009) irrespective of training modality or T2D status. HIIT and MICT resulted in similar reductions in circulating cytokines known to be increased in the context of low-grade inflammation in CAD patients, an effect more pronounced in patients with T2D for FGF21 and IL-6.

The effect of different weight loss strategies to treat non-alcoholic fatty liver disease focusing on fibroblast growth factor 21

Objective

Obesity, often associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), is characterized by an imbalance between energy expenditure and food intake, which is also reflected by desensitization of fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21). FGF21 is strongly influenced, among others, by TNFα, which is known to be upregulated in obesity-induced inflammation. Successful long-term treatments of NAFLD might be dietary modification, exercise, or fasting.

Materials and methods

Whether succeeded NAFLD recovery is linked with improved FGF21 sensitivity and finally reverted FGF21 resistance was the focus of the present study. For this purpose, mice received a high-fat diet (HFD) for 6 months to establish obesity. Afterward, the mice were subjected to three different weight loss interventions, namely, dietary change to low-fat diet (LFD), treadmill training, and/or time-restricted feeding for additional 6 months, whereas one group remained on HFD.

Results

In addition to the expected decrease in NAFLD activity with dietary change, this was also observed in the HFD group with additional time-restricted feeding. There was also an associated decrease in hepatic TNFα and FGF21 expression and an increase in ß-klotho expression, demonstrated mainly by using principal component analysis. Pearson correlation analysis shows that independent of any intervention, TNFα expression decreased with improved NAFLD recovery. This was accompanied with higher FGF21 sensitivity, as expressed by an increase in β-klotho and FGFR1c expression and concomitantly decreased FGF21 levels.

Conclusion

In summary, we conclude that successful NAFLD therapy is associated with a reversion of the TNFα-triggered FGF21-resistant state or desensitization.

Influence of Nutritional Status and Physical Exercise on Immune Response in Metabolic Syndrome

Metabolic Syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of metabolic alterations mostly related to visceral adiposity, which in turn promotes glucose intolerance and a chronic systemic inflammatory state, characterized by immune cell infiltration. Such immune system activation increases the risk of severe disease subsequent to viral infections. Strong correlations between elevated body mass index (BMI), type-2-diabetes and increased risk of hospitalization after pandemic influenza H1N1 infection have been described. Similarly, a correlation between elevated blood glucose level and SARS-CoV-2 infection severity and mortality has been described, indicating MetS as an important predictor of clinical outcomes in patients with COVID-19. Adipose secretome, including two of the most abundant and well-studied adipokines, leptin and interleukin-6, is involved in the regulation of energy metabolism and obesity-related low-grade inflammation. Similarly, skeletal muscle hormones—called myokines—released in response to physical exercise affect both metabolic homeostasis and immune system function. Of note, several circulating hormones originate from both adipose tissue and skeletal muscle and display different functions, depending on the metabolic context. This review aims to summarize recent data in the field of exercise immunology, investigating the acute and chronic effects of exercise on myokines release and immune system function.

Physiological and pathophysiological role of endocrine fibroblast growth factors

The endocrine subfamily of fibroblast growth factors (FGF) includes three factors: FGF19, FGF21, FGF23. They act on distal tissues through FGF receptors (FGFRs). The FGFR activation requires two cofactors: α- and β-Klotho, which are structurally related single-pass transmembrane proteins. The endocrine FGFs regulate various metabolic processes involved in the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism as well as bile acid circulation, vitamin D modulation, and phosphate homeostasis. The FGF-FGFR dysregulation is widely implicated in the pathogenesis of various disorders. Significant alterations in plasma FGF concentration are associated with the most prevalent chronic diseases, including dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, diseases of the biliary tract, chronic kidney disease, inflammatory bowel disease, osteomalacia, various malignancies, and depression. Therefore, the endocrine FGFs may serve as disease predictors or biomarkers, as well as potential therapeutic targets. Currently, numerous analogues and inhibitors of endocrine FGFs are under development for treatment of various disorders, and recently, a human monoclonal antibody against FGF23 has been approved for treatment of X-linked hypophosphatemia. The aim of this review is to summarize the current data on physiological and pathophysiological actions of the endocrine FGF subfamily and recent research concerning the therapeutic potential of the endocrine FGF pathways.

Molecular Mechanisms of Exercise and Healthspan

Healthspan is the period of our life without major debilitating diseases. In the modern world where unhealthy lifestyle choices and chronic diseases taper the healthspan, which lead to an enormous economic burden, finding ways to promote healthspan becomes a pressing goal of the scientific community. Exercise, one of humanity's most ancient and effective lifestyle interventions, appears to be at the center of the solution since it can both treat and prevent the occurrence of many chronic diseases. Here, we will review the current evidence and opinions about regular exercise promoting healthspan through enhancing the functionality of our organ systems and preventing diseases.

FGF21 (Fibroblast Growth Factor 21) Defines a Potential Cardiohepatic Signaling Circuit in End-Stage Heart Failure

BACKGROUND

Extrinsic control of cardiomyocyte metabolism is poorly understood in heart failure (HF). FGF21 (Fibroblast growth factor 21), a hormonal regulator of metabolism produced mainly in the liver and adipose tissue, is a prime candidate for such signaling.

METHODS

To investigate this further, we examined blood and tissue obtained from human subjects with end-stage HF with reduced ejection fraction at the time of left ventricular assist device implantation and correlated serum FGF21 levels with cardiac gene expression, immunohistochemistry, and clinical parameters.

RESULTS

Circulating FGF21 levels were substantially elevated in HF with reduced ejection fraction, compared with healthy subjects (HF with reduced ejection fraction: 834.4 [95% CI, 628.4-1040.3] pg/mL, n=40; controls: 146.0 [86.3-205.7] pg/mL, n=20, P=1.9×10-5). There was clear FGF21 staining in diseased cardiomyocytes, and circulating FGF21 levels negatively correlated with the expression of cardiac genes involved in ketone metabolism, consistent with cardiac FGF21 signaling. FGF21 gene expression was very low in failing and nonfailing hearts, suggesting extracardiac production of the circulating hormone. Circulating FGF21 levels were correlated with BNP (B-type natriuretic peptide) and total bilirubin, markers of chronic cardiac and hepatic congestion.

CONCLUSIONS

Circulating FGF21 levels are elevated in HF with reduced ejection fraction and appear to bind to the heart. The liver is likely the main extracardiac source. This supports a model of hepatic FGF21 communication to diseased cardiomyocytes, defining a potential cardiohepatic signaling circuit in human HF.

Factors mediating exercise-induced organ crosstalk

Exercise activates a plethora of metabolic and signalling pathways in skeletal muscle and other organs causing numerous systemic beneficial metabolic effects. Thus, regular exercise may ameliorate and prevent the development of several chronic metabolic diseases. Skeletal muscle is recognized as an important endocrine organ regulating systemic adaptations to exercise. Skeletal muscle may mediate crosstalk with other organs through the release of exercise-induced cytokines, peptides and proteins, termed myokines, into the circulation. Importantly, other tissues such as the liver and adipose tissue may also release cytokines and peptides in response to exercise. Hence, exercise-released molecules are collectively called exerkines. Moreover, extracellular vesicles (EVs), in the form of exosomes or microvesicles, may carry some of the signals involved in tissue crosstalk. This review focuses on the role of factors potentially mediating crosstalk between muscle and other tissues in response to exercise.

Hepatokines and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Linking Liver Pathophysiology to Metabolism

The liver plays a key role in maintaining energy homeostasis by sensing and responding to changes in nutrient status under various metabolic conditions. Recently highlighted as a major endocrine organ, the contribution of the liver to systemic glucose and lipid metabolism is primarily attributed to signaling crosstalk between multiple organs via hepatic hormones, cytokines, and hepatokines. Hepatokines are hormone-like proteins secreted by hepatocytes, and a number of these have been associated with extra-hepatic metabolic regulation. Mounting evidence has revealed that the secretory profiles of hepatokines are significantly altered in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), the most common hepatic manifestation, which frequently precedes other metabolic disorders, including insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Therefore, deciphering the mechanism of hepatokine-mediated inter-organ communication is essential for understanding the complex metabolic network between tissues, as well as for the identification of novel diagnostic and/or therapeutic targets in metabolic disease. In this review, we describe the hepatokine-driven inter-organ crosstalk in the context of liver pathophysiology, with a particular focus on NAFLD progression. Moreover, we summarize key hepatokines and their molecular mechanisms of metabolic control in non-hepatic tissues, discussing their potential as novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets in the treatment of metabolic diseases.

Stress-induced FGF21 and GDF15 in obesity and obesity resistance

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) and growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) are established as stress-responsive cytokines that can modulate energy balance by increasing energy expenditure or suppressing food intake, respectively. Despite their pharmacologically induced beneficial effects on obesity and comorbidities, circulating levels of both cytokines are elevated during obesity and related metabolic complications. On the other hand, endocrine crosstalk via FGF21 and GDF15 was also reported to play a crucial role in genetically modified mouse models of mitochondrial perturbations leading to diet-induced obesity (DIO) resistance. This review aims to dissect the complexities of endogenous FGF21 and GDF15 action in obesity versus DIO resistance for the regulation of energy balance in metabolic health and disease.

Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 as a Potential Biomarker for Improved Locomotion and Olfaction Detection Ability after Weight Reduction in Obese Mice

Obesity is one of the most challenging diseases of the 21st century and is accompanied by behavioural disorders. Exercise, dietary adjustments, or time-restricted feeding are the only successful long-term treatments to date. Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) plays a key role in dietary regulation, but FGF21 resistance is prevalent in obesity. The aim of this study was to investigate in obese mice whether weight reduction leads to improved behaviour and whether these behavioural changes are associated with decreased plasma FGF21 levels. After establishing a model for diet-induced obesity, mice were subjected to three different interventions for weight reduction, namely dietary change, treadmill exercise, or time-restricted feeding. In this study, we demonstrated that only the combination of dietary change and treadmill exercise affected all parameters leading to a reduction in weight, fat, and FGF21, as well as less anxious behaviour, higher overall activity, and improved olfactory detection abilities. To investigate the interrelationship between FGF21 and behavioural parameters, feature selection algorithms were applied designating FGF21 and body weight as one of five highly weighted features. In conclusion, we concluded from the complementary methods that FGF21 can be considered as a potential biomarker for improved behaviour in obese mice after weight reduction.

Circulating myokines IL-6, IL-15 and FGF21 response to training is altered by exercise type but not by menopause in women with obesity

To examine the effects of a time-matched endurance vs. concurrent training on circulating IL-6, IL-13, IL-15, IL-15Ra, FGF21 levels in postmenopausal women with obesity, and to determine these myokines response to endurance training pre- and postmenopause. Thirty-five sedentary postmenopausal women with obesity were randomly divided into endurance training (EN1, N = 10), concurrent training (CON, N = 13) or no training group (CT, N = 12). Additionally, twelve sedentary premenopausal women with obesity were added to an endurance training group (EN2, N = 12). Participants took part in a 12-week supervised intervention, performing 3 sessions/week of 60 min/session. Before and after the interventions, body composition and fitness were assessed, and blood samples obtained to measure serum myokines levels. Total fat mass decreased in all exercised groups (CON,-5.2%; EN1,-5.3%; EN2,-5.6%). In postmenopausal women, serum IL-6, IL-15 and IL-15Ra decreased after training (P<0.01), finding a pronounced reduction in IL-6 (-42% vs. -16%) and IL-15 (-50% vs. -31%) when comparing EN1 to CON (P<0.05). Serum FGF21 was only reduced in the EN1 (-27%; P=0.012). While EN1 and EN2 comparison, reported differences for IL-15Rα concentration (-28% vs. -40%; P=0.023). Finally, in EN2, the delta change of fat mass and IL-6, IL-15 and IL-15Rα were associated (r = 0.605; r = 0.546; r = 0.515; P<0.05). IL-13 showed undetected concentrations. Circulating IL-6, IL-15 and FGF21 response to training is altered by exercise type but not by menopause in women with obesity. Endurance training promotes a higher reduction of these myokines, potentially activating their intricate immune and fat mass regulation roles in postmenopausal women with obesity.

The Regulation of Circulating Hepatokines by Fructose Ingestion in Humans

Context

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), follistatin, angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4), and growth differential factor 15 (GDF15) are regulated by energy metabolism. Recent findings in humans demonstrate that fructose ingestion increases circulating FGF21, with increased response in conditions of insulin resistance.

Objective

This study examines the acute effect of fructose and somatostatin on circulating FGF21, follistatin, ANGPTL4, and GDF15 in humans.

Methods

Plasma FGF21, follistatin, ANGPTL4, and GDF15 concentrations were measured in response to oral ingestion of 75 g of fructose in 10 young healthy males with and without a 15-minute infusion of somatostatin to block insulin secretion. A control infusion of somatostatin was also performed in the same subjects.

Results

Following fructose ingestion, plasma FGF21 peaked at 3.7-fold higher than basal concentration (P < 0.05), and it increased 4.9-fold compared with basal concentration (P < 0.05) when somatostatin was infused. Plasma follistatin increased 1.8-fold after fructose ingestion (P < 0.05), but this increase was blunted by concomitant somatostatin infusion. For plasma ANGPTL4 and GDF15, no increases were obtained following fructose ingestion. Infusion of somatostatin alone slightly increased plasma FGF21 and follistatin.

Conclusion

Here we show that in humans (1) the fructose-induced increase in plasma FGF21 was enhanced when somatostatin was infused, suggesting an inhibitory role of insulin on the fructose-induced FGF21 increase; (2) fructose ingestion also increased plasma follistatin, but somatostatin infusion blunted the increase; and (3) fructose ingestion had no stimulating effect on ANGPTL4 and GDF15 levels, demonstrating differences in the hepatokine response to fructose ingestion.

Investigation of candidate genes and mechanisms underlying obesity associated type 2 diabetes mellitus using bioinformatics analysis and screening of small drug molecules

BACKGROUND

Obesity associated type 2 diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder ; however, the etiology of obesity associated type 2 diabetes mellitus remains largely unknown. There is an urgent need to further broaden the understanding of the molecular mechanism associated in obesity associated type 2 diabetes mellitus.

METHODS

To screen the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that might play essential roles in obesity associated type 2 diabetes mellitus, the publicly available expression profiling by high throughput sequencing data (GSE143319) was downloaded and screened for DEGs. Then, Gene Ontology (GO) and REACTOME pathway enrichment analysis were performed. The protein - protein interaction network, miRNA - target genes regulatory network and TF-target gene regulatory network were constructed and analyzed for identification of hub and target genes. The hub genes were validated by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis and RT- PCR analysis. Finally, a molecular docking study was performed on over expressed proteins to predict the target small drug molecules.

RESULTS

A total of 820 DEGs were identified between healthy obese and metabolically unhealthy obese, among 409 up regulated and 411 down regulated genes. The GO enrichment analysis results showed that these DEGs were significantly enriched in ion transmembrane transport, intrinsic component of plasma membrane, transferase activity, transferring phosphorus-containing groups, cell adhesion, integral component of plasma membrane and signaling receptor binding, whereas, the REACTOME pathway enrichment analysis results showed that these DEGs were significantly enriched in integration of energy metabolism and extracellular matrix organization. The hub genes CEBPD, TP73, ESR2, TAB1, MAP 3K5, FN1, UBD, RUNX1, PIK3R2 and TNF, which might play an essential role in obesity associated type 2 diabetes mellitus was further screened.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study could deepen the understanding of the molecular mechanism of obesity associated type 2 diabetes mellitus, which could be useful in developing therapeutic targets for obesity associated type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Skeletal Muscle and Bone - Emerging Targets of Fibroblast Growth Factor-21

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is an atypical member of the FGF family, which functions as a powerful endocrine and paracrine regulator of glucose and lipid metabolism. In addition to liver and adipose tissue, recent studies have shown that FGF21 can also be produced in skeletal muscle. As the most abundant tissue in the human body, skeletal muscle has become increasingly recognized as a major site of metabolic activity and an important modulator of systemic metabolic homeostasis. The function and mechanism of action of muscle-derived FGF21 have recently gained attention due to the findings of considerably increased expression and secretion of FGF21 from skeletal muscle under certain pathological conditions. Recent reports regarding the ectopic expression of FGF21 from skeletal muscle and its potential effects on the musculoskeletal system unfolds a new chapter in the story of FGF21. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge base of muscle-derived FGF21 and the possible functions of FGF21 on homeostasis of the musculoskeletal system with a focus on skeletal muscle and bone.

Impact of acute exercise on immediate and following early post-exercise FGF-21 concentration in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to quantify circulating fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21) changes during and immediately after acute exercise and, based on body weight, to identify the subgroups exhibiting the largest response.

METHODS

The PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library electronic databases were searched up to December 2019 for studies published in English peer-reviewed journals. Studies that evaluated the effects of acute exercise on FGF-21 concentrations immediately after and 1 and 3 h post-exercise in adults were included. Random effects models were used for analyses, with data reported as standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval, and the risk of heterogeneity was evaluated. Subgroup analysis of subjects with normal weight and obesity/overweight was performed.

RESULTS

A total of seven studies involving 125 participants (age 35.95 (21-64) years and BMI 25.89 (21.30-35.46) kg/m²) were included. Overall, acute exercise increased FGF-21 (d = 0.18; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.35, p = 0.02) and this remained for 1 h post-exercise FGF-21 (d = 0.59; 95% CI 0.33 to 0.86, p = 0.001). Three hours after exercise, FGF-21 was restored to near baseline values (d = - 0.05; 95% CI - 0.34 to 0.22, p = 0.68). Acute exercise raised FGF-21 concentrations in normal weight participants (d = 0.57, p = 0.001) and tended to increase in overweight and obese participants (d = 0.79, p = 0.05) 1 h post-exercise.

CONCLUSION

Acute exercise increases circulating FGF-21, irrespective of body weight.

Effects of Exercise Intervention on Mitochondrial Stress Biomarkers in Metabolic Syndrome Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) pathogenesis involves oxidative stress associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, which triggers integrated stress responses via various compensatory metabolic modulators like mitokines and hepatokines. However, the regulatory mechanisms underlying the exercise-derived benefits with respect to mitokines and hepatokines (potential MetS biomarkers) are unknown. Thus, we investigated the effects of exercise training on MetS biomarkers and their associations with clinical parameters. In this single-center trial, 30 women with MetS were randomly assigned to 12-week supervised exercise or control groups (1:1) and compared with 12 age-matched healthy volunteers. All participants completed the study except one subject in the control group. Expectedly, serum levels of the mitokines, fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF15), and the hepatokine, angiopoietin-like 6 (ANGPTL6), were higher in MetS patients than in healthy volunteers. Moreover, their levels were markedly attenuated in the exercise group. Further, exercise-mediated changes in serum FGF21 and GDF15 correlated with changes in the homeostasis model of assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and appendicular lean mass (ALM), respectively. Additionally, changes in serum triglycerides and ANGPTL6 were correlated with changes in leptin. Aberrant mitokine and hepatokine levels can be rectified by relieving metabolic stress burden. Therefore, exercise training may reduce the need for the compensatory upregulation of MetS metabolic modulators by improving gluco-lipid metabolism.

Epigenetic Regulation of Processes Related to High Level of Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 in Obese Subjects

We hypothesised that epigenetics may play an important role in mediating fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) resistance in obesity. We aimed to evaluate DNA methylation changes and miRNA pattern in obese subjects associated with high serum FGF21 levels. The study included 136 participants with BMI 27-45 kg/m2. Fasting FGF21, glucose, insulin, GIP, lipids, adipokines, miokines and cytokines were measured and compared in high serum FGF21 (n = 68) group to low FGF21 (n = 68) group. Human DNA Methylation Microarrays were analysed in leukocytes from each group (n = 16). Expression of miRNAs was evaluated using quantitative PCR-TLDA. The study identified differentially methylated genes in pathways related to glucose transport, insulin secretion and signalling, lipid transport and cellular metabolism, response to nutrient levels, thermogenesis, browning of adipose tissue and bone mineralisation. Additionally, it detected transcription factor genes regulating FGF21 and fibroblast growth factor receptor and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor pathways regulation. Increased expression of hsa-miR-875-5p and decreased expression of hsa-miR-133a-3p, hsa-miR-185-5p and hsa-miR-200c-3p were found in the group with high serum FGF21. These changes were associated with high FGF21, VEGF and low adiponectin serum levels. Our results point to a significant role of the epigenetic regulation of genes involved in metabolic pathways related to FGF21 action.

Association of Elevated Plasma FGF21 and Activated FGF21 Signaling in Visceral White Adipose Tissue and Improved Insulin Sensitivity in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Subtype: A Case-Control Study

OBJECTIVE

To study the discrepancy of the insulin sensitivity alteration pattern, circulating fibroblast growth factor (FGF21) levels and FGF21 signaling in visceral white adipose tissue (vWAT) of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) subtypes.

METHODS

26 GDM women with either a predominant of insulin-secretion defect (GDM-dysfunction, n = 9) or insulin-sensitivity defect (GDM-resistance, n = 17) and 13 normal glucose tolerance (NGT) women scheduled for caesarean-section at term were studied. Blood and vWAT samples were collected at delivery.

RESULTS

The insulin sensitivity was improved from the 2^nd trimester to delivery in the GDM-resistance group. Elevated circulating FGF21 concentration at delivery, increased FGF receptor 1c and decreased klotho beta gene expression, enhanced ERK1/2 phosphorylation, and increased GLUT1, IR-B, PPAR-γ gene expression in vWAT were found in the GDM-resistance group as compared with the NGT group. The circulating FGF21 concentration was negatively correlated with fasting blood glucose (r = -0.574, P < 0.001), and associated with the GDM-resistance group (r = 0.574, P < 0.001) in pregnant women at delivery. However, we observed no insulin sensitivity alteration in GDM-dysfunction and NGT groups during pregnancy. No differences of plasma FGF21 level and FGF21 signaling in vWAT at delivery were found between women in the GDM-dysfunction and the NGT group.

CONCLUSIONS

Women with GDM heterogeneity exhibited different insulin sensitivity alteration patterns. The improvement of insulin sensitivity may relate to the elevated circulating FGF21 concentration and activated FGF21 signaling in vWAT at delivery in the GDM-resistance group.

Advances in Biological Functions and Clinical Studies of FGF21

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) regulates many crucial biological processes in human and mammals, particularly metabolic modulation and protective effect after injury. Therefore, determining complex regulatory mechanisms and elucidating the signaling pathway may greatly promote the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of related injury and metabolic diseases. This review focused on the metabolic modulation and protective effect of FGF21 and summarized the molecular mechanisms and clinical research developments.

Faecal virome transplantation decreases symptoms of type 2 diabetes and obesity in a murine model

OBJECTIVE

Development of obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D) are associated with gut microbiota (GM) changes. The gut viral community is predominated by bacteriophages (phages), which are viruses that attack bacteria in a host-specific manner. The antagonistic behaviour of phages has the potential to alter the GM. As a proof-of-concept, we demonstrate the efficacy of faecal virome transplantation (FVT) from lean donors for shifting the phenotype of obese mice into closer resemblance of lean mice.

DESIGN

The FVT consisted of viromes with distinct profiles extracted from the caecal content of mice from different vendors that were fed a low-fat (LF) diet for 14 weeks. Male C57BL/6NTac mice were divided into five groups: LF (as diet control), high-fat (HF) diet, HF+ampicillin (Amp), HF+Amp+FVT and HF+FVT. At weeks 6 and 7 of the study, the HF+FVT and HF+Amp+FVT mice were treated with FVT by oral gavage. The Amp groups were treated with Amp 24 hours prior to first FVT treatment.

RESULTS

Six weeks after first FVT, the HF+FVT mice showed a significant decrease in weight gain compared with the HF group. Further, glucose tolerance was comparable between the LF and HF+FVT mice, while the other HF groups all had impaired glucose tolerance. These observations were supported by significant shifts in GM composition, blood plasma metabolome and expression levels of genes associated with obesity and T2D development.

CONCLUSIONS

Transfer of caecal viral communities from mice with a lean phenotype into mice with an obese phenotype led to reduced weight gain and normalised blood glucose parameters relative to lean mice. We hypothesise that this effect is mediated via FVT-induced GM changes.

Exercise and Muscle Atrophy

The incidence of muscle atrophy is increasing with each passing year, which imposes a huge burden on the quality of life of patients. It is a public health issue that causes a growing concern around the world. Exercise is one of the key strategies to prevent and treat various diseases. Appropriate exercise is conducive to compensatory muscle hypertrophy, to improve muscle strength and elasticity, and to train muscle coordination, which is also beneficial to the recovery of skeletal muscle function and the regeneration of muscle cells. Sequelae of paralysis of patients with limb dyskinesia caused by muscle atrophy will be significantly alleviated after regular exercise therapy. Furthermore, exercise therapy can slow down or even reverse muscle atrophy. This article aims to introduce the characteristics of muscle atrophy and summarize the role and mechanism of exercise in the treatment of muscle atrophy in the existing studies, in order to further explore the mechanism of exercise to protect muscle atrophy and provide protection for patients with muscular atrophy.

Relationship between FGF21 and drug or nondrug therapy of type 2 diabetes mellitus

Sedentary and high-calorie diets are associated with increased risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus, while exercise and diet control are also important nondrug treatments for diabetes. Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is an important cytokine, which is mainly expressed in liver, fat and muscle tissue responding to nutrition and exercise, and plays an important role in the improvement of glucose and lipid metabolism. Due to the increasing serum FGF21 level in obesity and diabetes, FGF21 can be used as a predictor or biomarker of diabetes. A variety of clinical antidiabetic drugs can reduce the content of FGF21, possibly for the improvement of FGF21 sensitivity. In this paper, we reviewed the interactions between FGF21 and nondrug therapy (diet and exercise) for diabetes and explored the potential value of the combined application of clinical antidiabetic drugs and FGF21.

Bacteriophage-mediated manipulation of the gut microbiome – promises and presents limitations

Gut microbiome (GM) composition and function are linked to human health and disease, and routes for manipulating the GM have become an area of intense research. Due to its high treatment efficacy, the use of fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is generally accepted as a promising experimental treatment for patients suffering from GM imbalances (dysbiosis), e.g. caused by recurrent Clostridioides difficile infections (rCDI). Mounting evidence suggests that bacteriophages (phages) play a key role in successful FMT treatment by restoring the dysbiotic bacterial GM. As a refinement to FMT, removing the bacterial component of donor feces by sterile filtration, also referred to as fecal virome transplantation (FVT), decreases the risk of invasive infections caused by bacteria. However, eukaryotic viruses and prophage-encoded virulence factors remain a safety issue. Recent in vivo studies show how cascading effects are initiated when phage communities are transferred to the gut by e.g. FVT, which leads to changes in the GM composition, host metabolome, and improve host health such as alleviating symptoms of obesity and type-2-diabetes (T2D). In this review, we discuss the promises and limitations of FVT along with the perspectives of using FVT to treat various diseases associated with GM dysbiosis.

Resistance training attenuates circulating FGF-21 and myostatin and improves insulin resistance in elderly men with and without type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomised controlled clinical trial

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21) and myostatin have been proposed to be potential therapeutic target for insulin resistance in age-related metabolic disorders including type 2 diabetes (T2D). Moreover, despite the potential metabolic effect of resistance training on insulin resistance, aging, and T2D; the effect of this type of exercise training on FGF-21 and myostatin in elderly men with and without T2D are unknown. Forty-four elderly men were assigned to either the RT training (RT; without T2D: 12, with TD2 = 10) or the control group (C; without T2D: 12, with TD2 = 10). The RT group performed 12-wk resistance training intervention, 3 days/wk, 10 repetitions with 70% 1RM. At the baseline, the elderly men with T2D had a higher FGF-21 (p = 0.002) and myostatin (p = 0.02) concentrations and lower muscle strength (p = 0.01) than the elderly men without T2D. RT resulted in significant decrease in FGF-21 and myostatin concentration and increase in muscle strength in both elderly men with and without T2D (P = 0.001, for all) as well as decrease in HOMA-IR in only elderly men without T2D (P = 0.001). There was no significant difference in the RT-induced FGF-21 reduction between elderly men with and without T2D (p = 0.77, p = 0.28, respectively), but, RT caused a larger reduction in circulating myostatin in elderly men without T2D than with T2D (P = 0.007). Taken together, our results demonstrated that 12 weeks of RT induced an overall significant reduction of FGF-21 and myostatin in elderly men with and without T2D; with higher reduction of myostatin in elderly men without T2D.

A review of fibroblast growth factor 21 in diabetic cardiomyopathy

FGF21 (fibroblast growth factor 21) is a regulator of metabolism and performs an important role in glucose and lipid metabolism and the maintenance of energy balance. FGF21 is principally expressed in the liver, but it can also be found in the pancreas, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue. It is known that levels of serum FGF21 are significantly elevated in obese, insulin-resistant patients, and those with metabolic syndrome. Elevated levels of FGF21 in serum during the early stages of various metabolic diseases are considered a compensatory response by the organism. Therefore, FGF21 is considered a hormone in response to stress and an early diagnostic marker of disease. Diabetic cardiomyopathy is a special type of cardiac complication, characterized as a chronic myocardial disorder caused by diabetes. The pathological process includes increased oxidative stress, energy metabolism in myocardial cells, an inflammatory response, and myocardial cell apoptosis. A growing body of evidence suggests that FGF21 has the potential to be an effective drug for the treatment of diabetic cardiomyopathy. Here, we review recent progress on the characteristics of FGF21 in its protective role, especially in pathological processes such as suppressing apoptosis in the myocardium, reducing inflammation in cardiomyocytes, reducing oxidative stress, and promoting fatty acid oxidation. In addition, we explore the possibility that diabetic cardiomyopathy can be delayed through the application of FGF21, providing possible therapeutic targets of the disease.

The Impact of Moderate-Intensity Continuous or High-Intensity Interval Training on Adipogenesis and Browning of Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue in Obese Male Rats

This study compares the effect of two types of exercise training, i.e., moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) or high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on the browning of subcutaneous white adipose tissue (scWAT) in obese male rats. Effects on fat composition, metabolites, and molecular markers of differentiation and energy expenditure were examined. Forty male Wistar rats were assigned to lean (n = 8) or obese (n = 32) groups and fed either a standard chow or high-fat obesogenic diet for 10 weeks. Eight lean and obese rats were then blood and tissue sampled, and the remaining obese animals were randomly allocated into sedentary, MICT, or HIIT (running on a treadmill 5 days/week) groups that were maintained for 12 weeks. Obesity increased plasma glucose and insulin and decreased irisin and FGF-21. In scWAT, this was accompanied with raised protein abundance of markers of adipocyte differentiation, i.e., C/EBP-α, C/EBP-β, and PPAR-γ, whereas brown fat-related genes, i.e., PRDM-16, AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α, were reduced as was UCP1 and markers of fatty acid transport, i.e., CD36 and CPT1. Exercise training increased protein expression of brown fat-related markers, i.e., PRDM-16, AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α, and UCP1, together with gene expression of fatty acid transport, i.e., CD36 and CPT1, but decreased markers of adipocyte differentiation, i.e., C/EBP-α, C/EBP-β, and plasma glucose. The majority of these adaptations were greater with HIIT compared to MICT. Our findings indicate that prolonged exercise training promotes the browning of white adipocytes, possibly through suppression of adipogenesis together with white to beige trans-differentiation and is dependent on the intensity of exercise.

Alcohol ingestion induces pancreatic islet dysfunction and apoptosis via mediation of FGF21 resistance

Background

Disruption of β-cell insulin secretion and viability caused by excessive ethanol consumption increases type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) pathogenesis risk. Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) plays a significant role in regulating lipid and glucose homeostasis. Recently, FGF21, best known for its role in lipid and glucose homeostasis regulation, and its obligate co-receptor β-klotho have been shown to inhibit ethanol ingestion and metabolism. It remains unclear whether heavy ethanol intake modulates islet FGF21 expression and function. This study investigated the relationship between ethanol exposure, FGF21, and islet function in vivo/ex vivo islet and in vitro cell models.

Methods

Mice were gavaged with 3.5 g/kg ethanol or saline for 1–3 weeks (long-term exposure). Human MIN6 cells and isolated islets were cultured and treated with 80 mM ethanol for 24 h (short-term exposure) to mimic excessive ethanol consumption. We applied the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), blood glucometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISAs) for insulin and FGF21, glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) testing, reverse-transcription (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and western blot experiments.

Results

Long-term ethanol treatment induced FGF21 resistance in mouse pancreatic islets. Moreover, ethanol exposure damaged insulin secretory ability and glucose homeostasis. In vitro and ex vivo experiments showed that short-term ethanol treatment upregulated the expression of FGF21 signaling pathway-related genes and proteins, without affecting β-cell survival or function.

Conclusions

Long-term ethanol consumption induces FGF21 resistance-mediated pancreatic β-cell dysfunction, and thus diabetes pathogenesis risk.

FGF19 and FGF21 for the Treatment of NASH-Two Sides of the Same Coin? Differential and Overlapping Effects of FGF19 and FGF21 From Mice to Human

FGF19 and FGF21 analogues are currently in clinical development for the potential treatment of NASH. In Phase 2 clinical trials analogues of FGF19 and FGF21 decrease hepatic steatosis with up to 70% (MRI-PDFF) after 12 weeks and as early as 12-16 weeks of treatment an improvement in NASH resolution and fibrosis has been observed. Therefore, this class of compounds is currently of great interest in the field of NASH. FGF19 and FGF21 belong to the endocrine FGF19 subfamily and both require the co-receptor beta-klotho for binding and signalling through the FGF receptors. FGF19 is expressed in the ileal enterocytes and is released into the enterohepatic circulation in response to bile acids stimuli and in the liver FGF19 inhibits hepatic bile acids synthesis by transcriptional regulation of Cyp7A1, which is the rate limiting enzyme. FGF21 is, on the other hand, highly expressed in the liver and is released in response to high glucose, high free-fatty acids and low amino-acid supply and regulates energy, glucose and lipid homeostasis by actions in the CNS and in the adipose tissue. FGF19 and FGF21 are differentially expressed, have distinct target tissues and separate physiological functions. It is therefore of peculiar interest to understand why treatment with both FGF19 and FGF21 analogues have strong beneficial effects on NASH parameters in mice and human and whether the mode of action is overlapping This review will highlight the physiological and pharmacological effects of FGF19 and FGF21. The potential mode of action behind the anti-steatotic, anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects of FGF19 and FGF21 will be discussed. Finally, development of drugs is always a risk benefit analysis and the human relevance of adverse effects observed in pre-clinical species as well as findings in humans will be discussed. The aim is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of this drug class for the potential treatment of NASH.

Dynamic Changes in Circulating Endocrine FGF19 Subfamily and Fetuin-A in Response to Intralipid and Insulin Infusions in Healthy and PCOS Women

Background: The fibroblast growth factors (FGF) 19 subfamily, also referred to as endocrine FGFs, includes FGF19, FGF21, and FGF23 are metabolic hormones involved in the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism. Fetuin-A is a hepatokine involved in the regulation of beta-cell function and insulin resistance. Endocrine FGFs and fetuin-A are dysregulated in metabolic disorders including obesity, type 2 diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Our study was designed to examine the response of endocrine FGFs and fetuin-A to an acute intralipid, insulin infusion and exercise in PCOS and healthy women. Subjects and Measurements: Ten healthy and 11 PCOS subjects underwent 5-h saline infusions with a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp (HIEC) performed during the final 2 h. One week later, intralipid infusions were undertaken with a HIEC performed during the final 2 h. After an 8 week of exercise intervention the saline, intralipid, and HIEC were repeated. Plasma levels of endocrine FGFs and fetuin-A were measured. Results: Baseline fetuin-A was higher in PCOS women but FGF19, FGF21, and FGF23 did not differ and were unaffected by exercise. Insulin administration elevated FGF21 in control and PCOS, suppressed FGF19 in controls, and had no effects on FGF23 and fetuin-A. Intralipid infusion suppressed FGF19 and increased FGF21. Insulin with intralipid synergistically increased FGF21 and did not have effects on lipid-mediated suppression of FGF19 in both groups. Conclusion: Our study provides evidence for insulin and lipid regulation of endocrine FGFs in healthy and PCOS women, suggesting that FGF family members play a role in lipid and glucose metabolism. Clinical Trial Registration: www.isrctn.org, Identifier: ISRCTN42448814.

FGF21: An Emerging Therapeutic Target for Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis and Related Metabolic Diseases

The rising global prevalence of obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes has driven a sharp increase in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), characterized by excessive fat accumulation in the liver. Approximately one-sixth of the NAFLD population progresses to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) with liver inflammation, hepatocyte injury and cell death, liver fibrosis and cirrhosis. NASH is one of the leading causes of liver transplant, and an increasingly common cause of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), underscoring the need for intervention. The complex pathophysiology of NASH, and a predicted prevalence of 3-5% of the adult population worldwide, has prompted drug development programs aimed at multiple targets across all stages of the disease. Currently, there are no approved therapeutics. Liver-related morbidity and mortality are highest in more advanced fibrotic NASH, which has led to an early focus on anti-fibrotic approaches to prevent progression to cirrhosis and HCC. Due to limited clinical efficacy, anti-fibrotic approaches have been superseded by mechanisms that target the underlying driver of NASH pathogenesis, namely steatosis, which drives hepatocyte injury and downstream inflammation and fibrosis. Among this wave of therapeutic mechanisms targeting the underlying pathogenesis of NASH, the hormone fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) holds considerable promise; it decreases liver fat and hepatocyte injury while suppressing inflammation and fibrosis across multiple preclinical studies. In this review, we summarize preclinical and clinical data from studies with FGF21 and FGF21 analogs, in the context of the pathophysiology of NASH and underlying metabolic diseases.

Adipocyte epigenetic alterations and potential therapeutic targets in transgenerationally inherited lean and obese phenotypes following ancestral exposures

The incidence of obesity has increased dramatically over the past two decades with a prevalence of approximately 40% of the adult population within the United States. The current study examines the potential for transgenerational adipocyte (fat cell) epigenetic alterations. Adipocytes were isolated from the gonadal fat pad of the great-grand offspring F3 generation 1-year old rats ancestrally exposed to DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), atrazine, or vehicle control in order to obtain adipocytes for DNA methylation analysis. Observations indicate that there were differential DNA methylated regions (DMRs) in the adipocytes with the lean or obese phenotypes compared to control normal (non-obese or lean) populations. The comparison of epigenetic alterations indicated that there were substantial overlaps between the different treatment lineage groups for both the lean and obese phenotypes. Novel correlated genes and gene pathways associated with DNA methylation were identified, and may aid in the discovery of potential therapeutic targets for metabolic diseases such as obesity. Observations indicate that ancestral exposures during critical windows of development can induce the epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of DNA methylation changes in adipocytes that ultimately may contribute to an altered metabolic phenotype.

Acute Exercise Increases Plasma Levels of Muscle-Derived Microvesicles Carrying Fatty Acid Transport Proteins

CONTEXT

Microvesicles (MVs) are a class of membrane particles shed by any cell in the body in physiological and pathological conditions. They are considered to be key players in intercellular communication, and with a molecular content reflecting the composition of the cell of origin, they have recently emerged as a promising source of biomarkers in a number of diseases.

OBJECTIVE

The effects of acute exercise on the plasma concentration of skeletal muscle-derived MVs (SkMVs) carrying metabolically important membrane proteins were examined.

PARTICIPANTS

Thirteen men with obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and 14 healthy male controls with obesity exercised on a cycle ergometer for 60 minutes.

INTERVENTIONS

Muscle biopsies and blood samples-obtained before exercise, immediately after exercise, and 3 hours into recovery-were collected for the analysis of long-chain fatty acid (LCFA) transport proteins CD36 (a scavenger receptor class B protein) and fatty acid transport protein 4 (FATP4) mRNA content in muscle and for flow cytometric studies on circulating SkMVs carrying either LCFA transport protein.

RESULTS

Besides establishing a flow cytometric approach for the detection of circulating SkMVs and subpopulations carrying either CD36 or FATP4 and thereby adding proof to their existence, we demonstrated an overall exercise-induced change of SkMVs carrying these LCFA transport proteins. A positive correlation between exercise-induced changes in skeletal muscle CD36 mRNA expression and concentrations of SkMVs carrying CD36 was found in T2DM only.

CONCLUSIONS

This approach could add important real-time information about the abundance of LCFA transport proteins present on activated muscle cells in subjects with impaired glucose metabolism.

Circulating FGF21 Levels in Human Health and Metabolic Disease

Human fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is primarily produced and secreted by the liver as a hepatokine. This hormone circulates to its target tissues (e. g., brain, adipose tissue), which requires two components, one of the preferred FGF receptor isoforms (FGFR1c and FGFR3c) and the co-factor beta-Klotho (KLB) to trigger downstream signaling pathways. Although targeting FGF21 signaling in humans by analogues and receptor agonists results in beneficial effects, e. g., improvements in plasma lipids and decreased body weight, it failed to recapitulate the improvements in glucose handling shown for many mouse models. FGF21's role and metabolic effects in mice and its therapeutic potential have extensively been reviewed elsewhere. In this review we focus on circulating FGF21 levels in humans and their associations with disease and clinical parameters, focusing primarily on obesity and obesity-associated diseases such as type-2 diabetes. We provide a comprehensive overview on human circulating FGF21 levels under normal physiology and metabolic disease. We discuss the emerging field of inactivating FGF21 in human blood by fibroblast activation protein (FAP) and its potential clinical implications.

Improved FGF21 Sensitivity and Restored FGF21 Signaling Pathway in High-Fat Diet/Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats After Duodenal-Jejunal Bypass and Sleeve Gastrectomy

Objective: Bariatric surgery can profoundly improve glucose and lipid metabolism in diabetic rats. Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is an important hormone with multiple metabolic beneficial effects. Alteration in serum FGF21 level after bariatric surgery has been reported with conflicting results. Here, we investigated the effect of bariatric surgeries on FGF21 expression and sensitivity. Methods: We performed duodenal-jejunal bypass (DJB), sleeve gastrectomy (SG) and sham surgery in diabetic rats induced by high fat diet and streptozotocin. Metabolic parameters, including body weight, food intake, glucose tolerance, and lipid profiles, were monitored. FGF21 levels in both serum and liver were measured after surgery. FGF21 signaling pathway including FGF receptor 1 (FGFR1), β-klotho (KLB), and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) was detected in the liver and white adipose tissue (WAT). We also determined FGF21 sensitivity post-operatively by acute recombinant human FGF21 injection. Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and insulin tolerance test (ITT) were conducted immediately after FGF21 injection. Serum triglyceride (TG) and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) were measured and the mRNA levels of early growth response 1 (Egr1) and c-Fos in the liver and WAT were detected after FGF21 injection. Results: Improvements in glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and lipid profiles were observed after bariatric surgeries along with ameliorated lipid metabolism in the liver and WAT. Serum and hepatic FGF21 levels decreased in both DJB and SG groups. FGFR1 and phosphorylated ERK1/2 levels increased in both DJB and SG groups 8 weeks after surgery. The expression of KLB was downregulated only in the WAT after DJB and SG. Significant alteration of OGTT and ITT were observed after acute FGF21 administration in DJB and SG groups. Serum TG and NEFA in DJB and SG groups also decreased after FGF21 administration. And increased mRNA levels of Egr1 and c-Fos were detected in the liver and WAT after DJB and SG surgeries. Conclusions: DJB and SG surgeries can downregulate hepatic expression of FGF21, restore FGF21 signaling pathway and improve FGF21 sensitivity in high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

Intact regulation of muscle expression and circulating levels of myokines in response to exercise in patients with type 2 diabetes

Regular exercise plays an important role in the prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D). The synthesis and secretion of myokines in response to contraction may contribute to the beneficial metabolic effects of exercise. However, some exercise-induced responses may be attenuated in T2D. Here, we investigated whether the effect of acute exercise on selected myokines are impaired in T2D. Skeletal muscle biopsies and blood samples were obtained from 13 men with T2D and 14 weight-matched, glucose-tolerant men before, immediately after and 3-h after acute exercise (60 min cycling) to examine muscle expression and plasma/serum levels of selected myokines. One-hour of exercise increased muscle expression of IL6, FGF21, ANGPTL4, CHI3L1, CTGF and CYR61, of which FGF21, ANGPTL4 and CHI3L1 increased further 3-h into recovery, whereas expression of IL6, CYR61, and CTGF returned to baseline levels. There was no immediate effect of exercise on IL15 expression, but it decreased 3-h into recovery. Plasma IL-6 increased robustly, whereas circulating levels of FGF21, ANGPTL4, IL-15, and CHI3L1 increased only modestly in response to exercise. All returned toward baseline levels 3-h into recovery except for plasma ANGPTL4, which increased further. No significant differences in these responses to exercise were observed between the groups. Our results demonstrate that muscle expression and circulating levels of selected known and putative myokines were equally regulated by acute exercise in patients with T2D and weight-matched controls. This suggests that the potential beneficial metabolic effects of these myokines are not impaired in patients with T2D.

Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 Promotes C2C12 Cells Myogenic Differentiation by Enhancing Cell Cycle Exit

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), a secretion protein, functions as a pivotal regulator of energy metabolism and is being considered as a therapeutic candidate in metabolic syndromes. However, the roles of FGF21 in myogenic differentiation and cell cycle remain obscure. In this study, we investigated the function of FGF21 in myogenesis and cell cycle exit using C2C12 cell line. Our data showed that the expression of myogenic genes as well as cell cycle exit genes was increased after FGF21 overexpression, and FGF21 overexpression induces cell cycle arrest. Moreover, cell cycle genes were decreased in FGF21 overexpression cells while they were increased in FGF21 knockdown cells. Further, FGF21/P53/p21/Cyclin-CDK has been suggested as the key pathway for cell cycle exit mediated by FGF21 in C2C12 cells. Also, we deduce that FGF21 promotes the initiation of myogenic differentiation mainly through enhancing cell cycle exit of C2C12 cells. Taken together, our results demonstrated that FGF21 promotes cell cycle exit and enhances myogenic differentiation of C2C12 cells. This study provided new evidence that FGF21 promotes myogenic differentiation, which could be useful for better understanding the roles of FGF21 in myogenesis.