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Hafez T, Villate F, Ortiz-Zarragoitia M. Reduced Survival and Disruption of Female Reproductive Output in Two Copepod Species ( Acartia clausi and A. tonsa) Exposed to the Model Endocrine Disruptor 17α-Ethinylestradiol. TOXICS 2023; 11:toxics11050405. [PMID: 37235221 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11050405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Estuaries are heavily impacted by pollutants from different sources such as urban sewage, industrial waste and agricultural runoff. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are very concerning pollutants to estuarine wildlife, but little is known about their impact on microscopic biota such as zooplankton. The aim of this work was to investigate the effects of a model EDC, the 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), on two copepod species inhabiting the Basque coast (Southeastern Bay of Biscay) estuaries: Acartia clausi (autochthonous neritic species) and Acartia tonsa (non-indigenous brackish species). Female copepods were collected at population maximum time (spring for A. clausi and summer for A. tonsa) and exposed individually to 5 ng/L (low), 5 µg/L (medium) and 500 µg/L EE2 (high) doses, from environmental concentrations found in sewage effluents to toxicological concentrations. After 24 h exposure, the survival rate of experimental individuals was checked and the lethal concentration LC50 was calculated. The number of egg-producing females and the amount of egg laying and egg hatching were recorded. The integrated biomarker index (IBR) was calculated to integrate the overall effects of EE2 exposure. Both species had reduced survival rates at 500 µg/L, and the LC50 was lower in A. tonsa (158 µg/L) compared to A. clausi (398 µg/L). The number of eggs laid was significantly reduced in A. clausi at EE2 medium and high doses, while a reduction in the number of eggs in A. tonsa was observed only at the high dose. However, no significant differences were detected in the egg hatching success of exposed A. clausi and A. tonsa. IBR index showed that EE2 had the most detrimental effects on A. tonsa and A. clausi females at the 500 µg/L dose. In conclusion, after 24 h of exposure, EE2 reduced female copepod survival and disrupted reproductive output, but only at high non-environmentally relevant concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamer Hafez
- CBET+ Research Group, Department of Zoology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology PiE, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48620 Plentzia, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Fernando Villate
- MarEsPlank Research Group, Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology PiE, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48620 Plentzia, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Maren Ortiz-Zarragoitia
- CBET+ Research Group, Department of Zoology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology PiE, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48620 Plentzia, Basque Country, Spain
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Cardoso PG, Loganimoce EM, Neuparth T, Rocha MJ, Rocha E, Arenas F. Interactive effects of increased temperature, pCO 2 and the synthetic progestin levonorgestrel on the fitness and breeding of the amphipod Gammarus locusta. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2018; 236:937-947. [PMID: 29102173 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2017] [Revised: 10/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Given the lack of knowledge regarding climate change-chemical exposure interactions, it is vital to evaluate how these two drivers jointly impact aquatic species. Thus, for the first time, we aimed at investigating the combined effects of increased temperature, pCO2 and the synthetic progestin levonorgestrel on survival, growth, consumption rate and reproduction of the amphipod Gammarus locusta. For that, a full factorial design manipulating temperature [ambient temperature and warming (+4 °C)], pCO2 [normocapnia and hypercapnia (Δ pH 0.5 units)] and the progestin levonorgestrel (LNG: L1 - 10 ngLL-1 and L2 - 1000 ngLL-1, control - no progestin and solvent control - vehicle ethanol (0.01%)) was implemented for 21 days. G. locusta was strongly negatively affected by warming, experiencing higher mortality rates (50-80%) than in any other treatments. Instead, growth rates were significantly affected by interactions of LNG with temperature and pCO2. It was observed, in the short-term (7d) that under ambient temperature (18 °C) and hypercapnic conditions (pH 7.6), the LNG presence promoted the amphipod's growth, while in the medium-term (21d) this response was not observed. Relative consumption rates (RCRs), during the first week were higher than in the third week. Furthermore, in the first week, RCRs were negatively affected by higher temperature while in the third week, RCRs were negatively affected by acidification. Furthermore, it was observed a negative effect of higher temperature and acidification on G. locusta fecundity, contrarily to LNG. Concluding, the impact of increased temperature and pCO2 was clearly more adverse for the species than exposure to the synthetic progestin, however, some interactions between the progestin and the climate factors were observed. Thus, in a future scenario of global change, the presence of LNG (and other progestins alike) may modulate to a certain level the effects of climate drivers (and vice-versa) on the gammarids fitness and reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- P G Cardoso
- Group of Histomorphology, Physiopathology and Applied Toxicology, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - E M Loganimoce
- Group of Histomorphology, Physiopathology and Applied Toxicology, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - T Neuparth
- Group of Endocrine Disruptors and Emergent Contaminants, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - M J Rocha
- Group of Histomorphology, Physiopathology and Applied Toxicology, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Laboratory of Histology and Embryology, Department of Microscopy, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - E Rocha
- Group of Histomorphology, Physiopathology and Applied Toxicology, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Laboratory of Histology and Embryology, Department of Microscopy, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - F Arenas
- Group of Aquatic Ecology and Evolution, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Terasaki M, Abe R, Makino M, Tatarazako N. Chronic toxicity of parabens and their chlorinated by-products in Ceriodaphnia dubia. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2015; 30:664-73. [PMID: 24376163 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Revised: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The chronic toxicity of 12 compounds of parabens and their chlorinated by-products was investigated using 7-day Ceriodaphnia dubia test under static renewal condition in order to generate information on how to disinfect by-products of preservatives that are discharged in aquatic systems. The mortality and inhibition of reproduction tended to increase with increasing hydrophobicity and decreased with the degree of chlorination of parabens. The EC50 values for mortality, offspring number, and first brood production ranged between 0.30-3.1, 0.047-12, and 1.3-6.3 mg L(-1) , respectively. For the number of neonates, the most sensitive endpoint, the no-observed-effect concentration (NOEC) and lowest-observed-effect concentration (LOEC) values ranged from 0.63 to 10 mg L(-1) and from 1.2 to 19 mg L(-1) , respectively. Methylparaben (MP), benzylparaben (BnP), and dichlorinated BnP (Cl2 BnP) elicited a significant decrease in offspring numbers even at their lowest concentration tested; the NOEC for these compounds was determined to be less than the lowest test concentration (1.3, 0.04, and 0.63 mg L(-1) for MP, BnP, and Cl2 BnP, respectively). Propylparaben (PP), chlorinated PP, isopropylparaben (iPP), and chlorinated iPP exhibited nonmonotonic concentration-dependent response; their NOEC and LOEC values could not be determined. The multivariate approach involving principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis revealed four groups that corresponded to the toxicological profiles of parabens. Our results suggested that disinfection of parabens by chlorination could reduce aquatic toxicity of original compounds. The findings obtained in our study together with the data available on paraben concentrations in aquatic systems can be used to perform preliminary risk assessment by comparing the predicted environmental concentration (PEC) with the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) for the marine aquatic environment. The calculated PEC/PNEC ratios ranged from 0.0012 to 0.2, with the highest value observed in MP. This suggested that there are negligible environmental risks for aquatic organisms at current use levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Terasaki
- Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Yada 52-1, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
| | - Ryoko Abe
- Research Center for Environmental Risk, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8506, Japan
| | - Masakazu Makino
- Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Yada 52-1, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
| | - Norihisa Tatarazako
- Research Center for Environmental Risk, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8506, Japan
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Fabbri E. Pharmaceuticals in the environment: expected and unexpected effects on aquatic fauna. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2014; 1340:20-8. [DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Fabbri
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences; University of Bologna, Campus of Ravenna; Ravenna Italy
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Furuhagen S, Fuchs A, Lundström Belleza E, Breitholtz M, Gorokhova E. Are pharmaceuticals with evolutionary conserved molecular drug targets more potent to cause toxic effects in non-target organisms? PLoS One 2014; 9:e105028. [PMID: 25140792 PMCID: PMC4139295 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitous use of pharmaceuticals has resulted in a continuous discharge into wastewater and pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are found in the environment. Due to their design towards specific drug targets, pharmaceuticals may be therapeutically active already at low environmental concentrations. Several human drug targets are evolutionary conserved in aquatic organisms, raising concerns about effects of these pharmaceuticals in non-target organisms. In this study, we hypothesized that the toxicity of a pharmaceutical towards a non-target invertebrate depends on the presence of the human drug target orthologs in this species. This was tested by assessing toxicity of pharmaceuticals with (miconazole and promethazine) and without (levonorgestrel) identified drug target orthologs in the cladoceran Daphnia magna. The toxicity was evaluated using general toxicity endpoints at individual (immobility, reproduction and development), biochemical (RNA and DNA content) and molecular (gene expression) levels. The results provide evidence for higher toxicity of miconazole and promethazine, i.e. the drugs with identified drug target orthologs. At the individual level, miconazole had the lowest effect concentrations for immobility and reproduction (0.3 and 0.022 mg L-1, respectively) followed by promethazine (1.6 and 0.18 mg L-1, respectively). At the biochemical level, individual RNA content was affected by miconazole and promethazine already at 0.0023 and 0.059 mg L-1, respectively. At the molecular level, gene expression for cuticle protein was significantly suppressed by exposure to both miconazole and promethazine; moreover, daphnids exposed to miconazole had significantly lower vitellogenin expression. Levonorgestrel did not have any effects on any endpoints in the concentrations tested. These results highlight the importance of considering drug target conservation in environmental risk assessments of pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Furuhagen
- Department of Applied Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Anne Fuchs
- Department of Applied Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Magnus Breitholtz
- Department of Applied Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Elena Gorokhova
- Department of Applied Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Lalone CA, Villeneuve DL, Burgoon LD, Russom CL, Helgen HW, Berninger JP, Tietge JE, Severson MN, Cavallin JE, Ankley GT. Molecular target sequence similarity as a basis for species extrapolation to assess the ecological risk of chemicals with known modes of action. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2013; 144-145:141-54. [PMID: 24177217 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2013.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
It is not feasible to conduct toxicity tests with all species that may be impacted by chemical exposures. Therefore, cross-species extrapolation is fundamental to environmental risk assessment. Recognition of the impracticality of generating empirical, whole organism, toxicity data for the extensive universe of chemicals in commerce has been an impetus driving the field of predictive toxicology. We describe a strategy that leverages expanding databases of molecular sequence information together with identification of specific molecular chemical targets whose perturbation can lead to adverse outcomes to support predictive species extrapolation. This approach can be used to predict which species may be more (or less) susceptible to effects following exposure to chemicals with known modes of action (e.g., pharmaceuticals, pesticides). Primary amino acid sequence alignments are combined with more detailed analyses of conserved functional domains to derive the predictions. This methodology employs bioinformatic approaches to automate, collate, and calculate quantitative metrics associated with cross-species sequence similarity of key molecular initiating events (MIEs). Case examples focused on the actions of (a) 17α-ethinyl estradiol on the human (Homo sapiens) estrogen receptor; (b) permethrin on the mosquito (Aedes aegypti) voltage-gated para-like sodium channel; and (c) 17β-trenbolone on the bovine (Bos taurus) androgen receptor are presented to demonstrate the potential predictive utility of this species extrapolation strategy. The examples compare empirical toxicity data to cross-species predictions of intrinsic susceptibility based on analyses of sequence similarity relevant to the MIEs of defined adverse outcome pathways. Through further refinement, and definition of appropriate domains of applicability, we envision practical and routine utility for the molecular target similarity-based predictive method in chemical risk assessment, particularly where testing resources are limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlie A Lalone
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, 6201 Congdon Boulevard, Duluth, MN 55804, USA.
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Perkins EJ, Ankley GT, Crofton KM, Garcia-Reyero N, LaLone CA, Johnson MS, Tietge JE, Villeneuve DL. Current perspectives on the use of alternative species in human health and ecological hazard assessments. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2013; 121:1002-10. [PMID: 23771518 PMCID: PMC3764090 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1306638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Traditional animal toxicity tests can be time and resource intensive, thereby limiting the number of chemicals that can be comprehensively tested for potential hazards to humans and/or to the environment. OBJECTIVE We compared several types of data to demonstrate how alternative models can be used to inform both human and ecological risk assessment. METHODS We reviewed and compared data derived from high throughput in vitro assays to fish reproductive tests for seven chemicals. We investigated whether human-focused assays can be predictive of chemical hazards in the environment. We examined how conserved pathways enable the use of nonmammalian models, such as fathead minnow, zebrafish, and Xenopus laevis, to understand modes of action and to screen for chemical risks to humans. RESULTS We examined how dose-dependent responses of zebrafish embryos exposed to flusilazole can be extrapolated, using pathway point of departure data and reverse toxicokinetics, to obtain human oral dose hazard values that are similar to published mammalian chronic toxicity values for the chemical. We also examined how development/safety data for human health can be used to help assess potential risks of pharmaceuticals to nontarget species in the environment. DISCUSSION Using several examples, we demonstrate that pathway-based analysis of chemical effects provides new opportunities to use alternative models (nonmammalian species, in vitro tests) to support decision making while reducing animal use and associated costs. CONCLUSIONS These analyses and examples demonstrate how alternative models can be used to reduce cost and animal use while being protective of both human and ecological health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward J Perkins
- US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA.
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Oropesa AL, Guimarães L, Martins A, Soler F, Guilhermino L. RETRACTED ARTICLE: Acute and chronic toxicity of the pharmaceutical levonorgestrel to the freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2012; 21:1582. [PMID: 22089366 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-011-0824-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/08/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
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Contardo-Jara V, Lorenz C, Pflugmacher S, Nützmann G, Kloas W, Wiegand C. Molecular effects and bioaccumulation of levonorgestrel in the non-target organism Dreissena polymorpha. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2011; 159:38-44. [PMID: 20952113 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2010.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Revised: 09/13/2010] [Accepted: 09/19/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Bioaccumulation and effects of the contraceptive hormone levonorgestrel were examined in the non-target organism Dreissena polymorpha. Molecular biomarkers of biotransformation, elimination, antioxidant defence and protein damage were analyzed after exposure to increasing concentrations of levonorgestrel in a flow-through system. The lowest concentration (0.312 μg L(-1)) was 100-fold bioconcentrated within four days. A decrease of the bioconcentration factor was observed within one week for the highest test concentrations (3.12 and 6.24 μg L(-1)) suggesting enhanced excretory processes. The immediate mRNA up-regulation of pi class glutathione S-transferase proved that phase II biotransformation processes were induced. Disturbance of fundamental cell functions was assumed since the aryl hydrocarbon receptor has been permanently down-regulated. mRNA up-regulation of P-glycoprotein, superoxide dismutase and metallothioneine suggested enhanced elimination processes and ongoing oxidative stress. mRNA up-regulation of heat shock protein 70 in mussels exposed to the two highest concentrations clearly indicated impacts on protein damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeska Contardo-Jara
- Department of Ecophysiology and Aquaculture, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 301, 12587 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Claudia Lorenz
- Department of Ecophysiology and Aquaculture, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 301, 12587 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Stephan Pflugmacher
- Department of Ecophysiology and Aquaculture, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 301, 12587 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Gunnar Nützmann
- Department of Ecohydrology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 301, 12587 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Werner Kloas
- Department of Ecophysiology and Aquaculture, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 301, 12587 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Claudia Wiegand
- University of Southern Denmark, Institute of Biology, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense M, Denmark.
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Santos LHMLM, Araújo AN, Fachini A, Pena A, Delerue-Matos C, Montenegro MCBSM. Ecotoxicological aspects related to the presence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2010; 175:45-95. [PMID: 19954887 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 805] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2009] [Revised: 09/17/2009] [Accepted: 10/27/2009] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals are biologically active and persistent substances which have been recognized as a continuing threat to environmental stability. Chronic ecotoxicity data as well as information on the current distribution levels in different environmental compartments continue to be sparse and are focused on those therapeutic classes that are more frequently prescribed and consumed. Nevertheless, they indicate the negative impact that these chemical contaminants may have on living organisms, ecosystems and ultimately, public health. This article reviews the different contamination sources as well as fate and both acute and chronic effects on non-target organisms. An extensive review of existing data in the form of tables, encompassing many therapeutic classes is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lúcia H M L M Santos
- REQUIMTE, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto - Rua Anibal Cunha, 164, 4050-047 Porto, Portugal
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Besse JP, Garric J. Progestagens for human use, exposure and hazard assessment for the aquatic environment. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2009; 157:3485-3494. [PMID: 19615798 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2009.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2009] [Revised: 05/14/2009] [Accepted: 06/10/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Little information is available on the environmental occurrence and ecotoxicological effects of pharmaceutical gestagens released in the aquatic environment. Since eighteen different gestagens were found to be used in France, preliminary exposure and hazard assessment were done. Predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) suggest that if parent gestagens are expected to be found in the ng l(-1) range, some active metabolites could be present at higher concentrations, although limited data on metabolism and environmental fate limit the relevance of PECs. The biological effects are not expected to be restricted to progestagenic activity. Both anti-androgenic activity (mainly for cyproterone acetate, chlormadinone acetate and their metabolites) and estrogenic activity (mainly for reduced metabolites of levonorgestrel and norethisterone) should also occur. All these molecules are likely to have a cumulative effect among themselves or with other xenoestrogens. Studies on occurrence, toxicity and degradation time are therefore needed for several of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Philippe Besse
- Unité Biologie des Ecosystèmes Aquatiques, Laboratoire d'écotoxicologie, Cemagref, 69336 Lyon cedex 09, France
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