Development of an analytical strategy for the identification of potential bioactive peptides generated by in vitro tryptic digestion of fish muscle proteins

The Discovery and Characterization of a Potent DPP-IV Inhibitory Peptide from Oysters for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Based on Computational and Experimental Studies

The inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV) is a promising approach for regulating the blood glucose levels in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Oysters, rich in functional peptides, contain peptides capable of inhibiting DPP-IV activity. This study aims to identify the hypoglycemic peptides from oysters and investigate their potential anti-T2D targets and mechanisms. This research utilized virtual screening for the peptide selection, followed by in vitro DPP-IV activity assays to validate the chosen peptide. Network pharmacology was employed to identify the potential targets, GO terms, and KEGG pathways. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations were used to provide virtual confirmation. The virtual screening identified LRGFGNPPT as the most promising peptide among the screened oyster peptides. The in vitro studies confirmed its inhibitory effect on DPP-IV activity. Network pharmacology revealed that LRGFGNPPT exerts an anti-T2D effect through multiple targets and signaling pathways. The key hub targets are AKT1, ACE, and REN. Additionally, the molecular docking results showed that LRGFGNPPT exhibited a strong binding affinity with targets like AKT1, ACE, and REN, which was further confirmed by the molecular dynamics simulations showcasing a stable peptide-target interaction. This study highlights the potential of LRGFGNPPT as a natural anti-T2D peptide, providing valuable insights for potential future pharmaceutical or dietary interventions in T2D management.

Identification and molecular mechanism of novel bifunctional peptides from Duroc × (Landrace × Yorkshire) pig dry-cured ham: A peptidomics and in silico analysis

Duroc × (Landrace × Yorkshire) pigs are popular in the Chinese market because of their rapid growth, leanness, and economic value. Despite their widespread use in dry-cured ham processing, there is a lack of research on the bioactive peptides of Duroc × (Landrace × Yorkshire) pig ham (DLYH). This study aimed to investigate the presence of peptides with antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities in DLYH using peptidomics and in silico analysis. A total of 453 peptides were identified from DLYH, originating mainly from myosin, actin, and the EF-hand domain-containing protein. Notably, two peptides, YDEAGPSIVH (YH10) and FAGDDAPRAVF (FF11), emerged as novel bioactive peptides with antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. Among these peptides, YH10 exhibited a high DPPH radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 1.93 mM), ABTS radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 0.10 mM), α-glucosidase inhibitory activity (IC50 = 2.13 mM), and good gastrointestinal tolerance. Molecular docking analysis showed that YH10 was bound to the ABTS and DPPH radicals and the active site of α-glucosidase (3A4A) primarily through hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. Furthermore, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation indicated that the YH10-3A4A complexes maintained stable and compact conformations. In conclusion, our findings indicated that peptide YH10 derived from DLYH possesses bifunctional properties of α-glucosidase inhibition and antioxidant activity, which could be beneficial for maintaining ham quality and promoting human health.

The Research Progress of Bioactive Peptides Derived from Traditional Natural Products in China

Traditional natural products in China have a long history and a vast pharmacological repertoire that has garnered significant attention due to their safety and efficacy in disease prevention and treatment. Among the bioactive components of traditional natural products in China, bioactive peptides (BPs) are specific protein fragments that have beneficial effects on human health. Despite many of the traditional natural products in China ingredients being rich in protein, BPs have not received sufficient attention as a critical factor influencing overall therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive summary of the current methodologies for the preparation, isolation, and identification of BPs from traditional natural products in China and to classify the functions of discovered BPs. Insights from this review are expected to facilitate the development of targeted drugs and functional foods derived from traditional natural products in China in the future.

Identification, characterization and in vitro activity of hypoglycemic peptides in whey hydrolysates from rubing cheese by-product

The by-product of Chinese rubing cheese is rich in whey protein. Whey hydrolysates exhibit good hypoglycemic activity, but which specific peptide components are responsible for this effect have not yet been investigated. Herein, the α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of the ultrafiltered fraction (<3 kDa) of rubing cheese whey hydrolysates was evaluated with the inhibition rate of 37.89 %. In addition, peptide identification was conducted using LC-MS/MS, and three peptides YPVEPF, VPYPQ, and LPYPY were identified. Among these, YPVEPF had higher α-glucosidase inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 3.52 mg/mL) and interacted with α-glucosidase via hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic forces. YPVEPF was characterized as an amphipathic peptide rich in antiparallel (50.50 %) and random coil (35.20 %) structures, as well as showed good tolerance to gastrointestinal digestion and incubation under the temperature range of 20-80 °C. Notably, YPVEPF activity increased in the presence of Al³⁺ and Fe³⁺, as well as within the pH range of 2.0-6.0. Furthermore, YPVEPF had negligible hemolytic activity at a concentration of 1.0 mg/mL, no toxicity at concentrations below 0.5 mg/mL, and significantly promoted glucose consumption in HepG2 cells (p < 0.0001). Collectively, these findings indicate the potential of YPVEPF to be used as a novel hypoglycemic peptide in functional foods.

Karakterisasi Aktivitas Fungsional Senyawa Bioaktif dari Whey Hasil Samping Produksi Tahu

Tofu whey is a by-product obtained during tofu production that contains proteins and peptides, soluble carbohydrates, soy isoflavone, and minerals. This research aimed to characterize the functional properties of whey protein from tofu through separation using membranes with different pore sizes. The permeate resulted from Whatman No. 3 filtration was subjected to acidity (pH) and protein content measurement, while its protein profile was characterized by SDS-PAGE. electrophoresis. Additionally, this permeate was further sieved using ultrafiltration membranes with 30, 10, and 5 kDa cut-off. The corresponding filtrates were analyzed for antioxidant activity, isoflavone content, and ACE inhibitor activity. The tofu whey had a pH of 3.14, crude protein of 2 g/100 g sample, and soluble protein content of 1.47mg/mL. The separation of protein bands using SDS-PAGE showed that the dominant protein or peptides in tofu whey had molecular weights below 18 kDa. The use of ultrafiltration membranes could increase the bioactivity of permeates. The filtrate resulting from the smallest membrane cut-off (i.e., 5 kDa) had a higher antioxidant activity, isoflavone content, and ACE inhibitory activity.

Production and Characterization of Medium-Sized and Short Antioxidant Peptides from Soy Flour-Simulated Gastrointestinal Hydrolysate

Soybeans (Glycine max) are an excellent source of dietary proteins and peptides with potential biological activities, such as antihypertensive, anti-cholesterol, and antioxidant activity; moreover, they could prevent cancer. Also, soy contains all the essential amino acids for nutrition; therefore, it represents an alternative to animal proteins. The goal of this paper was the comprehensive characterization of medium-sized and short peptides (two to four amino acids) obtained from simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Two different analytical approaches were employed for peptide characterization, namely a common peptidomic analysis for medium-sized peptides and a suspect screening analysis for short peptides, employing an inclusion list of exact m/z values of all possible amino acid combinations. Moreover, fractionation by preparative reversed-phase liquid chromatography was employed to simplify the starting protein hydrolysate. Six fractions were collected and tested for antioxidative activity by an innovative antioxidant assay on human gastric adenocarcinoma AGS cell lines. The two most active fractions (2 and 3) were then characterized by a peptidomic approach and database search, as well as by a suspect screening approach, in order to identify potential antioxidant amino acid sequences. Some of the peptides identified in these two fractions have been already reported in the literature for their antioxidant activity.

Shotgun Proteomics and Protein-Based Bioinformatics for the Characterization of Food-Derived Bioactive Peptides

A workflow for the characterization of food-derived bioactive peptides is described in this chapter. The workflow integrates two consecutive steps: a discovery phase and a protein-based bioinformatic phase. In the first step (discovery phase), a shotgun bottom-up proteomics approach is used to create a reference data set for a selected food proteome. Afterward, in a second step (bioinformatic phase), the reference proteome is subjected to several in silico protein-based bioinformatic analyses to predict and characterize potential bioactive peptides after an in silico human gastrointestinal digestion. Using this workflow, bioactive collagen peptides, antihypertensive, antimicrobial, and antitumor peptides were predicted as potential valuable bioactive peptides from seafood and marine by-products. It is concluded that the combination of the global shotgun proteomic analysis and the analysis by protein-based bioinformatics can provide a rapid strategy for the characterization of new potential food-derived bioactive peptides.

Identification of high-value generating molecules from the wastes of tuna fishery industry by liquid chromatography and gas chromatography hyphenated techniques with automated sample preparation

The present work aims to a promising re-utilization of the massive waste derived from the tuna fishing industry, for which by-products can represent more than 50% of the original material. Due to the considerable content in polyunsaturated fatty acids and noble proteins, such wastes can be used as primary source of functional ingredients in the production of nutraceuticals. The composition of the lipid and protein tuna fractions was investigated by means of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methods (in wastes and edible parts), and a preliminary characterization of potential bioactive peptides was achieved. Automated sample preparation allowed speeding up the analytical workflow, while allowing for highly sensitive and selective lipid characterization. The ω3 fatty acid content was found higher in waste products compared to the muscle, in terms of fatty acids as well as complex lipids. As for peptides, extraction by isoelectric solubilization/precipitation was performed, followed by enzymatic digestion and high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Furthermore, the use of bioinformatics tools highlighted the presence of potential antimicrobial peptides in the samples investigated.

A rapid and innovative extraction and enrichment method for the metaproteomic characterization of dissolved organic matter in groundwater samples

Metaproteomic analysis of aquifer systems provides valuable information on the microbial populations, their influence on drinking water quality, and the effect on human health. In the present paper, an extraction and enrichment method by C18 extra-wide pore cartridge was developed, optimized, and applied for the first time to the metaproteomic characterization of dissolved organic matter in groundwater samples. In particular, three elution procedures were tested and compared on water spiked with a yeast protein extract to maximize the recovery of proteins from a complex matrix. The maximum protein recovery was obtained by the use of two sequential elution buffers, one employing a denaturing agent and the other one containing an acidified organic solvent. A comprehensive metaproteomic analysis of the dissolved organic matter of groundwater was then performed by nano-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. A total of 239 proteins was identified; in agreement with the current knowledge on proteins in aquifer systems, most identified sequences derived from bacteria, protobacteria, and ciliates. The paper is the first metaproteomic study applied to groundwater samples with particular emphasis on the need for sample pretreatment to obtain comprehensive information on the proteome in dissolved organic matter.

Comprehensive identification of native medium-sized and short bioactive peptides in sea bass muscle

Native peptides from sea bass muscle were analyzed by two different approaches: medium-sized peptides by peptidomics analysis, whereas short peptides by suspect screening analysis employing an inclusion list of exact m/z values of all possible amino acid combinations (from 2 up to 4). The method was also extended to common post-translational modifications potentially interesting in food analysis, as well as non-proteolytic aminoacyl derivatives, which are well-known taste-active building blocks in pseudo-peptides. The medium-sized peptides were identified by de novo and combination of de novo and spectra matching to a protein sequence database, with up to 4077 peptides (2725 modified) identified by database search and 2665 peptides (223 modified) identified by de novo only; 102 short peptide sequences were identified (with 12 modified ones), and most of them had multiple reported bioactivities. The method can be extended to any peptide mixture, either endogenous or by protein hydrolysis, from other food matrices.

Advances on Food-Derived Peptidic Antioxidants-A Review

The oxidation process is considered to be the main reason behind human aging, human degenerative diseases and food quality degradation. Food-derived peptidic antioxidants (PAs) have wide sources and great activity, and have broad application prospects in removing excess reactive oxygen species in the body, anti-aging and preventing and treating diseases related to oxidative stress. On the other hand, PAs are expected to inhibit the lipid peroxidation of foods and increase the stability of the food system in the food industry. However, the production pathways and action mechanism of food-derived PAs are diverse, which makes it is difficult to evaluate the performance of PAs which is why the commercial application of PAs is still in its infancy. This article focuses on reviewing the preparation, purification, and characterization methods of food-derived PAs, and expounds the latest progress in performance evaluation and potential applications, in order to provide an effective reference for subsequent related research of PAs.

Development of an Analytical Method for the Metaproteomic Investigation of Bioaerosol from Work Environments

The metaproteomic analysis of air particulate matter provides valuable information about the properties of bioaerosols in the atmosphere and their influence on climate and public health. In this work, a new method for the extraction and analysis of proteins in airborne particulate matter from quartz microfiber filters is developed. Different protein extraction procedures are tested to select the best extraction protocol based on protein recovery. The optimized method is tested for the extraction of proteins from spores of ubiquitous bacteria species and used for the metaproteomic characterization of filters from three work environments. In particular, ambient aerosol samples are collected in a composting plant, in a wastewater treatment plant, and in an agricultural holding. A total of 179, 15, 205, and 444 proteins are identified in composting plant, wastewater treatment plant, and agricultural holding, (cow stable and blending plant), respectively. In agreement with the major categories of primary biological aerosol particles, all identified proteins originated primarily from fungi, bacteria, and plants. The paper is the first metaproteomic study applied to bioaerosol samples collected in occupationally relevant environmental sites and, even though not aimed at monitoring the risk exposure of workers, it provides information on the possible exposure in the working environmental sites.

Proteomic analysis of the fast-twitch muscle of pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) after prolonged fasting and compensatory growth

Protocols that improve growth performance in fish while assuring product quality are important for aquaculture. Fasting followed by refeeding may promote compensatory growth, thus optimizing growth performance. During fasting and refeeding, fast-twitch muscle, which comprises most of fish fillet, undergoes intense plasticity. In this work, we studied the proteome of pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) fast-twitch muscle after 30 days of fasting (D30), 30 days of refeeding (D60) and 60 days of refeeding (D90) with two-dimensional electrophoresis, mass spectrometry and bioinformatics. Body mass, growth rate and muscle histology were also assessed. At D30, fish presented muscle catabolism and decreased growth. Proteomic analysis showed that metabolism proteins were the most affected, up and downregulated. Cytoskeleton and amino acid biosynthesis proteins were downregulated, while nuclear and regulatory proteins were upregulated. At D60, fish showed accelerated growth, despite the body mass not completely recovering. Metabolism proteins were still the most affected. Amino acid biosynthesis proteins became upregulated, while cytoskeleton proteins remained downregulated. At D90, the fish presented total compensatory growth. Many metabolic proteins were up or downregulated. Few cytoskeleton proteins remained differentially expressed. Amino acid biosynthesis proteins were mostly upregulated, but less than at D60. Prolonged fasting followed by refeeding also led to the regulation of possible meat quality biomarkers, such as antioxidant enzymes. This fact suggests possible consequences of this protocol on fish meat quality. Our work also enriches our knowledge on proteomic changes during muscle plasticity that occur during fasting and refeeding diet protocols.

Structure-informed separation of bioactive peptides

The application of proteomic and peptidomic technologies for food-derived bioactive peptides is an emerging field in food sciences. These technologies include the use of separation tools coupled to a high-resolution spectrometric and bioinformatic tools for prediction, identification, sequencing, and characterization of peptides. To a large extent, one-dimensional separation technologies have been extensively used as a continuous tool under different optimized conditions for the identification and analysis of food peptides. However, most one-dimensional separation technologies are fraught with significant bottlenecks such as insufficient sensitivity and specificity limits for complex samples. To address this limitation, separation systems based on orthogonal, multidimensional principles, which allow for the coupling of more than one analytical separation tool with different operational principles, provide a higher separation power than one-dimensional separation tools. This review describes the structure-informed separation and purification of protein hydrolyzates to obtain peptides with desirable bioactivities. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Application of bioactive peptides in the formulation of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and therapeutic agents have increasingly gained scholarly and industrial attention. The bioactive peptides exist originally in protein sources and are only active after hydrolysis of the parent protein. Currently, several tools can be configured in one-dimensional or multidimensional systems for the separation and purification of protein hydrolyzates. The separations are informed by the structural properties such as the molecular weight, charge, hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity, and the solubility of peptides. This review provides a concise discussion on the commonly used analytical tools, their configurations, advantages and challenges in peptide separation. Emphasis is placed on how the structural properties of peptides assist in the separation and purification processes and the concomitant effect of the separation on peptide bioactivity.

Liquid Chromatographic Strategies for Separation of Bioactive Compounds in Food Matrices

Nowadays, there is an increasing attention for nutraceuticals and, in general, bioactive compounds naturally present in food. Indeed, the possibility of preserving human health and preventing disease (e.g., cardiovascular diseases, cancer etc.) by the intake of healthy food is attractive for both consumers and food industries. In turn, research in this field was also prompted significantly, with the aim of characterizing these bioactive compounds and ascribe to them a specific activity. The bioactive compounds can belong to several chemical classes. However, their chemical diversity and presence in complex matrices, such as food, make it challenging both their isolation and characterization. To tackle this issue, efficient separation systems are needed, which are mainly based on chromatography. In this context, this mini-review aims to provide the reader with an overview of the most relevant and recent approaches for the separation of the most common bioactive compounds in food, in particular polyphenols, phenols, carotenoids, and peptides, by liquid chromatography approaches.

Recent trends and analytical challenges in plant bioactive peptide separation, identification and validation

Interest in research into bioactive peptides (BPs) is growing because of their health-promoting ability. Several bioactivities have been ascribed to peptides, including antioxidant, antihypertensive and antimicrobial properties. As they can be produced from precursor proteins, the investigation of BPs in foods is becoming increasingly popular. For the same reason, production of BPs from by-products has also emerged as a possible means of reducing waste and recovering value-added compounds suitable for functional food production and supplements. Milk, meat and fish are the most investigated sources of BPs, but vegetable-derived peptides are also of interest. Vegetables are commonly consumed, and agro-industrial wastes constitute a cheap, large and lower environmental impact source of proteins. The use of advanced analytical techniques for separation and identification of peptides would greatly benefit the discovery of new BPs. In this context, this review provides an overview of the most recent applications in BP investigations for vegetable food and by-products. The most important issues regarding peptide isolation and separation, by single or multiple chromatographic techniques, are discussed. Additionally, problems connected with peptide identification in plants and non-model plants are discussed regarding the particular case of BP identification. Finally, the issue of peptide validation to confirm sequence and bioactivity is presented. Graphical representation of the analytical workflow needed for investigation of bioactive peptides and applied to vegetables and vegetable wastes Graphical Abstract.

Combined in vivo and in silico approaches for predicting the release of bioactive peptides from meat digestion

We studied the kinetics of peptide release during the gastric digestion of meat proteins in vivo, in view to predicting the release of bioactive peptides further on in the digestive tract. Six mini pigs fitted with gastric cannulas received a meal with cooked beef as protein source. Digesta was collected at regular time intervals up to 5½ h. The peptides generated by the gastric digestion of meat were identified and quantified using label-free LC MS, thereafter subjected to in silico digestion mimicking the action of intestinal enzymes. Three clusters of proteins presenting similar evolutions according to their dynamic hydrolysis were obtained. This study clearly improves the in silico prediction of the intestinal release of bioactive peptides by mapping meat protein degradation in the stomach in an in vivo model. Knowledge of the conformation of the peptides released in the stomach further improves this prediction.

Separation of Antioxidant Peptides from Pepsin Hydrolysate of Whey Protein Isolate by ATPS of EOPO Co-polymer (UCON)/Phosphate

An aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) consisting of poly(ethylene glycol-ran-propylene glycol) monobutyl ether (UCON)/phosphate was developed for the separation of the antioxidant peptides from pepsin hydrolysate of Whey Protein Isolate (WPI). The efficiency of the separation was evaluated based on the DPPH radical scavenging activity, ABTS radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of the separated peptides. The effects of some parameters on the partition of antioxidant peptides were investigated. An efficient separation of antioxidant peptides was achieved using ATPS with pH of 4.0, 4 mL of UCON solution (40%, w/w), 4 mL of KH₂PO₄ solution (15.5%, w/w), 2 mL of WPI hydrolysate and 0.40 g/10 mL of NaCl. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), amino acid analyzer and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) were used to characterize the purified peptides separated by the ATPS. The peptides in top phase were less polar than those in bottom phase. More antioxidative and hydrophobic amino acids were extracted to the top phase of ATPS, and the peptides with the amino acid sequences with antioxidant activities moved to the top phase as well. In conclusion, antioxidant peptides were successfully separated from the WPI hydrolysate by UCON/phosphate ATPS.

Recent trends in the analysis of bioactive peptides in milk and dairy products

Food-derived constituents represent important sources of several classes of bioactive compounds. Among them peptides have gained great attention in the last two decades thanks to the scientific evidence of their beneficial effects on health in addition to their established nutritional value. Several functionalities for bioactive peptides have been described, including antioxidative, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial activity. They are now considered as novel and potential dietary ingredients to promote human health, though in some cases they may also have detrimental effects on health. Bioactive peptides can be naturally occurring, produced in vitro by enzymatic hydrolysis, and formed in vivo during gastrointestinal digestion of proteins. Thus, the need to gain a better understanding of the positive health effects of food peptides has prompted the development of analytical strategies for their isolation, separation, and identification in complex food matrices. Dairy products and milk are potential sources of bioactive peptides: several of them possess extra-nutritional physiological functions that qualify them to be classified under the functional food label. In this trends article we briefly describe the state-of-the-art of peptidomics methods for the identification and discovery of bioactive peptides, also considering recent progress in their analysis and highlighting the difficulty in the analysis of short amino acid sequences and endogenous peptides.

Antimicrobial peptides in 2014

This article highlights new members, novel mechanisms of action, new functions, and interesting applications of antimicrobial peptides reported in 2014. As of December 2014, over 100 new peptides were registered into the Antimicrobial Peptide Database, increasing the total number of entries to 2493. Unique antimicrobial peptides have been identified from marine bacteria, fungi, and plants. Environmental conditions clearly influence peptide activity or function. Human α-defensin HD-6 is only antimicrobial under reduced conditions. The pH-dependent oligomerization of human cathelicidin LL-37 is linked to double-stranded RNA delivery to endosomes, where the acidic pH triggers the dissociation of the peptide aggregate to release its cargo. Proline-rich peptides, previously known to bind to heat shock proteins, are shown to inhibit protein synthesis. A model antimicrobial peptide is demonstrated to have multiple hits on bacteria, including surface protein delocalization. While cell surface modification to decrease cationic peptide binding is a recognized resistance mechanism for pathogenic bacteria, it is also used as a survival strategy for commensal bacteria. The year 2014 also witnessed continued efforts in exploiting potential applications of antimicrobial peptides. We highlight 3D structure-based design of peptide antimicrobials and vaccines, surface coating, delivery systems, and microbial detection devices involving antimicrobial peptides. The 2014 results also support that combination therapy is preferred over monotherapy in treating biofilms.

Accessing to the minor proteome of red blood cells through the influence of the nanoparticle surface properties on the corona composition

Nanoparticle (NP)-protein interactions in complex samples have not yet been clearly understood. Nevertheless, several studies demonstrated that NP's physicochemical features significantly impact on the protein corona composition. Taking advantage of the NP potential to harvest different subsets of proteins, we assessed for the first time the capacity of three kinds of superparamagnetic NPs to highlight the erythrocyte minor proteome. Using both qualitative and quantitative proteomics approaches, nano-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry allowed the identification of 893 different proteins, confirming the reproducible capacity of NPs to increase the number of identified proteins, through a reduction of the sample concentration range and the capture of specific proteins on the three different surfaces. These NP-specific protein signatures revealed significant differences in their isoelectric point and molecular weight. Moreover, this NP strategy offered a deeper access to the erythrocyte proteome highlighting several signaling pathways implicated in important erythrocyte functions. The automated potentiality, the reproducibility, and the low-consuming sample demonstrate the strong compatibility of our strategy for large-scale clinical studies and may become a standardized sample preparation in future erythrocyte-associated proteomics studies.

Marine protein hydrolysates: their present and future perspectives in food chemistry – a review

Marine protein hydrolysates are usually prepared by the enzymatic digestion with different proteases at controlled pH and temperature.